Teaching Science 71.3 August 2025

AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION

News from State and Territory Science Teachers Associations News from the State Science Teachers Associations Vale Ruth Dircks Using productive failure design to teach earthquake seismology in junior secondary science ASTA position paper: Inquiry vs explicit teaching misrepresentation ostering experimental skills: Intense hands-on microbiology activities through F peercollaboration for high school students Most Valuable Paper 2024 A periodic tale: A periodic tale: my sciencey memoir: Dr Karl Kruszelnicki

The Journal of the Australian Science Teachers Association Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

National Science Week 9-17 Aug 2025 #ScienceWeek

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2025 National Science Week Schools Resource Book Prepare to embark on a journey of discovery with National Science Week 2025! This year’s theme is “Decoding the Universe – Exploring the unknown with nature’s hidden language.”

This theme invites students and teachers across Australia to explore fundamental languages of nature, including mathematics and the groundbreaking field of quantum science.

It is aligned with the 2025 United Nations International Year of Quantum Science and Technology and Australia’s role as host of the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad.

Scan the QR code for free downloads:

To support educators, we’ve developed the 2025 National Science Week Schools Resource Book – a comprehensive guide filled with hands-on activities, experiments, and curriculum-aligned content.

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Resource Book of Ideas

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Poster

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Quantum Student Journal

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Download your free copy and inspire your students to decode the mysteries of our universe!

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AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION

AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION Teaching Science is a quarterly journal published by the Australian Science Teachers Association. This journal aims to promote the teaching of science in all Australian schools, with a focus on classroom practice. It acts as a means of communication between teachers, consultants and other science educators across Australia. Opinions expressed in this publication are those of the various authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Australian Science Teachers Association or the editorial advisory committee.

Academic contributions to Teaching Science are peer reviewed.

PUBLISHED BY:

Editor

Australian Science Teachers Association Level 14, 275 Alfred St, North Sydney NSW 2060 Tel: 02 9346 9600 Email: communications@asta.edu.au www.asta.edu.au

Editorial Advisory Committee

Design/layout: Josh Fartch Sub-editor: Josh Fartch © Copyright 2025 Australian Science Teachers Association.

ISSN 1839-2946 Contents indexed in Australian Education Index (ACER) and Current Index to Journals in Education (ERIC).

Unattributed images supplied by ASTA or from Adobe Stock.

John Glistak

As/Prof. Christine Preston, The University of Sydney, NSW Dr. Joe Ferguson, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC Prof. Ange Fitzgerald, RMIT University, VIC Sonia Hueppauff, Just Think Cognition, WA As/Prof. Rekha Koul, Curtin University, WA As/Prof. Kieran Lim, Deakin University, VIC As/Prof. Reece Mills, QUT, QLD Geoff Quinton, Pearson Australia Richard Rennie, Fremantle Light and Sound Discovery Centre, WA Dr. Emily Rochette, The University of Melbourne, VIC Julie-Anne Smith, Eye for Detail, WA Dr. Emma Stevenson, The University of Melbourne, VIC Dr. Fiona Trapani, St Columba’s College, VIC Prof. Russell Tytler, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC As/Prof. Dr Peta White, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC

Contents 2

From the President Margaret Shepherd

5

From the Editor John Glistak

9

News from the State Science Teachers Associations

19 Vale Ruth Dircks ASTA President Margaret Shepherd 20

sing productive failure design to teach earthquake seismology in junior U secondary science Sandra Vecchio

26

STA position paper: A Inquiry vs explicit teaching misrepresentation Please see the article for a full list of authors

34

ostering experimental skills: Intense hands-on microbiology activities through F peer collaboration for high school students Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy and Venkata Krishna Bayineni

49 Most Valuable Paper 2024 51 A periodic tale: A periodic tale: my sciencey memoir: Dr Karl Kruszelnicki Book review by W. P. Palmer

From the President

Margaret Shepherd

It was a pleasure to connect with so many passionate educators at ConASTA 72 in Perth this month. My sincere thanks to the Science Teachers Association of Western Australia (STAWA) for hosting an outstanding conference. The quality of the sessions, the warmth of the welcome, and the professionalism of the entire organising team made for a memorable and energising event.

Huge thank you to Geoff Quinton and Annabel Kanakis for convening such a successful event.

At ConASTA 72, we were proud to acknowledge several outstanding contributors to the ASTA community. Alex Abela and Chris Wines were awarded ASTA Service Awards for their leadership and tireless work as convenors of ConASTA 71 in Melbourne – a mammoth task delivered with care and professionalism. We also welcomed Anna Davis as an Honorary Life Member of ASTA, recognising her long-standing support and dedication to ASTA. A highlight of the event was the announcement of the ASTA iCubed Science Teacher Award winner. This national award recognises a science educator who exemplifies excellence, leadership and innovation in teaching. We also acknowledged the impressive work of the award finalists, whose dedication and impact deserve to be celebrated.

You can read more about the winner and finalists here.

ConASTA 72 also saw us officially launch the new online home for Science Assist, now fully integrated into the ASTA website. The new platform provides streamlined access to trusted safety advice, curriculum-aligned resources and expert support for science teachers and lab technicians across the country. Explore the new site.

This edition coincides with National Science Week, a nationwide celebration of science and discovery. Congratulations to all the schools that received an ASTA National Science Week Schools Grant to support their Science Week activities – your creativity and commitment help bring science to life for students across Australia. View the full list of grant recipients.

The National Science Week Resource Book of Ideas is now available as a free download, featuring hands-on activities and lesson plans for Foundation to Year 10. Download it here.

We also recently released ASTA’s latest Position Paper, addressing the ongoing misrepresentation of inquiry-based and explicit teaching as opposing approaches. The paper affirms that both are essential in effective science teaching and must be used with professional judgement and balance. Read the full paper on page 26.

2

Margaret Shepherd

From the President

Finally, we acknowledge with great sadness the passing of Ruth Dircks, a long-serving and generous advocate for science education. Ruth’s contributions, insight and warmth have left a lasting legacy within our community. A tribute to Ruth is on page 19. More information on the Ruth Dircks ConASTA Scholarship.

Looking ahead, we’re excited to confirm that next year ConASTA 73 will be held in Brisbane, hosted by the Science Teachers Association of Queensland. We look forward to another inspiring and memorable gathering in 2026. Save the date: Tuesday 7 July – Friday 10 July 2026.

Thank you for your continued support of ASTA and your commitment to advancing science education across Australia.

Margaret Shepherd President, Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA)

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

3

From the Editor

John Glistak

Welcome to Issue 71.3 of Teaching Science.

Two papers are featured in this issue.

Being able to learn from failure is a fundamental skill for a scientist. Scientists often learn from failure in practical work by trialling and refining experimental designs, improving calibration techniques, and hypothesising and testing expected outcomes. More specifically, scientists often experience productive failure, where their initial setbacks are contributors to scientific discovery and knowledge refinement. Even though learning from failure is a fundamental skill for scientists, failure can often trigger negative emotions for students in school science classrooms. To prepare students for the STEM workforce beyond the classroom, teachers need to encourage a shift in how students perceive and approach failure.

Sandra Vecchio’s practice-based study describes how junior secondary science teachers can reframe failure as a meaningful learning opportunity for students by using productive failure design to teach earthquake seismology. The aim of Sandra’s paper is to demonstrate how teachers may use productive failure design in junior secondary science to foster a learning environment where students become more comfortable with failing productively.

Microorganisms play essential roles in healthcare, food production, and environmental management, making their study crucial for understanding impacts on food safety, spoilage, and disease prevention. Shruthi Chakravarthy and Venkata Bayineni, in their paper, introduce handson activities designed for high school students (aged 14-15) to explore microbial growth and diversity. Aimed at fostering awareness and critical thinking in microbiology, the activities engaged students in investigating microorganisms from various indoor and outdoor samples, observing colony morphology and studying their roles in fermentation, spoilage, and foodborne disease prevention.

Results from the evaluation of students’ progress indicated significant improvement in their ability to plan, conduct, and analyse experiments, deepening their knowledge of microbial diversity, fermentation processes, hygiene, and food safety. Students reported enjoyment and improved lab skills, suggesting that early exposure to active microbiology learning can effectively build scientific literacy and interest in related academic and career paths.

In this issue on page 49, we also acknowledge the Most Valuable Papers for Volume 70.

In closing, have you considered submitting a paper to Teaching Science?

If not, your potential contribution will be most welcome.

John 4

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• Includes Science Understanding, Science as a Human Endeavour and Inquiry Skills.

• Explicitly linked to curriculum standards to make tracking student progress easy.

Designed for Australian Classrooms • Supports scientific inquiry through real-world Australian contexts, helping students connect science to their environment and communities.

• Integrates First Nations Australians’ knowledge in contextually relevant ways.

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• Key concepts highlighted through diagrams, summaries and glossary support.

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Strong Focus on Inquiry and Critical Thinking • Provides hands-on and virtual investigations to support scientific thinking.

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Online learning that Complements and Extends the Workbooks • Designed to reinforce and deepen understanding of workbook concepts.

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Australia State of Classroom Engagement Report: Science Edition Through science education, students learn essential skills needed to shape a better world. Critical thinking, collaboration, problem solving, and creativity are exactly what we need to tackle some of the most pressing challenges of our time—food security, healthcare, sustainability, and beyond. But are students in Australia connecting with science in a way that will prepare them to step into the future with confidence and purpose?

We surveyed 190 teachers across the 8 states and territories in Australia to find out. The insights we gained will help us better empower educators to inspire and engage students—sparking a lifelong love for science that builds a brighter, more

We have an opportunity to build Australian students’ understanding and appreciation of science.

resilient tomorrow.

More than half of science teachers say students have only a surface-level understanding of the subject matter.

Science education should engage all students, but teaching to different learning styles is hard.

Nearly half of Year 10 students are not proficient in science literacy.

Source: The Sydney Morning Herald, 2024

6

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33% of science teachers find it difficult to teach the subject to different types and levels of learners.

Source: The Sydney Morning Herald, 2024

Australian educators believe in the impact of hands-on learning to:

Australia State of Classroom Engagement Report: Science Edition Drive Comprehension of Scientific Concepts 83% say playful, hands-on learning is the most effective way to teach science.

Engage Every Student in the Material

Through science education, students learn essential skills needed to shape a better world. Critical thinking, collaboration, problem solving, and creativity are exactly what we need to tackle some of the most pressing challenges of our time—food security, healthcare, sustainability, and beyond. But are students in Australia connecting with science in a way that will prepare them to step into the future with confidence and purpose?

87% of teachers think hands-on experiences help all types of learners engage with science concepts.

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LEGO® Education can help bring engaging hands-on science learning to your students.

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For 45 years, LEGO Education has Volume 71 | Number | August 2025 learn.7 transformed the3way students Now, we’re proud to introduce

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identify the opportunity for LEGO experiences to foster joyful learning.

For 45 years, LEGO Education has transformed the way students learn.

Now, we’re proud to introduce LEGO® Education Science—our new, curriculum-aligned science solution that connects students to real-world Through science education, students learn essential science concepts.

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Australia State of Classroom Engagement Report: Science Edition

Designed for Year 1 - 10, LEGO Education Science drives learning outcomes for every student by boosting engagement and confidence while igniting creativity, curiosity, and collaboration.

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We surveyed 190 teachers across the 8 states and territories in Australia to find out. The insights we gained will help us better empower educators to inspire and engage students—sparking a lifelong love LEGOeducation.com/science for science that builds a brighter, more Visit to learn more. resilient tomorrow.

We have an opportunity to build Australian students’ understanding LEGO, the LEGO logo, LEGO Education and the LEGO Education logo are trademarks of the LEGO Group. ©2025 The LEGO Group. and appreciation of science.

More than half of science teachers say students have only a surface-level understanding of the subject matter.

Science education should engage all students, but teaching to different learning styles is hard.

Nearly half of Year 10 students are not proficient in science literacy.

Source: The Sydney Morning Herald, 2024

8 Australian educators believe in the impact of hands-on learning to:

33% of science teachers find it difficult to teach the subject to different types and levels of learners.

News from our State and Territory Associations 2024 Metacognition Workshops feedback “Going beyond the surface of metacognition to what it looks like in practice in science classrooms"

The Metacognition Workshops are back for 2025 These workshops aim to help secondary science teachers enhance students' scientific inquiry skills and promote self-regulation in learning. The program combines a full-day in-person workshop with online follow-up coaching. Topics include the importance of metacognition, modelling effective questioning, using planning-monitoring-evaluation cycles, and employing metacognitive language and worked examples. More information available at: Upcoming STAV Events

“Evidence based practices that can be applied in the classroom – translating theory into practice” “Great take home strategies and resources” “One of the best PDs I’ve ever been to – practical examples for immediate use in the classroom.”

“A great approach for building student agency – particularly in scientific investigations” “Appreciated the opportunities for collaboration and built-in time to plan for implementation” “Insightful takeaways for my leadership role – perfect timing as we start to roll out Victorian Curriculum 2.0 in science at our school” “Invaluable insights had me reflecting deeply on building metacognition in my teaching”

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

9

News from our State and Territory Associations

learns, David has always taken a deep interest in teaching. For over a decade, he has engaged with students in physics and engineering and is chair of UWA's Frontier Physics program, which is designed to attract high performing students and challenge them by exposing them to the cutting edge of modern physics research.

In 2023, David was awarded Early Career Scientist of the Year at the WA Premier's Science Awards, and a WA Young Tall Poppy of Science Award.

Apply to present here.

Future Science returns for 2025 Friday, 28 November 2025 8:30 AM - 4:30 PM University of Western Australia (Crawley Campus) 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009 Future Science returns for 2025 to showcase the latest innovations in STEM teaching and research from WA's teaching experts that will enhance your classroom practices. An exciting programme, packed with concurrent sessions and workshops, is available for you to select from.

Between sessions, you can explore the trade expo to discover new teaching resources and specialist equipment.

The Keynote Address will be delivered by Dr. David Gozzard, a Senior Research Fellow and former Forrest Fellow in the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR) where he works on quantum imaging, high-precision measurement, and laser communications. David grew up in Western Australia, and enjoying science, he studied engineering and physics at UWA. With a passion for learning, and passing on what he 10

ScienceIQ Competition Target audience: All schools in Australia (not just in WA) The ScienceIQ Competition is an online, teambased science resource for teachers to add to their arsenal of science learning and teaching resources.

The quiz encourages students to bond and work together as a team while having fun learning science.

This competition is also open to schools in the eastern states.

More info about ScienceIQ (including key dates) and link to team registration can be found here: https://www.stawa.net/student-activities/ scienceiq/

News from our State and Territory Associations

The program for the 2025 Early Career Science Teachers Conference is now available!

Join us on Friday, 10 October at Nazareth College for a full day of engaging professional learning tailored to support and inspire early career science teachers.

The program features sessions on teacher wellbeing, inquiry-based learning, assessment strategies, unpacking the curriculum and more — all designed to help participants strengthen their practice and build valuable connections.

View the full program and register now at https://www.sasta.asn.au/professional_learning/ early_career_teachers_conference

STEM Conference – Call for Workshops The Call for Workshops is now open for the 2025 STEM Conference, taking place on Friday, 28 November at Flinders University, Bedford Park. This annual event brings together educators from across the state to explore innovative and practical approaches to teaching and learning in STEM. We’re inviting passionate educators and leaders to share their expertise through handson, engaging workshops that foster creativity, curiosity and real-world connections in the classroom. If you have strategies, projects or insights to inspire and empower STEM educators, we encourage you to submit a workshop proposal today: https://www.sasta. asn.au/professional_learning/stem_conference

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

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News from our State and Territory Associations

Dive Into Dynamic Learning at Our Leadership Lab Intensive Twilight Sessions!

Join STANSW for four twilight interactive sessions that will explore effective strategies for shaping and leading learning experiences in the classroom.

You’ll leave with fresh insights to reflect on and apply in your practice.

Don’t miss out on this opportunity to grow and connect with fellow educators, register now!

The Leadership Lab is sponsored by Cambridge Click here for more details.

Session 1: Tue 9 September, 4.30 – 6.30pm Leading Learning (Curriculum, Pedagogy), presented by Glenn Halpin.

Session 2: Wed 17 September, 4.30 – 6.30pm Assessment, Developing your Personal and Team Philosophy, presented by Chiquita Rugg.

Session 3: Thu 25 September, 4.30 – 6.30pm Safety and Student Behaviour, presented by Rachel Thomson Session 4: Wed 15 October, 4.30 – 6.30pm Managing Conflict and Staff Wellbeing, presented by Julie Rogers.

Young Scientist 2025 STANSW's Young Scientist Program encourages students to undertake innovative projects and investigations to find creative solutions to real-world problems. 2025 submissions are opening soon. Teachers and parents are encouraged to submit students' science projects to https://youngscientist.au/

News from our State and Territory Associations

Virtual Forum: Excelling Science Across NSW: Registrations Now Open!

2025 Virtual Forum: Excelling Science across NSW is a professional learning series accessible to all science teachers across NSW, delivered in a virtual format over four flexible online sessions in September. This forum supports primary and secondary teachers to excel and connect.

Choose your own adventure and register via the learning and events page on the STANSW website here: https://stansw.asn.au/learning-events For more information: Virtual Forum Day 1 (Secondary) Tuesday 2 September, 11am – 1pm View program and register here Virtual Forum Day 2 (Secondary) Wednesday 10 September, 1pm – 3pm View program and register here Virtual Forum Day 3 (Primary and Secondary) Tuesday 16 September, 4.30pm – 6.30pm View program and register here Virtual Forum Day 4 (Primary) Wednesday 24 September, 4.30pm – 6.30pm View program and register here

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

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News from our State and Territory Associations

Queensland Science Contest

Register by 4 Sept 2025

$12 for individual entries $36 for group entries *STAQ member prices

Over $8000 in prizes!

More information: staq.qld.edu.au/competitions/queensland-science-contest 14

News from our State and Territory Associations

We are looking for teachers of all levels of experience to join the Judging team for the Queensland Science Contest Nominate now

Secondary Science Date Claimer Wednesday 26 Nov | Gardens Point Campus QUT register your interest with Subhashni Appanna at s.appanna@qut.edu.au or staq@staq.qld.edu.au This year’s focus is on Explicit and Inquiry Teaching, with the aim of exploring how these approaches are applied in Years 7–12 science classrooms.

Work in pairs or teams.

See other schools’ entries Select your favourite category and/or year level

Contact Matthew Crank QSC convener at staq@staq.qld.edu.au

Judges contact Matthew Crank QSC Convener at staq@staq.qld.edu.au

Calling all young scientists!

The 2025 Handbook is now available to download and registration is also open to pay and upload projects.

Payment and project uploads must be completed by 4th September 2025. Please note new prices and earlier dates than usual.

Award recipients' Teachers will be notified early in term 4 about the award ceremony.

Member school Individual entry Group entry

$12

Nonmember school $17

$36

$51

Secondary Science Date Claimer Wednesday 26 Nov Gardens Point Campus QU register your interest with Subhashni Appanna at s.appanna@qut.edu.au or staq@staq.qld.edu.au This year's focus is on Explicit and Inquiry Teaching, with the aim of exploring how these approaches are applied in Years 7-12 science classrooms.

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

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Entries Due Friday 17 October 2025 The Science Educators' Association of the ACT is pleased to announce that the Science and Engineering Fair is now open for all students in the ACT from P to 12 to work on their independent scientific research projects. Visit our website to learn more about the fair and how to get started. seaact.act.edu.au

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Photography by Yuri Beletsky (LCO)

19 hours towards your TPL

PROFESSIONAL LEARNING IN CANBERRA! OPEN TO ALL SCIENCE TEACHERS IN PARTNERSHIP WITH ASTA.

STEM Summer School

TUESDAY 20 – FRIDAY 23 JANUARY 2026

900

$

per person

Join us in Canberra for this special access STEM Summer School in January 2026. Should you accept your mission, you will be transported to elite science locations and meet several of Australia’s most experienced researchers and educators. This program is aligned with the Australian Professional Standards for teachers; 2.1 Content and Teaching strategies and 4.1 to support student participation.

Kick off your school year by investing in your professional development – register now for the STEM Summer School.

• Experience the Earth’s power and beauty in the galleries at Questacon.

• Chat with astronomers whilst stargazing through the Mount Stromlo Observatory outreach telescopes.

• Find out more about Australia’s leading Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex and hear about our latest space discoveries.

• Delve into what the Australian National University has to offer

FREE inclusions

Students at the Mathematical Sciences Institute and its many Colleges.

• Explore Geoscience Australia and experience hands-on Earth science with critical minerals, natural hazards, and observations from space.

• Wander from the Rainforest to the Red Centre at the Australian National Botanic Gardens.

Wonder at the most diverse collection of Australian plants in the world.

• Immerse yourself in the Himalayan Cedar Forest at the National Arboretum Canberra, taking in breathtaking views over your National Capital.

• Learn what it takes to become a high-performance athlete at the Australian Institute of Sport.

• Discover Canberra’s wild nightlife at Wildbark – on the edge of the Mulligans Flat Woodland Sanctuary.

• See creatures great and small at the National Zoo & Aquarium.

MORE INFORMATION Your $900 payment covers accommodation, breakfast, airport transfers, coach travel between venues, a welcome dinner with guest speaker and 2 lunches – plus all entry fees.

NB Transport to and from Canberra not included.

 SCAN THE QR CODE TO REGISTER

For a full program and further details go to STEM Summer School or email admin@ncetp.org.au.

STEM Summer School Supported by: Australian Institute of Sport, Australian National Botanic Gardens, Australian National University, Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, Geoscience Australia, National Arboretum Canberra, National Zoo & Aquarium, Questacon and Wildbark.

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

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NEW SASTA’s VCE Workbooks for Chemistry, Physics & Biology Simplify Learning. Maximise Success.

SASTA’s VCE Workbooks for Chemistry, Physics & Biology are the ultimate all-in-one resource—a digital textbook and student workbook combined.

No need for separate books—all content, skills, and practice questions are in one place, making learning simpler, more efficient, and fully exam-focused.

SASTA’s VCE Workbooks are specifically designed for Units 3 & 4, following the VCE study design to provide clear, structured learning that prepares students for success in their assessments by building deep understanding in both Key Knowledge and Key Science Skills.

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Give your students the edge - order through Campion from September 2025!

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Only $65 per subject

Vale Ruth Dircks The following is a transcript of a speech delivered by ASTA President Margaret Shepherd at ConASTA 72 in July.

Ruth Dircks was an honorary life member of ASTA who sadly passed away last week. Ruth has attended ConASTA every year that I can remember. We really miss her smiley cheeky face this year.

Ruth's contribution to the teaching and curriculum development of science in secondary schools was remarkable. She had been a Science Curriculum Consultant for the NSW Department of Education, and a Project Director for the Australian Academy of Science (then main author of the biological sciences text), a member of the NSW Board of Senior School Studies Science Council, a member of Syllabus Committees for all science disciplines except earth sciences, and a speaker on syllabus revision at science education symposia at state and national levels. She even had the Ruth Dircks Science Snippets podcast series in Dungog.

Technology never held Ruth back from doing what she loved.

John Anderton first met Ruth in 1974 and is one of the many privileged people to know Ruth well. He has shared some of his thoughts tonight. In 1977, Jim Hawes initiated a review of ASTA which changed it from a sort of male-dominated club. Ruth then became the first female ASTA president and was instrumental in establishing the ASTA secretariat in Canberra with an Executive Director (Robin Groves) and the new era of ASTA. Ruth was involved in the process in varying and significant ways, which the ASTA Council recognised by unanimously awarding her Life Membership at the Council meeting in Alice Springs ConASTA in 1990.

Ruth's achievements in science education have been widely recognised. She has been awarded life membership of the Science Teachers Association of New South Wales, the Australian Science Teachers' Association Distinguished Service Award, the Dr Alice Whitley Award for Science Education and, in 1990, a Medal of the Order of Australia for service to science education. Ruth was awarded the inaugural Prime Minister's Prize for Excellence in Science Teaching in Secondary Schools 2002 (She was 62 years old). Ruth donated the $35,000 prize money to ASTA to help boost the training and development of new science teachers.

Ruth believed that 'to be good educators, teachers should be encouraging kids to find out for themselves and provide the stimulus for the children to ask the questions'. In her case, this philosophy has been demonstrated through the consistent high level of achievement from her students. Ruth was visiting Dungog High School one day in 1997, when she was approached about her availability as a teacher and was asked to work for a couple of days.

She never left Dungog. Ruth has been attending ConASTA every year and presenting the Ruth Dircks scholarship. Many of you here tonight will have known Ruth.

A life very well lived Ruth. We celebrate you.

Vale Ruth Dircks.

Volume 71 | Number 3 | August 2025

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Using productive failure design to teach earthquake seismology in junior secondary science Sandra Vecchio

Introduction Being able to learn from failure is a fundamental skill for a scientist.

Scientists often learn from failure in practical work by trialling and refining experimental designs, improving calibration techniques, and hypothesising and testing expected outcomes. More specifically, scientists often experience productive failure, where their initial setbacks are contributors to scientific discovery and knowledge refinement (cf. Makkar er al., 2023).

For example, Alexander Fleming’s historical discovery of Penicillin in 1928 was the result of a fungus accidentally contaminating one of his agar plates and preventing the growth of bacteria around it. Despite Fleming’s discovery, he failed to isolate Penicillin as a purified compound for clinical use. It took multiple attempts, and decades learning from failure by various scientists, before Penicillin was isolated as a purified antibiotic by Howard Florey in 1946. Even though learning from 20

failure is a fundamental skill for scientists, failure can often trigger negative emotions for students in school science classrooms (Ajjawi et al., 2019). To prepare students for the STEM workforce beyond the classroom, teachers need to encourage a shift in how students perceive and approach failure.

This practice-based study describes how junior secondary science teachers can reframe failure as a meaningful learning opportunity for students by using productive failure (PF) design to teach earthquake seismology (Kapur, 2006, 2008). Productive failure design involves initially engaging students in collaborative problem-solving.

The complex problem provided to students is often related to a scientific concept in which students lack complete understanding.

After students’ collaborative problem-solving attempts, the teacher explicitly teaches students about the scientific concept and uses students’ failed problem-solving attempts as part of the process (Cao et al., 2024). The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how teachers may use productive failure design in junior secondary science to foster a learning environment where students become more comfortable with failing productively.

Failure Informing Science Understanding: Curriculum Links To effectively use productive failure design in teaching earthquake seismology, it is important to consider the concept’s compatibility with the Australian Curriculum. Even though scientists cannot predict when an earthquake will occur (Australian National University, 2021), the epicentre of an earthquake can be located using seismic waves. The arrival of these seismic waves at a seismic station can be recorded by a seismograph. The two types of seismic waves, P waves and S waves, both originate from an earthquake’s epicentre, but differ in some fundamental ways. Table 1 below outlines some of the key differences between P waves and S waves.

Table 1. Differences between P waves and S waves.

Differences Type of wave Speed Travel medium

P waves Longitudinal Approximately 10km/s Travel through Earth’s solid and liquid interior

In the junior science curriculum, the concept of earthquake seismology relates to the following content descriptors (ACARA, 2025): • Year 8 Earth and Space Science: Investigate tectonic activity including the formation of geological features at divergent, convergent and transform plate boundaries and describe the scientific evidence for the theory of plate tectonics (AC9S8U03).

•Y ear 9 Physics: Use wave and particle models to describe energy transfer through different mediums and examine the usefulness of each model for explaining phenomena (AC9S9U04).

In this practice-based study, junior secondary science students had learned how the movement of tectonic plates can cause earthquakes, in alignment with the Earth and Space Science content descriptor (AC9S8U03).

However, students had not yet learnt about the two types of seismic waves that originate from an earthquake’s epicentre. As such, the productive failure design activity in this paper can strengthen students’ understanding of earthquakes and plate tectonics. It introduces students to different wave models and their movement through media, aligning with the Physics content descriptor (AC9S9U04).

S waves Transverse Approximately 5km/s Travel through Earth’s solid interior only

Study Methods This qualitative, practice-based study outlines the implementation of productive failure design to teach earthquake seismology in a junior secondary science class at an allgirls school in Brisbane, Queensland. All Year 9 students provided verbal consensus for their work to be used in this study.

The productive failure design lesson was divided into two phases: a generation and exploration phase and a consolidation phase.

In the generation and exploration phase, students collaboratively solved science complex problems using seismic data, and in the consolidation phase, the teacher explicitly taught students about P waves and S waves using students’ collaborative problem-solving attempts (Kapur & Bielaczyc, 2012). Data was collected in the form of the science teacher’s written reflections and classroom observations, in addition to students’ collaborative problem-solving attempts. Literature relating to PF design and science inquiry was reviewed and utilised to inform the activity description featured below.

This paper offers a practical contribution to the existing PF design literature that predominantly explores quantitative learning outcomes of the teaching strategy for students in maths and science (Jacobson et al., 2015, Song, 2018). In contrast to the existing literature, this paper provides science teachers with a practice-based example of how to implement PF design in a way that supports students in becoming more comfortable failing productively.

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The Generation and Exploration Phase The generation and exploration phase of PF design involves creating opportunities for students to generate and explore multiple potential solutions for complex problems (Kapur & Bielaczyc, 2012). Students’ generation of potential solutions in this phase of PF design should occur without guidance or initial teacher-directed instruction relating to the science concept (Kapur, 2008).

In this study, at the start of the junior secondary science lesson about P waves and S waves, students were divided into six groups and given data from three seismic stations. This data is featured in Table 2 below. The dataset included the distance of each seismic station from the earthquake epicentre and the arrival times of the P waves and S waves following the earthquake.

Table 2. Seismic data provided to students from three seismic stations Station Station A Station B Station C

Distance from Epicentre 5,000 km 3,000 km 1,500 km

P-Wave Arrival Time 8 minutes 6 minutes 3 minutes

S-Wave Arrival Time Not detected 10 minutes 5 minutes

The Generation and Exploration Phase Next, students had 10 minutes to collaboratively consider and attempt to solve complex problems related to the seismic data. These problems are featured in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Complex problems provided to students during the generation and exploration phase of PF design

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The science teacher observed that most groups were initially hesitant to attempt the three complex problems. This hesitation may be attributed to students’ negative emotions associated with trying and failing (Ajjawi et al., 2019). However, positive reinforcement by the teacher, combined with the 10-minute time constraint, appeared to motivate students to engage with the complex problems before time ran out. During this time, students were observed explaining their ideas and collaboratively discussing which solutions best aligned with the question (Figure 1) and the data provided (Table 2).

The generation and exploration phase of PF design proved useful as it prompted students to overcome their initial concerns of failure to discuss and refine their potential solutions. It was evident that although the junior secondary science students were yet to learn about P waves and S waves, most groups could use their prior knowledge about earthquakes to make informed inferences in their potential solutions. For example, an analysis of each group’s potential solutions for question 3 revealed that five out of the six groups successfully inferred that a particular layer of Earth’s interior was preventing S waves from reaching Station A. After 10 minutes of problem-solving time, each group’s collaborative problem-solving attempts were collected by the teacher for use in the consolidation phase later in the lesson.

The Consolidation Phase In the consolidation phase of PF design, students can compare their group’s potential solutions with that of other groups and the appropriate solution provided by the teacher (Kapur & Bielaczyc, 2012). The teacher also explicitly teaches the science concept to students. In this study, junior secondary science students were explicitly taught about the following: • The key differences between P waves and S waves in alignment with Table 1. P waves (longitudinal waves) and S waves (transverse waves) were also modelled by the teacher using a slinky.

• The seismic show zones on Earth’s surface, where seismic activity is undetectable after an earthquake. The smaller seismic shadow zones for P waves were explained by their ability to travel through Earth’s solid and liquid interior, allowing them to reach a larger area of Earth’s surface.

The teacher intermittently incorporated both correct and failed group solutions into the teaching process. In the science teacher’s written reflection, a specific example of teacher dialogue that utilised students’ solution attempts was recorded: 'P waves are a longitudinal wave that move in a back-and-forth motion, whereas S waves are a transverse wave that move in an upand-down motion. Group 4 were on the right track with this idea when they said that S waves must arrive after P waves because they do not move in the same way.'

In this example, the teacher’s comparison of P wave and S wave properties with the group’s solution from the generation and exploration phase helped students recognise that they had made partially correct inferences about the scientific concept using their prior knowledge. For instance, when a student from Group 4 shared their thinking about this comparison with the class, their dialogue was similar to the following: 'At first, we just though S waves were slower.

After discussing it more, we realised that they might be slower because they move in a different way to P waves that makes them take longer to arrive at the seismic station.

So, we were thinking that arrival time didn’t just involve speed, but also how the waves might travel.'

The science teacher also reported that, although some groups could not correctly answer the complex problems in the generation and exploration phase, these attempts helped students learn from subsequent teacher instruction. This is likely because using students’ own work in teaching the scientific concept can make the instruction more meaningful and relevant (Chowrira et al., 2019). Students’ learning from instruction in the consolidation phase

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was evident during the whole-class discussion when students were referring to their initial solutions, identifying their own failures and using these failures to refine their scientific understanding in response to the teacher’s explanation of P waves and S waves. For example, when the teacher reviewed students’ solutions to the complex problems and incorporated them into the discussion, it was recorded that students were asking followup questions, sharing their thinking with the class, and verbalising how their understanding of earthquake seismology had improved throughout the activity.

Broader Curriculum Applications: Productive Failure (PF) Design as a unique form of Science Inquiry In teaching junior secondary science, PF design can be referred to as a unique form of science inquiry where students generate multiple potential solutions for complex problems prior to learning about a concept. Just like a scientist, science students generating multiple potential solutions to a problem are appreciating that knowledge is not fixed, nor is it created in isolation (Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2025). Rather, students are becoming more confident in using their existing prior knowledge to construct a more accurate understanding of the science concept. In this way, science teachers are preparing students for the STEM workforce through a real-world learning opportunity with 21st century implications (Vecchio, 2021). In Australia, the importance of science inquiry is being acknowledged in major science education reform efforts.

In senior secondary science, one example is the Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority’s (QCAA) revised 2025 syllabi, which expects students to “engage in aspects of the work of a scientist” through science inquiry practicals and investigations within the subject matter (QCAA, 2025, p.11). In junior secondary science, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) provides guidance for science teachers by separating science inquiry content descriptions into 5 sub-domains: (1) 24

Questioning and predicting, (2) planning and conducting, (3) processing, modelling and analysing, (4) evaluating, (5) communicating (ACARA, 2025).

Despite the inclusion of science inquiry standards by the QCAA and ACARA, it remains the prerogative of science teachers to determine how science inquiry tasks are used to engage students in the practical work of a scientist. This practice-based study offers valuable insights for science teachers working in schools governed by these authorities. The description provided focuses on how teachers can engage students in science inquiry through the generation of potential solutions for complex problems before learning about a science concept through PF design.

Conclusion In this study, PF design has provided a framework for how junior secondary science teachers may foster a learning environment where students become more comfortable failing productively. More specifically, the study has demonstrated how junior secondary science teachers can reframe failure as a meaningful learning opportunity for students when teaching earthquake seismology.

This was achieved by having students collaboratively generate potential solutions for complex problems using seismic data, and then using these solution attempts as part of the teaching process. In this way, students’ initial failures became productive for their learning. Being able to learn from failure is a fundamental skill for a scientist, but failure can be associated with negative emotions for science students (Ajjawi et al., 2019). As a practical contribution to the existing PF design literature, this approach to teaching science concepts can prepare students for the STEM workforce by fostering an environment where students perceive initial failure an opportunity to refine and improve their understanding of science phenomena.

About the Author Sandra Vecchio is a senior biology and junior secondary science teacher at Brisbane Girls Grammar School and a Master of Philosophy student at the Queensland University of Technology.

References Ajjawi, R., Dracup, M., Zacharias, N., Bennett, S., & Boud, D. (2019). Persisting students’ explanations of and emotional responses to academic failure. Higher Education Research & Development, 39(2), 185–199. https://doi.org/10 .1080/07294360.2019.1664999 Australian National University. (2021). We may never be able to predict earthquakes – but we can already know enough to be prepared. https://earthsciences.anu.edu.au/newsevents/news/we-may-never-be-able-predictearthquakes-we-can-already-know-enough-beprepared Australian, Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2025). ScienceYear 7, 8, 9. https://v9.australiancurriculum.edu. au/f-10-curriculum/learning-areas/science/year7_year-8_year-9?view=quick&detailed-contentdescriptions=0&hide-ccp=0&hide-gc=0&sideby-side=1&strands-start-index=0&loadextra-subject=SCISCIY7_SCISCIY8_ SCISCIY9&achievement-standard=3c1d728a5155-4f6c-a82c-479a6e5661e2 Cao, L., Lai, P. K., & Yang, H. (2024). Using productive failure to learn genetics in a gamebased environment. Instructional Science, 52(2), 309–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-02309644-6

Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379–424. https://doi. org/10.1080/07370000802212669 Kapur, M., & Bielaczyc, K. (2012). Designing for Productive Failure. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21(1), 45-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 0508406.2011.591717 Makkar, C., Dasios, M., Laliberté, N., & Rawle, F. (2023). Science “Fails”: A Bank of Historical Examples for Learning From Failure in Science.

CourseSource, 10. https://doi.org/10.24918/cs.2023.39 Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority (QCAA). (2025). Biology 2025 v1.1. https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/senior/subjectsfrom-2024/syllabuses Song, Y. (2018). Improving primary students’ collaborative problem solving competency in project-based science learning with productive failure instructional design in a seamless learning environment. Educational Technology Research & Development, 66(4), 979–1008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9600-3 Vecchio, S. (2021). Measuring things that matter in science: The importance of alignment with communities. Teaching Science, 67(3), 9-14.

Chowrira, S. G., Smith, K. M., Dubois, P. J. & Roll. I. (2019). DIY Productive Failure: Boosting Performance in a Large Undergraduate Biology Course. Npj Science of Learning, 4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-019-0040-6 Jacobson, M. J., Kim, B., Pathak, S., & Zhang, B. (2015). To guide or not to guide: Issues in the sequencing of pedagogical structure in computational model-based learning.

Interactive Learning Environments, 23(6), 715– 730. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2013.7 92845 Kapur, M. (2006). Productive failure: A hidden efficacy of seemingly unproductive production.

Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5f26n97z

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ASTA position paper

Inquiry vs explicit teaching misrepresentation Thanks to the many experts who informed the development of this paper: Margaret Shepherd, President ASTA Paula Taylor, President-Elect ASTA Rebecca Pan, Board Director ASTA Dr Mary Rafter, Board Director ASTA Prof. Russell Tytler, Deakin University A. Prof. Peta White, Deakin University A. Prof Christine Preston, Sydney University Lesley Gough, Western Sydney University A. Prof Helen Georgiou, University of Wollongong Dr Amrita Kamath, Deakin University Genevieve Firmer, Sydney University Dr Lauren McKnight, STANSW Vice President Honorary A. Professor Anne Forbes, Macquarie University

Introduction Key messages – The current discourse is mixing up the terms explicit, direct and inquiry and it is causing a MESS. – It is confusing and leads to misconceptions about what constitutes quality teaching.

The current narrative around teaching strategies is overly simplistic and often inaccurate. The term ‘explicit teaching’ is frequently being presented as if it denotes a single, correct way of teaching. Explicit teaching is not a monolithic, transmissive approach, nor is it a rejection of all other teaching methods.

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Misrepresenting it as such risks narrowing educational practice and undermining both teacher expertise and student learning outcomes. By framing explicit teaching as a mandatory, one-size-fits-all solution, current discourse undermines teachers' professional expertise and their ability to select and adapt methods to suit different learners and contexts. This narrows the pedagogical conversation and could lead to the mistaken belief that only explicit teaching is effective, sidelining inquiry-based and student-centred approaches that are a valuable part of a teachers’ toolkit.

The Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA) rejects the idea of a binary debate but fully endorses that science teachers use a broad range of strategies so that students are

actively engaged in constructing their learning.

Science education research supports a range of strategies depending on the knowledge outcomes being sought (Brown, 2024). How you teach for foundational concepts requires different strategies than teaching for higher order thinking in science.

Conversations with our members indicate that there is confusion in schools around the directive for explicit teaching, with many interpreting it as a return to transmissive, teacher-centred learning. This poses a significant risk to the breadth of science learning opportunities and may compromise learning experiences, leading to declines in achievement. This misunderstanding poses a significant risk to the quality and diversity of science learning experiences, potentially undermining student engagement and leading to a decline in Australia's science achievement.

Definitions Key messages – Define the key terms that are being bandied about. Explain the teaching terms and where they are useful in science teaching.

– Explicit teaching is a range of teaching strategies that are important in the science classroom.

– Direct instruction is something different that no one is suggesting we do.

– Inquiry shouldn’t be ‘out’, it is still useful in a successful science classroom, when used well. You can use inquiry within an explicit teaching classroom.

– Best practice in the science classroom is using a toolbox of different strategies when appropriate to the students, the school, the age, the science context and a myriad of other complex factors.

The current debate - why are we having this discussion at all?

Explicit teaching evolved from direct instruction (Hollingsworth & Ybarra, 2000).

These concepts are not the same, yet are being regularly conflated (Rosenshine, B. 1987: Pincott, 2023; de Jong et al, 2023).

The key difference between direct instruction and explicit instruction is teacher agency.

Central to explicit teaching is teachers using their professional judgement to utilise strategies in their classroom when they deem it appropriate, whereas direct instruction was characterised by strictly scripted lessons, transmissive or didactic approaches, and traditional teacher-centred philosophies.

Confusing explicit teaching with direct instruction – or with other transmissive, didactic, or traditional teacher-centred approaches – overlooks the interactive, adaptive and responsive nature of effective explicit instruction. Such conflation risks narrowing the pedagogical practice if school leaders, teachers or parents adopt a reductive interpretation.

It is also highly problematic if teachers interpret critiques of inquiry learning as a pedagogy to mean that students should no longer engage in scientific inquiry. While inquiry learning refers to a pedagogical approach, scientific inquiry itself is a core practice of science. Reducing opportunities for students to ask questions, design investigations and interpret data risks undermining the very nature of science education and its relevance to authentic scientific practice.

As with explicit teaching, inquiry practices have been plagued by multitudes of definitions and interpretations. Inquiry learning practices exist on a continuum from teacher directed to student directed, and being exposed to inquiry practices is pivotal to young people’s developing understanding of the nature and practice of science. Concerns regarding inquiry-based learning centre around a perceived deficiency in scaffolding and structure for student learning, which can lead to the development of incorrect knowledge structures and feelings of frustration in the classroom (Kirschner et al., 2006). These concerns are invalid when inquiry classrooms are well scaffolded.

ASTA are concerned about the impact of this confusion on science teachers in Australia. In this paper, we address definitions of explicit teaching, direct instruction and inquiry driven teaching practices and explore the role that both explicit and inquiry teaching practices can play in effective science classrooms.

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What is explicit teaching?

What is direct instruction?

Explicit teaching is a cluster of teaching strategies including questioning, sequencing, chunking of content, checking for understanding, gradual release of responsibility and feedback (Rosenshine 1987). Explicit teaching strategies overlap with Australian researcher John Hattie’s high impact teaching strategies (Department of Education, 2017). It is not a singular teaching strategy and should not be conflated with transmissive teaching practices, where content is conveyed verbally through lecturing, or through textbooks to passive students. The term ‘explicit’ is employed because it provides students with a clear explanation of what they are learning, why and how they will know when they have achieved the outcomes – not because teachers are expected to use direct or transmissive instructional methods. Explicit teaching may employ a ‘gradual release of responsibility’, sometimes phrased as ‘I do, we do, you do’; however this is only one of many strategies that teachers may draw on aligned with an explicit approach.

It is a teaching approach developed by Siegfried Engelmann and colleagues in the 1960s for preschool teaching (Stockard et al., 2018). It provides highly structured guidance for teachers in the wording and sequencing of materials and testing in a scripted format (Stockard et al., 2018). It is characterised by exact wording, stipulated timing and predefined student responses. It was developed for reading, math, spelling and language. None of the current educational directives suggest Australian teachers should be using direct instruction for science. For further discussion about direct instruction, see this 2013 white paper: https://eprints.qut. edu.au/220112/1/explicit.pdf

Suggestion for explaining how explicit teaching fits in the science classroom: When introducing new scientific topics, teachers connect new information to scientific phenomena students have experienced in their lives, as well as concepts they have learned previously in science and other classes. They break down complex concepts into smaller parts to ensure students’ working memory is not overloaded. Teachers use questioning to ensure students are thinking deeply about concepts rather than memorising them, and check for understanding in an ongoing manner throughout the learning sequence. Feedback is used to improve students’ understanding of science concepts and their own learning strategies, to empower them to take charge of their learning. Explicit teaching strategies are similarly critical when teaching science investigation skills, where gradual release of responsibility techniques can take students from understanding the key parts of an investigation to competently designing their own investigation (Archer et al, 2010; Sharma et al, 2006). Explicit teaching strategies are a crucial part of science teaching.

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What is inquiry teaching?

An inquiry approach is centred around the current theory that students learn to solve problems through investigations where they construct meaning of their world based on their experiences, context and content in a social environment (What Is Inquiry-Based Science, 2015; Pedaste, 2015). Inquiry based learning is an umbrella term that incorporates many current learning approaches including project and problem based learning, design thinking (Australian Government, Department of Education, nd) and may take various forms, depending on the topic, resources, ages and abilities of students and other variables.

However, the term inquiry has sometimes been narrowly interpreted as referring only to student-led, minimal-guidance learning environments – where students are left to ‘figure things out’ independently. There is little evidence to support this hands-off approach, which can cause cognitive overload for students. When inquiry is defined in this limited way, it can lead to the rejection of the broader concept altogether, which is particularly concerning in science education.

In the field of science education, inquiry-based learning is central to student’s engagement in the authentic practices of science (Hubber et al, 2017). There is a range of inquiry levels from teacher-centred to student directed open-ended (Sharma et al, 2006). Effective inquiry learning requires structured support, modelling and scaffolding. Many aspects

of explicit teaching are essential to inquiry learning. There is robust evidence supporting inquiry-based approaches as effective for developing students’ critical thinking and scientific reasoning skills (Australian Government, Department of Education, n.d.; Kitot et al., 2010).

Best Practices in the Science Classroom Science cannot be taught the same way as other subjects as it has very specific discipline requirements.

Science is the systematic study of the world through observation and experimentation.

A scientist is someone who uses scientific processes to answer posed questions about the world. The nature of science is inquirybased (uses specific methods labelled ‘scientific’), tentative, developmental (builds on the knowledge of others), subjective, creative and collaborative (Forbes & Skamp, 2013).

Science is about observing and questioning the world, solving problems and using evidence to challenge ideas; this is especially important in this age of mis/disinformation.

An understanding of how scientific knowledge is generated is a foundational component of scientific literacy, as it enables young people to critically engage with scientific debates and issues that affect their lives (Carruthers, 2017).

In the 2025 OECD PISA science framework, this understanding is classified as epistemic knowledge – one of the core elements of scientific competency (OECD, 2025).

Students are expected to grasp not just scientific facts, but also how evidence is used, how methods are chosen, and how claims are justified within scientific practice. Alongside this, PISA 2025 also highlights the importance of supporting students' science identity across three key dimensions: • valuing scientific perspectives and approaches to inquiry • affective engagement and personal connection with science • environmental awareness, concern and agency.

A strong science identity emerges when students actively engage with core concepts, develop their understanding through inquiry and see themselves as capable participants in scientific reasoning and decision-making (OECD, 2025).

Primary and secondary teachers of science are university-trained professionals who undergo continuous professional learning focussed on how to teach science and how students learn concepts and skills.

Classrooms across Australia are not homogeneous – they consist of young people with a wide variety of interests and abilities. There is no one single way to teach scientific concepts and skills in a classroom.

Instead, teachers choose approaches to teaching that are appropriate to content mandated by the curriculum, and to the goals, cultures, interests and abilities of the students in their unique classrooms.

Therefore it is important for teachers to have a varied pedagogical toolbox and the ability to evaluate students’ understanding and adapt their teaching strategies responsively.

The OECD's Unlocking High-Quality Teaching report (2025) underscores the inherent complexity of teaching, characterising it as a discipline that integrates both scientific, evidence-based approaches and the artistry of the skilled craft of teaching. The report introduces the Schools+ Pedagogical Taxonomy, which identifies practices that, when thoughtfully implemented, contribute to effective teaching and learning.

Importantly, the taxonomy moves beyond simplistic dichotomies, recognising that effective teaching involves a dynamic interplay of various strategies tailored to specific contexts and student needs. This perspective aligns with the understanding that teaching is not a one-size-fits-all endeavour but a complex, adaptive process.

Teachers must be equipped to navigate this complexity, and entrusted to employ a range of evidence-informed practices to meet the diverse needs of their students and foster meaningful scientific understanding.

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Teaching science effectively involves building on students’ experiences and language to induct them into the multi modal knowledges and practices of the discipline. Research has established that this often involves significant conceptual change, for instance in understanding foundational concepts of energy, adaptation, force, or chemical changes in body systems. This is not simply a process of learning abstract mathematical or definitional processes that some groups argue must first be explicitly modelled by the teacher. It needs to involve guided exploration in which students’ ideas are drawn on to strategically engage them with science concepts as productive reasoning tools. This process transcends the explicit teaching / inquiry binary, but not in the ‘explicit first, inquiry after’ sense argued by Sweller et al., (2024). It involves the interweaving of student inquiry and teacher input in more complex and subtle ways than can be captured by the ‘I do, we do, you do’ routine. The teachers’ art must not be constrained in this way.

Recognising the interplay between explicit instruction and inquiry-based learning allows educators to create dynamic learning environments. By blending these approaches, teachers can support students in building robust scientific understanding and foster the development of critical thinking and problemsolving skills essential for scientific literacy.

The issues This paper is essential to respond to a range of issues that are plaguing the science education community. They include: •L ack of understanding by media and other stakeholders – Explicit teaching is being misinterpreted (conflated with a single transmissive pedagogy) – Explicit teaching isn’t mutually exclusive with other pedagogies like inquiry (not a binary) • Oversimplification of a complex situation – Explicit teaching isn’t the only valid way to teach, it is one useful tool (there is no one correct way to teach) • Failure to meet the needs of all students • Mandating pedagogies means the de-professionalism of teachers

A. Misrepresentation Many authors interested in education, but without an education background, are misrepresenting the terms explicit, inquiry and direct instruction. Many online articles, blogs and newspapers use the terms explicit and direct instruction interchangeably. The current discourse is presenting explicit and inquiry instructional strategies as mutually exclusive and unable to be used in the same classroom - this is incorrect. This is leading the public to be more confused and fueling a debate about which strategy is best when there should be no debate (Reid, 2021). Both explicit and inquiry instructional strategies work and both have their place (Department of Education, 2023). This can only harm education in the long term.

B. Oversimplification Current debates in education focus on identifying one correct way to teach, as if a single method could guarantee success for all students (Cassidy, 2024; Carroll, 2023).

This kind of outdated thinking treats teaching like a technical process with a fixed solution, but education is not that simple. Classrooms are complex, human environments shaped by the diversity of students and teachers within them. What works well in one context may not work in another. Effective teaching requires flexibility, professional judgment, and the ability to draw on a range of strategies to meet different needs. Primary and secondary science teachers are university-trained professionals who continually undergo professional learning focussed on how to teach science and how students learn concepts and skills. Our teachers are well equipped to make informed decisions about the best ways to support learning in their classrooms.

The search for one right way to teach oversimplifies what teaching is and undermines the expertise of educators.

Instead of prescribing a one-size-fits-all solution, we must support teachers to confidently use their training to implement a range of evidence-informed strategies in the classroom and trust them to make sound professional judgments in response to the needs of their students.

C. Failure to meet the curriculum needs of students The misrepresentation of teaching needing to be explicit or inquiry, rather than an incorporation of each is leading to some schools misunderstanding the term explicit teaching. This leads to a culture of ‘this versus that’ and does not lead to providing students with opportunities to learn in different ways.

Transmissive teaching ends up being rote learning – students learn facts about science and do not develop conceptual understanding, and do not learn to think scientifically. Although students do need to memorise some things, this misunderstanding may lead to all learning being didactic. They can’t learn scientific skills this way.

The curriculum sets out mandated science knowledge and skills and is based on many years of research on appropriateness and sequencing of content and skills. The curriculum focuses on meeting the needs of students at each age. If the curriculum is rich in scientific skills, will a mandate to only one way of teaching mean students miss the opportunities to engage with critical thinking activities within their classes?. All the curriculum and outcomes are important.

The teachers decide on a teaching approach that is deliberately and thoughtfully focussed on the children in the room, rather than an approach that is being mandated. They may or may not be the same so once again, this binary conversation is leading to harming the professionalism of the teacher and perhaps even the individual needs of students.

D. Deprofessionaling and disrespect of teachers

Many teachers believe they use evidencebased methods, yet just as many aren’t up to date with the latest research – not for lack of interest, but because they need better tools and clearer guidance on what works best in the classroom. They also lack the time needed to engage with the reading materials and also lack access via the paywalls.

E. We’re not failing Key message? Science teachers in Australia are doing a decent job, they should be celebrated and supported, not dictated to.

Policy makers (and media) have decided we are failing (Pincott, 2023).

Science education in Australia has been maligned in recent times, but the situation is not as dire as often represented in the media (Georgiou & Larsen, 2023). In the most recent Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (2023) which is an international standardised test of curriculum knowledge in Science, only four countries outperformed Australia in Year 4, and seven in Year 8. Australia consistently performs above the Organisation Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average. In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2022, Australian students were able to sustain their achievement, despite most other countries experiencing declines due to the interruptions caused by the Covid pandemic. An over-reliance on PISA, and a focus on declines during the 20062015 period have fueled a narrative that our education system was failing. However, even in 2015, Australia was only outperformed by nine countries. Further, since 2015, scores have remained stable in both PISA and TIMSS.

It’s disrespectful to make education policy about teachers without involving them and to treat their highly complex and human focussed work as a political football. Teachers make professional judgments about students every day, so rigid, prescriptive rules undermine their expertise and their training.

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Fig 1. TIMSS scores since 2003. Source: OECD These achievements should be celebrated loudly and proudly.

Summary Australian science teachers: – know the science and are able to help and engage students in the content without simply telling them everything.

– use all strategies as appropriate. A suite of strategies are needed when teaching science.

– use different approaches to support students learning different things.

– provide students the opportunities to learn both knowledge and skills for thinking at a higher level in order to problem solve.

This paper was developed by the ASTA Policy Position Working Group, comprising a diverse range of science education experts, including national academic researchers, representatives from the Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA), state science teacher associations (STAs) and classroom science teachers.

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References Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2010). Explicit Instruction: Effective and Efficient Teaching.

Guilford Publications.

Carroll, L (2023). Education boss calls for doubling down on explicit teaching in schools.

Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh. com.au/national/nsw/education-boss-callsfor-doubling-down-on-explicit-teaching-inschools-20231022-p5ee39.html Cassidy, C. (2024). PressReader.com—Digital Newspaper & Magazine Subscriptions. https:// www.pressreader.com/australia/the-guardianaustralia/20240725/281685440094027 Department of Education, Victoria. (2017).

High impact teaching strategies: Excellence in teaching and learning. Victoria. Dept of Education and Training. https://www.zotero. org/google-docs/?uS7SZM Department of Education. (2023). Improving Outcomes for all. Department of Education. https://www.education.gov.au/review-informbetter-and-fairer-education-system/resources/ expert-panels-report Georgiou, H. & Larsen, S. (2023). Are Australian students really falling behind?

It depends which test you look at. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ are-australian-students-really-falling-behind-itdepends-which-test-you-look-at-218709 Goeke, J. L. (2009). Explicit instruction: A framework for meaningful direct teaching.

Merrill.

Hubber, P., Tytler, R., & Chittleborough, G. (2017). Representation Construction: A Guided Inquiry Approach for Science Education. In R. Jorgensen & K. Larkin (Eds.), STEM Education in the Junior Secondary School (pp. 57-87).

Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

Pincott, K. (2023, January 23). Why Australian schools are failing. The Centre for Independent Studies. https://www.cis.org.au/ commentary/opinion/why-australian-schoolsare-failing/ Reid, A. (2021, August 17). Teachers use many teaching approaches to impart knowledge.

Pitting one against another harms education.

The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/ teachers-use-many-teaching-approachesto-impart-knowledge-pitting-one-againstanother-harms-education-166178 Rosenshine, B. (1987). Explicit Teaching and Teacher Training. Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 34–36. https://doi. org/10.1177/002248718703800308 Stockard, J., Wood, T. W., Coughlin, C., & Rasplica Khoury, C. (2018). The Effectiveness of Direct Instruction Curricula: A Meta-Analysis of a Half Century of Research. Educational Research Review, 88(4), 479–507. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317751919 Sweller J, Zhang L, Ashman G, Cobern W and Kirschner PA (2023) ‘Response to De Jong et al.’s (2023) paper “Let’s talk evidence – The case for combining inquiry-based and direct instruction”’, Educational Research Review, 42 (2024): 100584, doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100584 White, P. (2021). There is a strong case for inquiry learning in maths and science. MSETED. Deakin University.

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Fostering experimental skills: Intense handson microbiology activities through peer collaboration for high school students Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy and Venkata Krishna Bayineni Department of Life Sciences, Prayoga Institute of Education Research, Bangalore, India

This article is the first in a three-part series.

Abstract Science knowledge is deeply intertwined with Microorganisms, which play essential roles in healthcare, food production and environmental management, making their study crucial for understanding impacts on food safety, spoilage and disease prevention.

This research introduces hands-on activities designed for high school students (aged 14-15) to explore microbial growth and diversity. This workshop was conducted with seven Grade 8 students as part of an outreach program by the Prayoga Institute of Education Research, Bangalore, India. It was facilitated by experts in microbiology. Aimed at fostering awareness and critical thinking in microbiology, the workshop engaged students in investigating microorganisms from various indoor and outdoor samples, observing

colony morphology and studying their roles in fermentation, spoilage and foodborne disease prevention. Peer collaboration was encouraged to enhance learning, reflecting the benefits of student-led interactions. The data was collected through direct observation, activity reports and reflective writing to assess experimental skills and concept understanding. A five-level rubric, adapted from Yoshihiro et al. (2017) was used to evaluate students’ progress. Results indicated significant improvement in their ability to plan, conduct and analyse experiments, deepening their knowledge of microbial diversity, fermentation processes, hygiene and food safety. Reflective writing provided insights into misconceptions, allowing instructors to refine instruction. Students reported enjoyment and improved lab skills, suggesting that early exposure to active microbiology learning can effectively build scientific literacy and interest in related academic and career paths.

Key words Microbiology education, high school, hands-on learning, peer collaboration, experimental skill, scientific inquiry skills, microbial diversity.

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Figure 1. Study design

Introduction High school students frequently look up to scientists with great admiration, but their enthusiasm often diminishes when it comes to actually studying science (Swarat et al., 2012).

This disconnect may be due to the complexity of subjects like biology, which requires substantial memorsation and understanding of intricate concepts (Crispim et al., 2020).

In most countries around the world, the primary method for studying biology is through reading textbooks (Sithole et al., 2017). However, biology presents a unique challenge as it requires a significant amount of memorisation and understanding of intricate concepts, which can make the subject seem daunting and less appealing to students.

This complexity can hinder their interest and engagement, making it harder for them to fully appreciate the subject's value and relevance (Crispim et al., 2020).

Microorganisms are ubiquitous, inhabiting diverse environments like soil, wate and the human body. They surpass plants and animals in species diversity and biomass, playing vital roles in Earth's biogeochemical cycles (Pedrinaci et al., 2013). Additionally, microbes are essential in industries such as food, medicine, sewage treatment and biofuels, underscoring their importance in both ecosystems and human applications (Waites et al., 2001). Despite their ubiquity, high school

students often view microorganisms as little more than invisible agents of disease or food spoilage, without grasping their omnipresence and essential roles in ecosystems and human life (Crispim et al., 2020; Lago et al., 2022). This limited perspective may stem from a lack of understanding, causing some students to overlook the broader importance of microorganisms. The postCOVID-19 era presents a critical opportunity to reshape this view, as negative perceptions may have become more ingrained. A key educational challenge lies in preventing the crystallisation of this mindset in young people.

To counteract this, teaching should provide a balanced, comprehensive understanding of microorganisms, helping students appreciate their crucial role in everyday life and on Earth (Raichvarg, 1995). Therefore, the examination and description of the microbes found in different environments are crucial to understanding the major biological processes in our biosphere. By introducing active learning experiences during formative years, we can address misconceptions and foster a more accurate and informed perspective on microbiology, preparing students for future academic and career opportunities (Jones & Rua, 2006; Handelsman et al., 2004).

Microbiology education across the globe varies significantly in terms of teaching methodologies. In many cases, the focus has traditionally been on rote learning and factual

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instruction (Struwig et al., 2016). Even at the undergraduate level, students frequently encounter the subject through textbooks, illustrations and basic laboratory experiments, which may not foster deep engagement or critical thinking (Duncan et al., 2011). When students can relate microbiological concepts to their daily lives, they are more likely to find the material engaging and relevant. This approach not only enhances microbiology education but can also enrich broader scientific learning (Lloyd & Berry, 2022). In addition to traditional teaching methods, educators and researchers have explored various alternative strategies. Digital games, for example, have gained traction as an educational tool. These games often include engaging narratives that immerse students in the subject matter, making learning more enjoyable and potentially leading to better retention of knowledge (Bowling et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2004). Such interactive methods, when integrated into the curriculum, create a dynamic and effective learning environment that fosters exploration and critical thinking (Rowe et al., 2011).

Hands-on laboratory work plays a crucial role in developing students’ experimental skills and scientific understanding, especially during their formative years in education. Research shows that peer interaction significantly enhances learning (Topping, 2017). The concrete operational stage of cognitive development, typically between the ages of 10-12, is when students begin to grasp scientific concepts more effectively through observation and experimentation. Laboratory activities not only reinforce theoretical knowledge but also enhance critical skills such as planning, equipment handling, and result analysis (Piaget, 1976). Several studies have emphasised the importance of structured evaluation methods to track and improve students’ experimental abilities. For instance, rubrics have been increasingly used to provide standardised assessment criteria, ensuring a consistent measurement of skills across various experimental domains. This study employs a five-level rubric developed

by Yoshihiro et al. (2017) to evaluate the progression of students’ experimental competencies through a series of laboratory exercises.

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Activity-based learning has become a cornerstone of modern science education.

Educators around the globe are employing a variety of strategies, ranging from small-scale experimental activities to comprehensive project-based learning (Kokotsaki et al., 2016; Lux, 2002). These hands-on approaches to teaching science not only enhance students' understanding of complex concepts but also help them develop essential soft skills such as problem-solving, teamwork and communication (Bourner et al., 2001). In addition to hands-on and practical learning experiences, incorporating reflective writing encourages learners to recall and evaluate their learning processes. This not only enhances critical thinking but also fosters metacognitive awareness, enabling students to recognse and develop their own learning strategies (Al-Rawahi & Al-Balushi, 2015).

Reflective activities support the internalisation of scientific concepts and allow learners to connect theory with real-world applications.

Research also shows that experiential learning environments can significantly increase students' interest and engagement in science, science inquiry skills, ultimately fostering a deeper appreciation for the subject (Ash et al., 2005).

Building on this foundation, involving high school students in hands-on activities and project-based learning can deepen their understanding of microbial growth, its significance and its many applications. By engaging directly with the subject matter, students can gain insights into the roles of microorganisms in areas such as body flora, food fermentation, disease prevention and food preservation (Petersen & Chan, 2020). This research article introduces three specific activities designed to allow students to explore microbial growth in various realworld contexts, helping them appreciate the broader implications of microbiology in both scientific and everyday settings. This workshop adheres with microbiology teaching best practices outlined in the Science Assist guidelines, produced by the Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA). These guidelines emphasise safe, inquiry-based, hands-on activities, and our workshop fully complies with them.

Learning objectives

Learning time overview

1. R ecognise the ubiquity of microorganisms and understand their colony morphology and types.

The entire activity spans 4 hours, with sampling kits and an introduction to the experiments distributed the day before. It is divided into three sections (Figure 2):

2. C omprehend the applications of microorganisms in food production and fermentation.

3. E xplain the significance of hygiene and proper food handling to prevent spoilage and disease spread.

Figure 2. Learning time overview

Day one

Day two

1. Microbial Diversity (Exercise 1): A one hour session where students collect swabs, plant, water, soil and plate exposure samples and transfer them to agar plates.

The second phase focuses on result observation, analysis and reporting. On day two (30 min), students will analyse bacterial load, morphological features of bacterial colonies, the zone of inhibition and sensory attributes of milk and curd.

2. Microbiology in Industry (Exercise 2): A one hour session where students test milk, grapes and bread fermentation and study the effect of antibiotics on common bacteria like E. coli through inoculation and incubation.

3. Food spoilage, preservation and disease prevention (Exercise 3): A one hour activity analysing microbial content in fresh and spoiled bananas, tomatoes, preserved and raw milk, and washed/unwashed hands.

Students particularly interested in bacterial growth can be asked to select and inoculate one bacterial isolate on day two to study growth patterns and calculate generation time (1 day, approx. 8–10 hours). Students will need to read absorbance every hour until they get two consecutive stable readings. The total time required for this will depend on the selected bacterial isolate.

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Day five On day five (30 min), yeast/mould count and alcohol percentage in fermented wine will be evaluated.

Reflective writing exercise After completion of each exercise, students were asked to fill out their reflection questionnaire. The reflective questions for each exercise were thoughtfully designed to assess and enhance students' critical thinking skills and understanding of microbiological concepts using keywords from Bloom’s revised taxonomy.

Intended audience This laboratory activity was designed for a year 8 and 9 biology class and is ideal for students with no prior experience in microbiological laboratory work. It is well-suited for classes of up to 35 students in 5 batches.

Interactive lectures to orient the students A day before the activity, two preparatory sessions are conducted to introduce students to key microbiology concepts and basic laboratory techniques. The first session covers the classification and diversity of microorganisms – bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses – highlighting their interactions with humans and the environment. Students learn about the beneficial applications of microbes in food production (fermentation, probiotics), healthcare (antibiotics, vaccines), agriculture (soil fertility, pest control), biofuel production, bioremediation and water treatment. The session also addresses the negative impacts of microbes, including food contamination, spoilage, and disease emphasizing strategies for preventing foodborne illnesses and infections through hygiene and safe food handling practices. This provides students with a balanced view of the roles microbes play in human health and industry.

The second session focuses on essential laboratory techniques, such as aseptic methods to prevent contamination, and common microbial culturing techniques 38

like the spread plate method. Students are introduced to various culture media, including Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA) for coliform detection, Nutrient Agar (NA) for bacterial growth, and Yeast Glucose Chloramphenicol Agar (YEGCA) for yeast and mould counts.

Additionally, they practice simple and Gram staining methods to differentiate bacteria by cell wall structure and are introduced to bacterial growth curves, turbidimetric measurements, fermentation tests and alcohol concentration analysis, offering a comprehensive blend of theoretical and practical microbiology skills.

Instructions for teachers Teachers conducting these exercises should have a solid grasp of basic microbiology techniques and be well-versed in aseptic laboratory practices. This includes proficiency in microbial culturing, staining, and identification, along with the ability to handle microorganisms without introducing contamination. Mastery of aseptic techniques is critical, especially for procedures like inoculation and maintaining sterile environments during experiments. In addition to technical expertise, instructors should be adept at troubleshooting common laboratory issues, ensuring correct equipment use and effectively teaching students how to follow safety protocols and aseptic procedures.

Teachers should also guide students through experiments, help interpret microbial growth results, and emphasise the significance of sterility and precision in microbiological research. Maintaining sterile conditions throughout these exercises is essential for the successful execution of microbial experiments. Teachers must take standard precautions when preparing materials. Data collection worksheets should be distributed before the start of the activities to guide students in recording their observations.

The materials and equipment needed for one batch of students for various activities, along with a brief overview of protocols, are outlined in tables 1, 2, 4 and 7. The detailed protocols for conducting the experiments are introduced to students during interactive lectures. These detailed instructions, along with worksheets, are also distributed to the students.

Exercise one: Microorganisms are almost everywhere!

Awareness of microorganisms is crucial for understanding the diverse roles they play in our daily lives (Whitman et al., 1998). This activity aims to engage students with microbial diversity and the colony morphology of bacteria and fungi while introducing them to essential laboratory techniques.

Preparation of the exercise Assemble sample collection kits with sterile swabs and collection bags. Prepare NA, YEGCA, and VRBA plates in advance for each sample. Sterile diluent tubes (9 mL each) should also be available for serial dilution. If turbidimetric determination will be conducted on Day 2, sterile nutrient broth should be preprepared for inoculation.

Methodology Part one: Isolation and enumeration of bacteria and fungi from various sources This exercise introduces students to microbial diversity and colony morphology, requiring them to describe and analyse the size, shape, colour and elevation of colonies. Bacterial samples are collected from various sources (n = 14), such as skin, teeth, hands, air, soil, water, and plants (Table 1). Working in groups, students examine the plates after the incubation period from different environments, count colonies and rank samples based on microbial diversity and abundance. Data are recorded on standardised worksheets, and reasons for variations in colony numbers are discussed with instructors. This hands-on activity fosters understanding of microbial roles in nutrient cycling, disease and biotechnology while encouraging scientific curiosity and critical thinking (Tortora et al., 2018). The coliform, bacterial, and fungal plates are incubated at 37, 35, and 25 °C, respectively, for all the samples. Bacterial and fungal growth is observed after 24 h and five days of incubation, respectively, and students identify

Table 1. Procedures for collection and processing of samples for microbial isolation and enumeration

Methods of sample Sample preparation collection and processing and incubation

Materials required per group

Category A: Swab: Skin, Teeth, Hands, Computer mouse, Leaves, Roots

6 sterile swabs 5 Serial diluent tubes 15 NA plates 15 VRBA plates 15 YEGCA plates 1 Micropipette (100µL) 20 Sterile microtips (100µL)

Collect all swabs of the samples in approximately 6.4 square centimetre using a fresh sterile cotton swab and inoculate to NA, VRBA and YEGCA plates using the spread plate technique Category B: Exposure: Expose pre-prepared sterile Cough, Indoor air, Outdoor plates of NA, VRBA and YEGCA air for 15 minutes and incubate Category C: Dilution: Dry soil, Add approximately Wet soil, Tap water, Pond 1 g of sample in 9mL sterile water, Cow dung diluent tubes and then inoculate to NA, VRBA and YEGCA plates using spread plate technique

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colony morphology and characteristics using a reference chart provided by the instructor.

Colonies with similar appearances can be grouped as one type for data collection.

The number of colony-forming units (CFU) is used to quantify the bacterial population, and the total bacterial load is determined using the formula provided below. This formula is also applicable for calculating total coliforms as well as yeast and mould counts.

Total bacterial count/mL or g = CFU × Dilution Factor; in this case the dilution factor is 10.

Part II: Bacterial growth curve and gram staining (optional) One bacterial isolate from the part one experiment is chosen, and Gram staining is performed to identify whether it is Grampositive or Gram-negative along with its morphology. For students interested in learning more about its growth pattern, the same colony is inoculated into 25 mL of nutrient broth, and hourly absorbance is measured at 600 nm using a colorimeter to study the growth phases until two consecutive readings are obtained, indicating that the growth has reached the stationary phase (Table 2).

Table 2. Analytical techniques for bacterial isolate characterization: gram staining and growth curve protocol

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Samples

Choose any one bacterial isolate for further analysis

Protocol in brief

Gram staining: Transfer a loopful of bacterial isolate onto a clean slide, spread thinly, air dry, and heat-fix. Stain with crystal violet for 1 minute, rinse, apply iodine for 1 minute, and rinse again. Add safranin for 1 minute, rinse, and decolorize with acetone for 20-30 seconds. Blot dry and examine under a microscope, starting with 10x and moving to 100x with immersion oil.

Bacterial growth curve analysis (optional): Prepare sterile nutrient broth and allow it to cool. Set the colorimeter to 600 nm, blank it with sterile media, and inoculate the media with the isolate. Measure the initial optical density (OD) at 600 nm as "Time 0," then take OD readings at 1-hour intervals until they plateau. Plot OD versus time to analyse growth and calculate generation time.

Materials required per group

1 sterile inoculation loop Distilled water 1 clean glass slide 1 spirit lamp Gram’s staining kit Compound microscope

Sterile NB in a conical flask (250mL) 1 Micropipette - 1000µL 20 Sterile microtips (1000µL) Distilled water Colorimeter 1 Cuvette Bacteriological incubator

Experimental results Part one: Isolation and enumeration of bacteria and fungi from various sources Students successfully isolated and quantified bacteria and fungi from various sources, evaluating parameters such as TBC, TC, and YMC (Table 3). Using a chart of common morphological characteristics, they identified and enumerated the microorganisms in each sample. Clear patterns emerged when comparing microbial concentrations across different environments (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Workflow of sample collection, processing and result observation

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Table 3. Microbial counts and colony morphologies from various sources as reported by students Total bacterial count

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Total coliforms

Yeast and mould count

Samples

CFU/ mL or g

No. of colony types; CFU/ morphology mL or g

No. of colony types; morphology

CFU/ mL or g

No. of colony types; morphology

Skin

1160

2; big, small, entire, clear, flat

560

1; small, entire, clear

10

10; round, black, big, elevated, moderate, raised

Teeth

TNTC

2; yellow and white colonies, crenated small, circle, entire, big.

1620

1; pink, circular, entire, elevated

0

0

Hands

90

6, yellow and white colonies, circle

TNTC

1; Clear, yellowish, circle, round, pink, flat, entire, overly populated,

100

4; black, white, red, circular, fibrous, elevated.

Cough

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1; grey, small, circular

25

1; pinkish, small, circular

2

2; big, medium, fibrous, spore production

Computer TNTC mouse

1; small, white, black

TNTC

1;l pink

TNTC

TNTC

Leaves

1072

3; yellow, white, 300 dotted, small, big, raised, flat, umbonate

2; pink, white, flat, small, medium

2830

3; black, small, medium, uneven, pink, yellow, domed, entire, circular.

Roots

TNTC

3; yellow, white, dotted, raised, flat umbonate

300

2; crenated, entire, irregular, small, white, pink, umbonate, flat

TNTC

6; white, cloudy, entire, domes, rhizoidal, small, big, black, circular, fibrous, yellow, reddish, white.

Dry soil

1600

5; yellow, white, dotted, big, small, flat, raised, umbonated, medium.

30

2; big, small, pink

920

5; black, circular, yellow, brown, big, spore-forming, small.

Wet soil

TNTC

3; domed, flat, white and yellow, clustered.

900

2; domed, clustered, yellow, pink.

120

5; white, yellow, domed

Tapwater

50

2; circle, pale, yellow, flat.

0

5; yellow, red, pointed, flat, raised

TNTC

3; small, big, dark brown, light brown, white, spore-forming.

Pond water

2500

3; white, yellow, flat, raised

670

6; yellow and pink, slightly domed

60

3; huge, sporeforming mycelium, black and brown

Air exposure (indoor)

5

3; yellow and white colonies, raised, dome, flat

4

1; black, mid-sized, small pink, dome, circle

292

5; black, yellow, white, small, big, rhizoidal

Air exposure (outdoor)

15

1; domed, circle, yellow

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1; web, dome, pink

72

6; black, yellow, dense, raised

Table 3. Microbial counts and colony morphologies from various sources as reported by students Total Bacterial Count

Total Coliforms

Yeast and Mould Count

Samples

CFU/ mL or g

No. of colony types; CFU/ Morphology mL or g

No. of colony types; Morphology

CFU/ mL or g

No. of colony types; Morphology

Cowdung

PC

11; white, circular colonies

307

3, yellow, circle

130

4; black, white orange, raised

Control

0

0

0

0

0

0

Students’ detailed observations of colony morphology revealed diverse microbial populations across different sources. For example, skin samples displayed two distinct colony types, described as "big, small, entire, clear, flat," indicating the presence of various bacteria. In environmental samples like leaves and roots, a wider variety of colony shapes, sizes, and colours suggested a rich microbial ecosystem, while air samples showed fewer colonies but diverse morphologies typical of airborne microbes. Notably, pond water contained six distinct coliform colony types a higher diversity than other sources.

The highest bacterial loads were found in samples from cow dung and roots, with the TBC labelled as “PC” (Plate cover) and "TNTC" (Too Numerous To Count) respectively. These environments, rich in organic matter, provide ideal conditions for bacterial growth (Prescott, 2005). Both samples displayed a variety of colony morphologies, with cow dung showing 11 distinct colony types, characterised as white and circular, and roots presenting three colony types, including yellow, white, dotted, raised and flat. In contrast, tap water and indoor air exposure had the lowest bacterial counts, with TBC values of 50 CFU/mL and 5 CFU/mL, respectively. Tap water exhibited two colony types described as pale yellow, flat, and

circular, while indoor air exposure revealed three colony types, including yellow and white colonies, raised, domed and flat. Notably, the bacterial load on the computer mouse was labelled 'TNTC', reflecting frequent human contact and insufficient sanitation, a common source of contamination in high-touch surfaces (Boone & Gerba, 2007). Regarding coliforms, the highest loads were detected in hands and teeth samples, with hands labelled as 'TNTC' and teeth showing 1620 CFU. The morphology of coliform colonies on hands was diverse, with six types characterized by clear, yellowish, circular and flat colonies.

Teeth samples had only one coliform type: pink, circular and elevated. In contrast, tap water had 0 CFU, indicating excellent sanitary quality. The most significant yeast and mould growth was observed in roots and leaves, both showing TNTC and 2830 CFU, respectively. The root sample had six types of colonies, including white, cloudy, domed and rhizoidal, while leaves displayed three types described as black, small, medium, pink, yellow and domed. Minimal fungal presence was recorded in teeth and cough samples, with the teeth sample showing no detectable growth (Figure 4). The absence of CFU in control samples confirmed the accuracy of procedures and sterile conditions, validating the reliability of the results.

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Figure 3. Sample-specific images illustrating microbial presence (TBC, TC, and YMC) from diverse sources

Part II: Bacterial growth curve and Gram staining Following the enumeration of microbial samples, students selected one isolate for further analysis: sample from cow dung. The isolate was sub-cultured for morphological and biochemical examination. Gram staining, a fundamental microbiological technique, was used to characterise the bacterial composition of the isolate. The cow dung isolate was identified as cocci, or spherical-shaped bacteria. This exercise allowed students to observe the distinct microbial growth patterns and cellular morphology associated with different environmental sources (Prescott et al., 2005). In addition to morphology, the

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generation time for isolate 1 was calculated using growth curve data, giving students insights into bacterial replication rates. This experience emphasised the importance of Gram staining in differentiating bacterial types and reinforced the concept that environmental conditions influence microbial diversity and growth rates (Tortora et al., 2018). The generation times calculated from the OD measurements was 72.7 minutes (Figure 5).

Figure 4. Gram staining and growth analysis of selected bacterial isolate from hand samples

Responses to reflective writing exercise: For each reflective question (Q1–Q5), one student response has been highlighted as an example. A summary of all student responses follows these individual examples.

Q1. Analyse the possible factors contributing to variations in bacterial abundance and diversity across different sample types. How do these findings compare with your initial expectations or hypotheses?

Response by Mukunda – 'I think the differences in bacterial abundance occurred because each sample provided different conditions for bacterial growth. For example, the 'air exposure outdoor' sample had more colony-forming units (CFUs) compared to the 'air exposure indoor' sample, likely because the outdoor environment offered more favourable conditions for bacterial growth.'

Q2. Based on your current results, predict the bacterial abundance and diversity you might observe on other commonly used surfaces such as a kitchen sink, doorknob, restroom floor, or road. Justify your predictions using evidence from your data.

Response by Harshitha – 'Kitchen sink – Different bacteria grew, likely from food and water. 2) Doorknob – Lots of bacteria, since many people touch it. Who knows what else they've touched? 3) Restroom floor – Not much bacteria, maybe because it's cleaned often. 4) Road – Covered in all kinds of bacteria from being outside.'

Q3. Explain the factors that lead to variations in generation time: (a) Among different microbial species (b) Within a single species.

Response by Surabhi – '(a) Some of them might need some time to generate or less time because of their adaptations. (b) Probably the outer environment effects this case.'

Q4. Explain the scientific rationale behind using 600 nm as the standard wavelength for measuring bacterial turbidity in a culture medium. How does this choice impact data reliability?

Response by Bhargava – 'Anything other than 600nm may kill the bacteria due to harmful UV or IR rays. Hence, we use 600nm.'

Q5. If aseptic technique was compromised during sampling at the 2-hour mark, predict the potential consequences on the optical density measurements in subsequent time points. How might this affect the interpretation of your bacterial growth curve?

Response by Bhargava – 'The tubes containing the bacteria may be contaminated and that may result in a different reading.'

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After completing Exercise one, students observed the omnipresence of microorganisms and noted significant variations in microbial abundance across different environments. Organic-rich environments such as cow dung, roots and leaves had the highest microbial counts, indicating their support for dense microbial populations. In contrast, samples from indoor air and cough exhibited lower microbial loads, suggesting more sterile or controlled conditions. Human-associated samples, including hands, teeth and a computer mouse, displayed variable contamination levels, emphasising the importance of proper hygiene practices to prevent bacterial spread (Prescott et al., 2005; Tortora et al., 2018).

Significant coliform counts on frequently touched surfaces, such as the computer mouse and hands, underscored the need for regular cleaning and hygiene in minimising contamination. Students also observed diverse colony morphologies in samples from leaves, roots and soil, attributing these variations to microbial adaptation through spore formation and pigmentation, which helps microorganisms survive in their specific niches (Madigan et al., 2017). Yeast and mould counts were notably higher in moist environments compared to dry ones, illustrating the influence of moisture and nutrient availability on microbial growth (Willey et al., 2017). Control samples showed no microbial growth, validating the accuracy of the experimental setup and reinforcing the importance of aseptic techniques. Students also noted that bacterial abundance and diversity were influenced by environmental factors and surface cleanliness, aligning with their predictions. This exercise provided valuable insights into bacterial growth phases, microbial classification and laboratory practices, enhancing students’ understanding of key microbiological concepts.

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About the Authors Dr. Krishna Bayineni, Senior Researcher at Prayoga, specialises in microbiology, biotechnology, and science education, mentoring high school students in innovative, publishable research projects.

Ms. Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy, Research Associate at Prayoga, specialises in biotechnology, therapeutics, and exosome research, holding advanced degrees from Monash University and Dayananda Sagar University.

Funding and Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support and laboratory facilities provided by the Prayoga Institute of Education Research Trust, which were essential for the success of this work. They also extend their gratitude to Mr. Vallish Herur (Samvida School Management) for encouraging the students to participate, fostering a valuable learning experience.

Attachments 1 Lab Safety Dos and Don’ts 2 I ntroduction: Microbial groth, diversity and applications 3 P art 1: Isolation and test for total coliform, bacterial and fungal count 4 Reflective writing exercise

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Bourner, J., Hughes, M., & Bourner, T. (2001).

First-year undergraduate experiences of group project work. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 26(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930020022264 Bowling, K. G., Klisch, Y., Wang, S., & Beier, M. (2013). Examining an online microbiology game as an effective tool for teaching the scientific process. Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education, 14(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v14i1.505 Crispim, J. S., Vaz, M. G. M. V., Pereira, K. F., Da Silva, J. D., Da Silva Duarte, V., Sanches, N. M., Mantovani, H. C., Santos, M. T. D., Peluzio, L. E., Santos, J. K. D., & De Paula, S. O. (2020). Teaching-learning: a mutual exchange between high school and graduate students in the field of microbiology. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 368(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/femsle/fnaa199 Duncan, D. B., Lubman, A., & Hoskins, S. G. (2011). Introductory Biology Textbooks Under-Represent Scientific Process. Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education, 12(2), 143–151. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v12i2.307 Handelsman, J., Ebert-May, D., Beichner, R., Bruns, P., Chang, A., DeHaan, R., Gentile, J., Lauffer, S., Stewart, J., Tilghman, S. M., & Wood, W. B. (2004). Education. Scientific teaching.

Science (New York, N.Y.), 304(5670), 521–522. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1096022

Jones, M. G., & Rua, M. J. (2006). Conceptions of Germs: Expert to Novice Understandings of Microorganisms. The Electronic Journal of Science Education. https://www. semanticscholar.org/paper/Conceptions-ofGerms%3A-Expert-to-Novice-of-Jones-Rua/8f8 0ef7b9c98da56987ca06ae749386625803e22 Kokotsaki, D., Menzies, V., & Wiggins, A. (2016). Project-based learning: A review of the literature. Improving Schools, 19(3), 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/1365480216659733 Lago, A., Masiero, S., Bellio, M., Piva, E., Schumann, S., Irato, P., & Santovito, G. (2022). Bacteria And Yeasts In Primary School: A Laboratory Approach To The Study Of Microbiology And Biotechnologies.

IJAEDU- International E-Journal of Advances in Education, 163–171. https://doi.org/10.18768/ijaedu.1067951 Lloyd, M. L., & Berry, J. A. (2022). Improving public understanding of microorganisms by integrating microbiology concepts into science teaching throughout the education system.

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Pedrinaci, E., Alcalde, S., Alfaro García, P., Almodóvar, G. R., Barrera, J. L., Belmonte, Á., Brusi, D., Calonge, A., Cardona, V., Crespo Blanc, A., Feixas, J. C., Fernández Martínez, E. M., González-Díez, A., Jiménez Millán, J., López Ruiz, J., Mata Perelló, J. M., Pascual, J. A., Quintanilla, L., Rábano, I., … Roquero, E. (2013).

Alfabetización en Ciencias de la Tierra. http://rua.ua.es/dspace/handle/10045/35320

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by Judging and Discussing the Work of Other Learners. Interdisciplinary Education and Psychology, 1(1), 1–17. https://doi. org/10.31532/InterdiscipEducPsychol.1.1.007

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Waites, M. J., Morgan, N. L., Rockey, J. S., & Higton, G. (2001). Industrial Microbiology: An Introduction.

Willey, J. M., Sherwood, L. M., & Woolverton, C. J. (2017). Prescott’s Microbiology (10th ed.).

McGraw-Hill.

Yoshihiro, T., Suzuki, Y., & Matsuzawa, Y. (2017). Development of rubrics for evaluating experimental skills in science education.

Journal of Science Education Research, 45(2), 112-125.

Most Valuable Paper 2024 Influence of CASE (Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education) on Student Achievement and Pedagogical Practice – A Longitudinal Study by Dr Siew Fong Yap Vol. 70.1, p.18-32 Dr Siew Fong Yap (Ph D Science Education, FRSB) is the Head of Science of Kingsway Christian College, Perth, Western Australia. She is also a sessional teaching and research academic of Curtin University and an honorary teaching fellow of University of Western Australia.

Runners-up How Science is Built by Human Endeavour: A Taxonomic Example by Leonie J. Rennie Vol. 70.2 p. 20-29

Thermal Cameras in the Primary Classroom by Helen Georgiou Vol. 70.1, p. 12-16

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Book review

A periodic tale: my sciencey memoir: Dr Karl Kruszelnicki Written by: Dr Karl Kruszelnicki Published By: ABC Books Citation: Kruszelnicki, K. (2024). A periodic tale: my sciencey memoir: Dr Karl Kruszelnicki’. ABC Books.

Review by W. P. Palmer

This is an extensive autobiography (421 pages long) by a popular media scientist, Dr Karl Kruszelnicki. It is very readable, almost addictive, so I really enjoyed reading this book. Nonetheless, there are shortcomings, particularly its excessive length, and its tendency to repeat information.

The book starts with a brief account of his parents’ lives as Holocaust survivors and how his family ended up coming to Australia, rather than America, through a strange twist

of fate. His father got a job with the Water Board in Wollongong, firstly as a labourer, but was eventually promoted to the personnel branch due to his ability with languages.

Karl had a lonely, but uneventful time at school, though some of the stories he tells give food for thought. His father’s influence got him a job with the Water Board digging ditches which toughened him up. However, he obtained a Commonwealth scholarship to study at university and decided to do a course in physics, chemistry, mathematics and psychology at the University of NSW campus in Wollongong. Although he spent much of his time dabbling in left wing university politics, he obtained his science degree in 1967 and took a job at the Port Kembla steel works measuring the fatigue limits of various steels. It appears that his boss tried to make him change the results that he had obtained in his testing, and he resigned.

A feature of this book is that mixed in with the overall story there are grey shaded-in areas of one or more pages of text which take the place of footnotes. Generally, these pages clarify difficult topics with clear and helpful explanations. However, I believe the explanation given by the author for the production of steel from iron ore is technically incorrect. The steel-making story (pp. 84-88) attempts to simplify a complex set of chemical changes. The bald statement “We start off

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with iron ore which is FeO” (p. 85) is wrong, because FeO is thermodynamically unstable below 575 °C, and tends to disproportionate to iron metal and Fe3O4.

In addition to his scientific post, he also worked as a film maker, a roadie for a rock 'n 'roll band, a taxi driver, while learning mechanical and electronic skills; surprisingly each of the skills he learned in these informal settings enabled him to succeed later in life. He obtained a position as a tutor at the Lae Institute of Higher Technical Education in Papua New Guinea, teaching physics. His stories of how he taught the difference between static and dynamic friction to students individually, accelerating, decelerating, and doing wheelies in his own Land Rover, show that even then he was a gifted teacher. He enjoyed his time in New Guinea, but he had trouble with his boss who wanted him to do the research that his boss needed for his own PhD. He also started his long-term drug usage with marijuana at that time. He resigned from his position in PNG and obtained a scholarship at the film and television school (F.T.S) in Sydney. He calls this period of his life ‘his drug crazed hippie years’ covering the period 1971 to 1975, where he had numerous jobs; his main income was from driving a taxi, whilst he kept his costs low by living in a ‘squat’.

In 1976 after pressure from his parents, he applied for and obtained a position of scientific officer at a Sydney hospital. This job gave him a new start, and in early 1978, he started a master’s degree in biomedical engineering at the University of NSW, resigning his position at the hospital.

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Halfway through his course, he was introduced to Professor Fred Hollows, who wanted a student who would build him an electroretinograph (ERG). Karl accepted the challenge, received a scholarship and travelled to the United States of America to learn more about detecting electrical signals from the human retina. With assistance from a friend (Jackie) and amazing good fortune, he completed the ERG machine and obtained his master’s degree. In 1981, he decided to start a degree in medicine despite several wonderful offers to continue his work in visual electro-neurophysiology. Most of his fellow students, studying medicine, were straight from school; his parents and friends thought that the decision was crazy. However, in his first year, he fell in love with his future wife, Mary. He applied for a job with NASA, which led to his presenting three-minute radio programmes for 2JJJ entitled ‘Great moments in science’ which in due course became his first book so his career included work as a radio presenter, a TV weatherman, a journalist and an author. He qualified as a ‘real’ medical doctor in 1986. In 1989, he became a resident at the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children in Camden, NSW; he says that being a doctor at the kids’ hospital was ‘the most satisfying job of my entire life’. He was appointed as the Julius Sumner Miller Fellow at the University of Sydney whilst continuing to publicise science in many different ways. His autobiography was written, prior to his retirement, so his career may contain still more twists and turns.

The book, ‘A periodic tale: my science memoir: Dr Karl Kruszelnicki’ is recommended as an entertaining read which may well inspire students into a career in science.

Inquiry Innovation Ingenuity Your journey to the ASTA iCubed Science Awards starts here.

Now is a good time to start thinking about entering into your local Science Teacher Association Science fairs and competitions. Contact your local Science Teachers Association for more information about different categories and guidelines. The best student projects in each state and territory are selected to compete in the national ASTA iCubed Awards.

To find out about your local science competition: asta.edu.au/student-science-competitions

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AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION

ASTA Executive Committee President Margaret Shepherd Science Education Consultant NSW

President Elect Paula Taylor Department of Education ACT

Treasurer Anthea Ponte Department for Education South Australia

Member Associations Science Teachers Association of Northern Territory (STANT)

Science Teachers Association of Tasmania (STA) President: Bronwen Baume-Tarrant info@stat.org.au www.stat.org.au

Science Teachers Association of NSW (STANSW)

President: Amy Ayres PO Box 699,Lidcombe NSW 1825 Tel: 02 9763 2751 office@stansw.asn.au www.stansw.asn.au

South Australian Science Teachers Association (SASTA) President: Dina Matheson 249 Henley Beach Rd Torrensville SA 5031 Tel: 08 8354 0006 office@sasta.asn.au www.sasta.asn.au

Science Educators Association of ACT (SEAACT) President: Paula Taylor PO Box 1205, Canberra ACT 2601 Tel: 0421 874 809 council@seaact.act.edu.au www.seaact.act.edu.au

Science Teachers Association of Western Australia (STAWA) President: Geoff Quinton PO Box 7310, Karawara WA 6152 Tel: 08 9244 1987 admin@stawa.net www.stawa.net

Science Teachers Association of Victoria (STAV) President: Alexandra Abela PO Box 109, Coburg VIC 3058 Tel: 03 9385 3999 stav@stav.vic.edu.au www.stav.org.au

Science Teachers Association of Queensland (STAQ) President: Mary Rafter C/O School of Education, UQ St Lucia QLD 4072 Tel: 0490 950 249 staq@staq.qld.edu.au www.staq.qld.edu.au

President: Justine Small PO Box 1168, Nightcliff NT 0814 Tel: 08 8944 9324 Fax: 08 8922 2181 stanorthernterritory@gmail.com www.ptant.org.au/stant

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