Incorporating individual, collective and planetary wellbeing into primary scientific inquiry: A perspective from two teacher educators
Exploring the science and deep human history of Bass Strait and its land bridge
A comparative study of science animation repositories for teachers
The Journal of the Australian Science Teachers Association
AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION
Teaching Science is a quarterly journal published by the Australian Science Teachers Association. This journal aims to promote the teaching of science in all Australian schools, with a focus on classroom practice. It acts as a means of communication between teachers, consultants and other science educators across Australia. Opinions expressed in this publication are those of the various authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Australian Science Teachers Association or the editorial advisory committee.
Academic contributions to Teaching Science are peer reviewed.
Contents indexed in Australian Education Index (ACER) and Current Index to Journals in Education (ERIC).
Unattributed images supplied by ASTA or from Adobe Stock.
Editor John Glistak
Editorial Advisory Committee
As/Prof. Christine Preston, The University of Sydney, NSW
Dr. Joe Ferguson, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC
Prof. Ange Fitzgerald, RMIT University, VIC
Sonia Hueppauff, Just Think Cognition, WA
As/Prof. Rekha Koul, Curtin University, WA
As/Prof. Kieran Lim, Deakin University, VIC
As/Prof. Reece Mills, QUT, QLD
Geoff Quinton, Pearson Australia
Richard Rennie, Fremantle Light and Sound Discovery Centre, WA
Dr. Emily Rochette, The University of Melbourne, VIC
Julie-Anne Smith, Eye for Detail, WA
Dr. Emma Stevenson, The University of Melbourne, VIC
Dr. Fiona Trapani, St Columba’s College, VIC
Prof. Russell Tytler, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC
As/Prof. Dr Peta White, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC
2 From the President
Margaret Shepherd
5 From the Editor
John Glistak
7 News from the State Science Teachers Associations
16 Incorporating individual, collective and planetary wellbeing into primary scientific inquiry: A perspective from two teacher educators
Dr Amy Strachan & Marnie Corcoran
22 Exploring the science and deep human history of Bass Strait and its land bridge
Lucinda Horrocks
30 A comparative study of science animation repositories for teachers
Dr Louise Puslednik, Dr Renee Morrison, Dr Yufei He, Professor Len Unsworth, Professor Theo van Leeuwen, Dr Yaegan Doran
46 The Great Australian Science Book Book review by W. P. Palmer.
Front cover image: The humpback whale is one of the largest animals on earth. Humpbacks migrate through the Bass Strait in winter seeking warmer waters to breed. Photograph by NOAA.
Below: An Australian fur seal pops its head out of the water. Australian fur seals mostly breed on the islands and coasts of the Bass Strait and are a common sight throughout the region. Photograph by Ed Dunens.
Both images are from the article on page 22 presenting a new digital exhibition called ‘The Land Bridge’ (thelandbridge.au).
From
the President
Margaret Shepherd
As we move through another productive year at ASTA, I am pleased to report on the recent progress of the Association and share some of the exciting developments ahead. Each of our Member Association have been powering ahead supporting science teachers around Australia with quality professional learning.
We are eagerly anticipating ConASTA 72, which will take place in Perth this July. This national conference remains a cornerstone event for our community—bringing together science educators from across Australia to exchange ideas, share best practices, and reignite our shared passion for teaching science. With a program that promises inspiring keynote speakers, practical workshops, and opportunities to collaborate with colleagues, I encourage all members to take part in what will be an enriching and rewarding experience.
In addition to our preparations for ConASTA, the ASTA Board has recently established a series of working committees to guide our work across several key areas. These committees are designed to tackle complex and emerging topics that shape science education today, and they draw on the expertise and experience of educators from across our membership. This is an important step in ensuring that ASTA continues to provide clear leadership, strategic direction, and practical support to science teachers nationwide.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the ongoing discussions within our profession regarding the most effective approaches to science education—particularly the unfortunate binary around explicit instruction versus enquiry-based learning. Both methods have their merits and place in the classroom, as do many others, and I wish to clearly express my support for the value of inquiry-based learning. Teaching science is about selecting the most appropriate strategy for the learning context of the time. Every teacher has a toolkit from which they select a strategy for their students. Encouraging students to ask questions, investigate, and develop critical thinking skills is central to cultivating a deep and lasting understanding of science. At ASTA, we remain committed to supporting approaches that empower students to think scientifically, explore ideas, and engage with the world around them. Stay tuned for an ASTA position paper coming soon.
Thank you to all of our members and partners for your continued dedication and contribution to science education. I look forward to working with many of you in the months ahead and to seeing you in Perth in July.
Margaret Shepherd President, Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA)
2025 National Science Week Schools Resource Book
Prepare to embark on a journey of discovery with National Science Week 2025! This year’s theme is “Decoding the Universe – Exploring the unknown with nature’s hidden language.”
This theme invites students and teachers across Australia to explore fundamental languages of nature, including mathematics and the groundbreaking field of quantum science.
It is aligned with the 2025 United Nations International Year of Quantum Science and Technology and Australia’s role as host of the 2025 International Mathematical Olympiad.
To support educators, we’ve developed the 2025 National Science Week Schools Resource Book—a comprehensive guide filled with hands-on activities, experiments, and curriculum-aligned content.
Download your free copy and inspire your students to decode the mysteries of our universe!
DECODINGUNIVERSE
Scan the QR code for free downloads:
• Resource Book of Ideas
• Poster
• Quantum Student Journal
the unknown with nature’s hidden language
Exploring the unknown with nature’s hidden language
Now is a good time to start thinking about entering into your local Science Teacher Association Science fairs and competitions. Contact your local Science Teachers Association for more information about different categories and guidelines. The best student projects in each state and territory are selected to compete in the national ASTA iCubed Awards.
To find out about your local science competition: asta.edu.au/student-science-competitions
From the Editor John Glistak
Welcome to Issue 71.2 of Teaching Science.
Three papers are featured in this issue.
Science knowledge is deeply intertwined with human values, ethics and societal needs. While science is often perceived as value-neutral, Amy Strachan and Marnie Corcoran argue that the intertwined nature of science and values can be modelled from the early stages of education. They share examples of how individual, collective, and planetary values can shape the scientific questions posed in our classrooms, guide the approaches to inquiry, influence how evidence is interpreted and used, and ultimately affect how science itself is understood and practiced. Based on their reflections and experiences with pre-service teachers, their paper invites educators to consider how their school and community values can frame science inquiry, promoting individual, collective and planetary wellbeing through fostering meaningful, engaging and impactful science learning experiences.
Lucinda Horrocks is a producer of digital content and documentary stories. She is not a scientist but is fascinated by science and the ways scientists gather knowledge. They add richness and insight to our understanding of the world. It’s a valuable pursuit and well worth teaching.
She has recently finished working on a new digital exhibition The Land Bridge (https://thelandbridge.au/) which brings together scientific knowledge and First Nations approaches to knowledge to tell the story of Bass Strait when it was a vast grassy plain people walked across and lived on.
Science animations, simulations, interactives, and games represent a powerful teaching resource. Recent research suggests Australian teachers can spend substantial time looking for and evaluating science animations, some even searching for these resources every week. In their paper, Dr Louise Puseldink and her fellow co-authors reviewed and compared five user-friendly animation repositories that are available to Australian K-12 science teachers (Scootle, Inquisitive, STILE, Phet Interactive Simulations, and Arludo). A range of characteristics were compared across the repositories including discipline and year level coverage, curriculum links, type of animations, level of interactivity, presence of built in questions, assessment applications, potential teaching approaches and cost. Results show four of the five repositories are linked to the Australian and state curriculums. All science disciplines are represented across the five repositories, including animations addressing science skills. Whilst a range of animations were observed with varying degrees of interactivity, most animations had a high level of interactivity, thereby allowing teachers to plan for student-centred, inquiry-based science lessons. Their comparative study will allow teachers to quickly compare the features and disciplines of animation repositories and potentially decrease their searching time.
In closing, have you considered submitting a paper to Teaching Science? If not, your potential contribution will be most welcome.
John
News
from our State Associations
The Metacognition Workshops are back for 2025
These workshops aim to help secondary science teachers enhance students' scientific inquiry skills and promote self-regulation in learning. The program combines a full-day in-person workshop with online follow-up coaching. Topics include the importance of metacognition, modelling effective questioning, using planning-monitoring-evaluation cycles, and employing metacognitive language and worked examples. More information available at: Upcoming STAV Events
2024 Metacognition Workshops feedback
“Going beyond the surface of metacognition to what it looks like in practice in science classrooms"
“Evidence based practices that can be applied in the classroom – translating theory into practice”
“Great take home strategies and resources”
“One of the best PDs I’ve ever been to –practical examples for immediate use in the classroom.”
“A great approach for building student agency –particularly in scientific investigations”
“Appreciated the opportunities for collaboration and built-in time to plan for implementation”
“Insightful takeaways for my leadership role –perfect timing as we start to roll out Victorian Curriculum 2.0 in science at our school”
“Invaluable insights had me reflecting deeply on building metacognition in my teaching”
News from our State Associations
Target audience: All Science Teachers/Lab Technicians nationally and locally (in WA).
We are inviting all Science teachers to come along to ConASTA 72, happening from 7-10 July 2025 at the Pan Pacific Perth.
The ConASTA 72 theme ‘Eyes to the Future’ has been chosen to inspire all educators through opportunities to engage with the latest in science and education research, and innovation with a focus on a future world its emerging industries and careers.
This event will contain four days of engaging and practical science education learning from July 7th – 10th. The conference is based at the Pan Pacific Hotel in Perth with one day for offsite excursions and workshops. Teachers from all states and territories will be joining us to learn and network all things science education and we would love to see as many WA teachers there as possible.
You may have the option to attend the full four days of the conference or opt to go to one or a few days, whichever works for you.
No relief is required as it is held in the holidays to enable teachers from other states to attend. The next time it will be held in WA will be in about 8 years so make sure you get there!
Celebrate the successes of Australian and Western Australian science and explore the vital role of science and science education in our future.
Registration link for the conference can be found here: https://bit.ly/3GIvqsA
Registration closes on Monday 30 June 2025.
News from our State Associations
STEMXX Sisters: A STEM Event for Girls (Southwest WA Event)
Target audience: Female students in Years 5-9 based in Southwest WA (Bunbury and surrounds)
We are inviting all female students in Years 5-9 based in Southwest WA to come along to the STEMXX Sisters: A STEM Event for Girls happening on Saturday, 30th August 2025 from 8:30 am - 3:30 pm at Bunbury Catholic College.
This is a free event suitable for students who will get a chance to:
- meet with female scientists and STEM professionals from industry and research facilities.
- engage in workshops with hands-on STEM experience
- connect with other students who have attended STEM events locally and nationally
Expressions of interest to attend the event is now open. Please follow the link here for the flyer and more information about the event: https://www.stawa.net/eventdetails/30981/ stemxx-sisters-a-stem-event-for-girls
ScienceIQ Competition
Target audience: All schools in Australia (not just in WA)
The ScienceIQ Competition is an online, teambased science resource for teachers to add to their arsenal of science learning and teaching resources.
The quiz encourages students to bond and work together as a team while having fun learning science.
This competition is also open to schools in the eastern states.
More info about ScienceIQ (including key dates) and link to team registration can be found here: https://www.stawa.net/student-activities/ scienceiq/
STANSW K-10 Conference Igniting Scientific Skills, 23 June
This conference is designed for K-10 science educators to develop the skills of Working, Thinking and Questioning Scientifically. It unites educators, curriculum developers, and industry experts to enhance students’ scientific skills collaboratively across Stages 1 to 5, creating a skills progression for students in the new NESA syllabuses. Read more about the program and register here: https://stansw.asn.au/ event/2025-stansw-k-10-conference-ignitingscientific-skills/
Young Scientist 2025
STANSW's Young Scientist Program encourages students to undertake innovative projects and investigations to find creative solutions to real-world problems. 2025 submissions are opening soon. Teachers and parents are encouraged to submit students' science projects to https://youngscientist.au/
STANSW Secondary Science Teachers Conference 7-12
Change Agents Inspiring Science Education (CAiSE), 11 August
Held during National Science Week, this dynamic one-day event is designed to invigorate science educators' teaching and connect educators with a passionate community of professionals. Workshops will explore the latest developments in the NSW Science Syllabus, delve into innovative pedagogical approaches, and provide practical strategies to take back to the classroom. Read more and register here: https://stansw.asn. au/event/2025-stansw-secondary-scienceteachers-conference-7-12/
Call for Workshop Presenters — SASTA 2025 Early Career Science Teachers Conference
We’re inviting passionate educators and leaders to share their expertise at the 2025 Early Career Science Teachers Conference, taking place on Friday, 10th October at Nazareth College. This one-day event provides early career teachers with the chance to build connections, reflect on their practice, and engage in meaningful professional learning. Workshops can focus on teacher wellbeing, unpacking the curriculum, STEM and inquirybased learning, assessment strategies, and more. Help shape the next generation of science educators — submit your workshop proposal today! https://www.sasta.asn.au/ professional_learning/early_career_teachers_ conference News from our State Associations
Mary Anning Art Prize Entries open on Wednesday 21 May!
Get ready to inspire creativity and curiosity in your students! The Mary Anning Art Prize, celebrating the intersection of science and art, opens for entries on 21 May. Named after the pioneering fossil hunter, this competition encourages students to explore the natural world through artistic expression, highlighting the importance of observation and scientific thinking. It’s a wonderful opportunity to showcase creative talent and scientific engagement — visit the SASTA website for entry details and let your students’ imaginations dig deep! https://www.sasta.asn. au/student_activities/mary-anning-art-prize
News from our State Associations
St James’ College, Spring Hill with Figjam catering Dr Harry Kanasa: Examining indigenous knowledge structures and world views through seasonal calendar
Friday, 5th September Pupil free day
Presentations for Primary & Middle Schooling plus Yarning session
Keynote speaker Dr Katrina Wruck ‘Young Australian of the Year’ Postdoctoral Research Fellow School of Chemistry and Physics, QUT
Visit https://www.staq.qld.edu.au/pd-events/professionaldevelopment/ for registration and the program
News from our State Associations
Calling all young scientists!
The 2025 Handbook is now available to download and registration is also open to pay and upload projects.
Payment and project uploads must be completed by 4th September 2025. Please note new prices and earlier dates than usual.
Award recipients' Teachers will be notified early in term 4 about the award ceremony.
SEAACT is pleased to partner with the Australian Institute of Physics to celebrate the International Year of Quantum by hosting a 'Quantum in the Pub' event.
This event is free for all participants to enjoy a panel of special guests and quantum celebrities who will explain how quantum will impact and transform a range of STEM fields.
Sunday, 29 June at Smith's Alternative, Canberra from 7-9 PM.
Visit seaact.act.edu.au to learn more.
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The Science Educators' Association of the ACT is pleased to announce that the Science and Engineering Fair is now open for all students in the ACT from P to 12 to work on their independent scientific research projects. Visit our website to learn more about the fair and how to get started. seaact.act.edu.au
Incorporating individual, collective and planetary wellbeing into primary scientific inquiry: A perspective from two teacher educators
Dr Amy Strachan
Lecturer in Curriculum and Pedagogy, University of the Sunshine Coast
Marnie Corcoran
Teacher Education Tutor and MA student, University of the Sunshine Coast
Amy and Marnie outline how scientific inquiry in primary schools can be framed by values, promoting a more planetary-conscious approach to science learning.
Science knowledge is deeply intertwined with human values, ethics and societal needs. Hill (2024) highlights that values inform our aspirations, relationships and ultimately how we see the world, forming the foundation of wellbeing (individual and planetary). While science is often perceived as value-neutral (Douglas, 2021), we argue that the intertwined nature of science and values can be modelled from the early stages of education. We share examples of how individual, collective, and planetary values can shape the scientific questions posed in our classrooms, guide the
approaches to inquiry, influence how evidence is interpreted and used and ultimately affect how science itself is understood and practiced. By championing science learning which is underpinned by values related to caring for each other and caring for the planet, we can lay strong foundations for individual and planetary wellbeing. This, we argue, is fundamental for learners in the context of unfolding global crises (IPCC, 2021).
Based on our reflections and experiences with pre-service teachers, this paper invites educators to consider how their school and community values can frame science inquiry, promoting individual, collective and planetary wellbeing through fostering meaningful, engaging and impactful science learning experiences.
Starting with core values of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
Beginning with a school’s values along with the core values of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples (NHMRC, 2018), respect, responsibility, equity, cultural continuity and spirit and integrity, science learning can be established as an endeavour not just for human gain, but for a more equitable and healthier planet (see figure 1). Integrating local values, such as the Butchella Lores (what is good for the land must come first, do not take or touch anything that does not belong to you, and if you have plenty you must share) have been integrated successfully into science learning experiences.
Core value
Spirit and integrity
(bringing the values together)
An interpretation in relation to science learning
Guiding questions for planning and students
Ensuring that scientific inquiry is conducted in a respectful, honest and culturally sensitive way.
Cultural continuity
Equity
Reciprocity
Respect
Responsibility
Scientific inquiry can play a role in promoting cultural continuity by integrating Indigenous knowledge systems and cultural practices into modern approaches to inquiry.
A commitment to science learning which starts with the inclusion of diverse perspectives, cultural backgrounds and lived experiences.
Emphasising the mutual, interconnected relationships between humans and the natural world.
Ensuring trust, openness and engagement of participating individuals during scientific inquiry.
Promoting opportunities for collaborative scientific inquiry to be responsible for all members of the group, to be responsible for the resources used and for the wider environment.
How can science inquiry draw upon Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledges and cultural heritage? How can we conduct scientific inquiry with local communities / recognising place-based knowledge?
How can we ensure that science inquiry connects to our learners and their local environment?
How can scientific investigations be beneficial to our community and to the natural environment?
What can we learn from different perspectives?
Have all members of our group been part of the decisionmaking process? Do our scientific questions take into consideration the needs of different people and nature?
By nature, children use scientific method to make sense of their surroundings (Bjerknes et al, 2023). While our education systems do not measure how well a teacher promotes curiosity or wonder (Post and van der Molen, 2018) - instead measuring what has been learned from a lesson - nurturing space and opportunities for students to ask their own questions can promote empathy, imagination and love for the natural world. Nurturing curiosity in scientific inquiry can be supported through guiding young people to explore, test and solve problems in local contexts. This does not mean ignoring the important principles of effective teaching (e.g. Australian Professional Standards for teacher, or the Quality teaching model), but it invites teachers to incorporate relevant, student-centred questions that foster meaningful scientific educational experiences that are responsive to individual, local and global interests.
Aligning with the nature of science in the Version 9 curriculum (ACARA, 2023), inquirybased teaching aims to encourage students to embrace curiosity, creativity, accuracy, objectivity, perseverance, and scepticism, often referred to as epistemic values, e.g. Douglas (2014). While these are foundational to scientific inquiry, drawing on local and school values allows for more inclusive, ethical and relevant forms of inquiry. For example, drawing on the core Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander values outlined above, which emphasises the interconnectedness of people and nature, scientific inquiry from an early age can support social justice and sustainability in the learners’ communities. This idea is supported by Archer et al (2015) framing scientific phenomena within meaningful value-based contexts. Ultimately, inquiry-based learning (defined as active learning through questioning, investigating and problem-solving, e.g. Macdonald, 2016) can support students to understand that the scientific questions we ask, and the ways we interpret evidence, are underpinned by our experiences, interests and what we care about and how we view the world.
By putting individual, collective and planetary values at the centre of science learning, the experiences, pedagogies and teaching practices we enact, and the scientific inquiry we facilitate can promote behaviour change, ultimately supporting individual wellbeing and the wellbeing of the planet. While there is a continuum of inquiry openness, and the teacher's responsibility includes encouraging rich contexts which enable collaborative thinking, facilitate dialogic exchanges, and nurture the creative and critical capabilities (as outlined in the Australian Curriculum's general capabilities). Primary science, therefore, provides the perfect platform for inquirybased learning which allows learners to conduct more authentic inquiry about and for the world around them.
Promoting planetary conscious values through scientific inquiry
Sustainability is a cross-curricular priority of the Australian Curriculum (ACARA, 2023). In 2022, IPCC confirmed that human activity has led to average global temperatures increasing, resulting in rising sea levels, volatile weather events and degradation of our ecosystem. As a global priority, it is more important to foreground sustainability understanding and action within our curriculum design. It is agreed across international platforms that education plays a fundamental role in tackling the climate crisis, both now and for future generations (Paris agreement, IPCC, FED, 2022). Framing science curriculum design with local and global values can help us understand how climate change and sustainability education can be truly prioritised in the primary science curriculum design and enactment, ensuring that it does not risk becoming a bolt-on or an afterthought.
To move away from the misconception that all scientific inquiry follows a traditional method (often characterised by fair testing and Predict Observe Explain), promoting and facilitating a variety of inquiry approaches can offer an opportunity to underpin scientific thinking with the local and global values outlined above. Influenced by the science curriculum in England (DfE, 2014) the following inquiry types (pattern-seeking, fair testing, comparative testing, secondary research, observation over
time and grouping and classification) will be used to explore how scientific inquiry can be underpinned by global values.
Identifying, grouping and classifying (Equity, reciprocity and respect)
This type of inquiry allows learners to understand how we can celebrate diversity and understand its’ importance for a healthy planet. It allows us to group and identify things through the process of using differences. Using observational and recording skills, our learners can begin to value and appreciate the importance of variation.
Biodiversity is our strongest natural defence against climate change. Diverse ecosystems are more resilient to climate stresses (Weiskopf et al, 2020), and healthy ecosystems help to regulate local and global climates. Acknowledging and respecting diversity in our own species is also important to promote equity and social justice.
Examples of age-appropriate questions for planetary-conscious identifying and classifying:
• What types of flowers can we plant in our school garden to attract native bees?
• Why do invertebrates have different numbers of legs?
• What types of materials can we find in our local area?
• What are the methods used by Indigenous Australians to classify different types of ochre and how are these classifications significant in art and ceremony?
Comparative / fair-testing (Respect)
Fair test questions allow us to explore the causal relationship between two variables. Comparative testing allows students to compare one event with another. They provide students with the opportunity to recognise that one thing influences another, allow them to explore different variables, and measure or observe the impacts. This is the first opportunity that learners understand cause and effect, which underpins
a deeper understanding of relationships and interdependence. This inquiry type can provide opportunity for learners to negotiate and choose the variables they are most interested in testing.
Examples of questions for planetary-conscious comparative and fair testing:
• Which non-plastic material is best for insulating a lunch box?
• Which colour is best at absorbing the sun’s heat?
• Which bird’s wing shape has most air resistance?
Observation over time (Equity and respect)
Observation over time allows students to measure events and changes in a range of phenomena (living things, materials, physical processes and events). By supporting our learners to observe a range of phenomena, they can be supported to make decisions on what and how to observe, making predictions as time passes and patterns emerge. What learners decide to observe, and record can be framed by previous experiences. Ultimately, this provides an opportunity that we all might observe different things and identify different changes.
Examples of questions for planetary-conscious observation over time:
• What happens to a seed when it germinates?
• What happens to our chosen school tree over the year?
• What happens in a playground across a day?
• What impacts does the weather have on a human over a week?
• What signs in the plants and animals show the seasons changing?
Secondary Research (Interdependence and trust)
It is important to highlight that students cannot answer all the questions they have, because of safety, practicality reasons and cognitive complexity (ensuring that progression supports cognitive load). However, understanding how others have gained evidence will support learners to develop a sense of scepticism, especially in the age of artificial intelligence and bias. Secondary research in science helps learners to evaluate different sources of information, distinguish between fact and opinion and recognise conflicting evidence and bias.
Examples of questions for planetary-conscious secondary research:
• How are snakes beneficial to humans?
• Why are spiders poisonous?
• Is there a link between ocean temperatures and coral bleaching?
• How do Indigenous Australians observe and respond to long-term environmental changes, such as drought or flooding, and what adaptations are made?
• How is the observation of the moon phases or star movements used by Indigenous Australians to mark time and plan activities like harvesting or ceremonies?
Responsible scientific inquiry
Ultimately, all forms of scientific inquiry can be framed around 'big questions' or 'local issues' that are grounded in values such as integrity, spirit, reciprocity, respect, equity, and cultural continuity. Recognising the importance of responsibility, we, as teacher educators, believe that a planetary-conscious approach to scientific inquiry can help
cultivate future citizens who are more aware of their duty to one another, to learn from each other, and to ask questions that foster a deeper understanding of their connection to the natural world. Along with the examples outlined above, the science curriculum can provide a platform for conducting planetary conscious inquiry, "How can we increase the biodiversity of our school grounds?" to "How can we create a waste-free school? And “How can our outdoor environment be an extension of our classroom?”
Effective science education is far more than just preparing a pipeline towards developing future scientists. At the heart of effective primary science is to develop every individual’s science literacy, which includes developing their understanding of the nature of science, and their experience of science as a process and a means to understanding, and care for the world around them. In our turbulent and unpredictable world, we argue that supporting individual, collective and planetary wellbeing can be nurtured through promoting valuebased scientific inquiry, ultimately supporting them to make informed decisions about their future and that of the planet.
By the time our learners leave primary education, we want them to have more opportunities to engage with decision-making and higher order thinking (appropriate to their prior experiences and cognitive development) to make sense of evidence and to become critical and creative thinkers. Effective inquiry-based teaching relies on the teacher understanding what makes inquiry effective. This can be achieved by supporting learners to conduct practical inquiry that is relevant, age-appropriate and meaningful. Broadening what counts by celebrating what contemporary planetary-conscious scientists are investigating and how they are investigating in ways that influence our behaviours and our planetary stewardship.
There are both social and philosophical reasons for learning science, both contributing to the development of an ethically responsible, scientifically literate society. Social reasons include accessing rewarding pathways and fulfilling careers, providing individuals with skills that are highly sought after in industries that drive economic growth, such as technology, healthcare and environmental science. Furthermore, a society with a strong foundation in science has citizens who are better equipped to engage with critical issues that affect everyone, such as immunisation, climate change, and sustainability. This understanding fosters informed decisionsmaking, responsible citizenship, and public health awareness. Philosophical reasons include fostering individual’s mindset of inquiry, curiosity and critical thinking. Science encourages people to ask questions, seek evidence and understand the world around them. This intellectual rigor is essential not only for personal growth but also for developing a worldview that values truthseeking and ethical considerations, especially when addressing complex issues with diverse perspectives. By balancing both the social and philosophical aspects of science education through inquiry, we can nurture students who are not only knowledgeable but also capable of critically engaging with the scientific, ethical, and social dimensions of the world.
References
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2023). Australian Curriculum Version 9. Retrieved from https://www.acara.edu.au
Archer, L., Dawson, E., DeWitt, J., Seakins, A., & Wong, B. (2015). Science capital: A conceptual framework for understanding science participation. International Journal of Science Education, 37(14), 2584–2604. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21227
Bjerknes, A. L., Wilhelmsen, T., & Foyn-Bruun, E. (2023). A Systematic Review of Curiosity and Wonder in Natural Science and Early Childhood Education Research. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 38(1), 50–65.
Department for Education (2014) Science Curriculum for England. London: Crown copyright.
Douglas, H. (2016) 'Values in Science', in Paul Humphreys (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Science, Oxford Handbooks (2016; online edn, Oxford Academic, 2 Sept. 2014), https://doi. org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199368815.013. 28, accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
Macdonald, C. (2016) STEM EducationL A review of the contribution of the disciplines of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Science Education Internation. 27 (4) 530 – 569.
Post, T., & van der Molen, J. H. W. (2018). Do children express curiosity at school? Exploring children’s experiences of curiosity inside and outside the school context. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, https:/doi. org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2018.03.005, 60–71.
Exploring the science and deep human history of Bass Strait and its land bridge
Lucinda Horrocks
Digital content and documentary stories producer
Today the Bass Strait is a unique environment filled with colourful and diverse marine life, which has populated the waters since the ice age land bridge was inundated by the sea between about 15,000 years and about 8,000 years ago. Common dolphins are a familiar presence in the Bass Strait, attracted by the abundant food sources. Photograph by Ed Dunens.
A new digital exhibition ‘The Land Bridge’
My name is Lucinda Horrocks and I’m a producer of digital content and documentary stories. I’m not a scientist, but I am fascinated by science and the ways scientists gather knowledge. They add richness and insight to our understanding of the world. It’s a valuable pursuit and well worth teaching.
I’ve just finished working on a new digital exhibition The Land Bridge (thelandbridge.au/) which brings together scientific knowledge and First Nations approaches to knowledge to tell the story of Bass Strait when it was a vast grassy plain people walked across and lived on.
Between about 43,000 and about 14,000 years ago, during the most recent ice age in the late Pleistocene, lower sea levels exposed the shallow Bass Strait seafloor as land. Mainland southeastern Australia became connected to the island of Lutruwita/ Tasmania. (‘Lutruwita’ is the name for Tasmania in Palawa Kani, the language of Tasmania’s First People.)
How the project came about
We were commissioned by Parks Australia, who manage Australia’s Marine Parks, to bring the story of the ancient Bassian Plain alive. The project was paid for by an ‘Our Marine Parks’ grant. We were fortunate that there were few strings attached, the only outcome was that the story we produced had to be a free community education resource, the project had to deal with First Nations Indigenous Cultural Intellectual Property fairly, and it had to raise awareness of the unique cultural values of Australia’s marine environments.
What we ended up producing was a multilayered digital story, which is free to access at thelandbridge.au/. On this website, the tale of the now-submerged land bridge is colourfully told through an introduction, timeline, a half hour documentary and a number of highly readable, image-rich essays authored by different experts, including scientists and traditional knowledge holders. A podcast series is also on the way, and there’s an education resource for Years 7-8 science and humanities teachers.
Image previous page: Some Australian wildlife, such as wombats,easily crossed the Bassian Plain to Lutruwita/Tasmania during the ice age. They live in mainland Australia and can be found in mainland Lutruwita/Tasmania and the islands of Tayaritja/the Furneaux Group. Photograph by Andy Tyler.
At the point of lowest sea-level (around 135 metres below present levels between about 29,000 and 18,000 years ago) the Bassian Plain was an open plain or group of low rises with areas of exposed rock forming low granitic hills
First Nations knowledge and First Peoples’ ongoing spiritual connection to land bridge Country – Palawa of Lutruwita/Tasmania and Bunurong and Gunaikurnai of coastal southeastern Victoria – features in the project. We commissioned Aboriginal filmmakers in Victoria and Lutruwita/Tasmania to record First Nations experts On Country, and these experts feature in the documentary, alongside science experts. The project also shares written and spoken traditional and Aboriginal perspectives of the land bridge as told by First Nations custodians. The First Nations groups we worked with were incredibly generous in what they shared with us.
Science also features heavily in the project. Scientists from around Australia contributed to the web site, providing approachable insights into geomorphology, the seafloor, marine biology, plants, wildlife, palaeoecology, fossils, archaeology and environmental history. The scientists were great to work with. They told us excellent stories, about what it was like using robot underwater vehicles, or which extinct megafauna roamed the Bassian Plain. They brought the ancient land bridge to life and let us glimpse the colourful, unique marine environment it is today.
There’s also a shipwreck story, about the famous ‘Sydney Cove’, told by popular history author Adam Courtenay.
The project drew on research by the Australian Research Council Centre for Excellence in Australian Biodiversity and Heritage (CABAH), the Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS), Geoscience Australia (GA) and other scientific organisations.
Education resources for science teachers
We put a lot of time into developing education resources which would make it easy for teachers to bring the Bassian Plain into the classroom. The resources contain ready-to-go classroom activities aligned to the Years 7-8 Australian and Victorian Curriculum, divided into Science and Humanities kits. These were written by education specialists and have been vetted by science and history experts and cleared by First Nations communities.
The Science kit includes activities around ice ages, sea-levels and climate change, scientific knowledges, wildlife of the land bridge, and marine ecologies and food webs.
on the eastern side and a brackish central lake. Map by Neville Rosengren.
Above: Australian fur seals breed and hunt in the Bass Strait. Here are Australian fur seals on Judgement Rocks, a small unpopulated granite islet in the Kent Group of Islands in the eastern Bass Strait.
Photograph by Demelza Wall. Image taken under permit.
Left: Southern rock lobsters are common prey for seals. Some, like this lobster in the marine reserve off Maria Island in southeast Lutruwita/Tasmania, grow big enough to eat urchins.
Photograph by Neville Barrett.
The Humanities kit includes history and geography activities around the peopling of Australia, connections to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural beliefs, sources of evidence for understanding Australia’s past, and a geography activity using Bass Strait as a case study on human causes of landscape degradation.
The education resources link to the other multimedia on the The Land Bridge digital story website, meaning there is more for students to explore beyond the education activities themselves.
I really hope the education kits find use in classrooms around Australia. They have been released via Creative Commons BY-NC licence, and are free to download in .docx or .pdf format from the Land Bridge project website at thelandbridge.au/education-kit/.
Personal reflections
The Land Bridge digital project was launched late last year (2024), in Hobart and is now online for everyone to view. The project has been incredible to work on and has opened my eyes to the rich and extraordinary stories which lie just beyond view and just beyond my doorstep.
To Victorians such as myself, Bass Strait is a familiar and constant presence, a notoriously lumpy stretch of water, a transit route to Lutruwita/Tasmania, place of fisheries and gas fields, and the owner of the rolling waves which wash onto coastlines from Yirak/ Wamoon/Wilson’s Promontory to Cape Otway. Thanks to working on The Land Bridge, I now know that under those waves lies an entire drowned landscape which existed as recently as 14,000 years ago, on which people lived, birthed and died, for thousands of generations, within an ice-age climate filled with diverse land-dwelling wildlife and plants. What a fascinating place.
If you approve of The Land Bridge web site and education resources, please share to friends, colleagues and family. We would love word of the project to spread far and wide.
More information
The Land Bridge digital story project was produced by Wind & Sky Productions and funded by the Australian Government through the Our Marine Parks grant program to showcase the cultural values of Australian Marine Parks.
To find out more about the Land Bridge, visit the project website thelandbridge.au/
Researchers at the Australian National University and members of the Palawa community take coring samples of a lake on Truwana/Cape Barren Island to research how fire was used by Old People to manage the landscape of the deep past.
Photograph by Jillian Mundy.
Home page of The Land Bridge digital story
thelandbridge.au/
By Wind & Sky Productions.
Introduction to The Land Bridge digital story
thelandbridge.au/introduction/
By Wind & Sky Productions. Source images: Jary Nemo, and Megan Hotchkiss Davidson.
Cultural traditions category page from The Land Bridge digital story
thelandbridge.au/category/culturaltraditions/
By Wind & Sky Productions. Source image: envato elements.
Education resource kits for The Land Bridge digital story
thelandbridge.au/education-kit/
By Wind & Sky Productions. Source images: Simon Haberle and Jillian Mundy.
Next page top: Seabed mapping survey ship about to drop the autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) ‘Sirius’ into Bass Strait. Still from the documentary film The Land Bridge. https://thelandbridge.au/the-documentary/ Footage courtesy of Beagle Marine Park Mapping Project, NESP Marine Biodiversity Hub.
The New Holland mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) once lived on the Bassian Plain. It appears to have been the first species driven to local extinction after sea levels rose about 14,000 to 8,000 years ago.
Photograph by Doug Beckers, CC BY-SA.
Palawa women maintain traditional knowledge and cultural connections to the Bass Strait islands, including weaving skills depicted here.
Photograph by Jillian Mundy.
Every year short-tailed shearwaters, also known as yula, moonbird and muttonbird, migrate from the northern hemisphere to the Bass Strait to breed. Yula and their rookeries are culturally significant to Palawa.
Photograph by Ed Dunens.
Next page bottom: Port Jackson sharks in a rocky reef sponge garden on the Beagle Marine Park seafloor, which was once part of the Bassian Plain. Underwater image captured using an Automated Underwater Vehicle (AUV).
Image by IMAS and IMOS.
A comparative study of science animation repositories for teachers
Dr Louise Puslednik, Dr Renee Morrison, Dr Yufei He, Professor Len Unsworth, Professor Theo van Leeuwen, Dr Yaegan Doran
Abstract
Science animations, simulations, interactives, and games represent a powerful teaching resource. Recent research suggests Australian teachers can spend substantial time looking for and evaluating science animations, some even searching for these resources every week (Morrison et al., forthcoming).
The purpose of this article is to review and compare five user-friendly animation repositories that are available to Australian K-12 science teachers (Scootle, Inquisitive, STILE, Phet Interactive Simulations, and Arludo). A range of characteristics were
compared across the repositories including discipline and year level coverage, curriculum links, type of animations, level of interactivity, presence of built in questions, assessment applications, potential teaching approaches and cost. Results show four of the five repositories are linked to the Australian and state curriculums. All science disciplines are represented across the five repositories, including animations addressing science skills. Whilst a range of animations were observed with varying degrees of interactivity, most animations had a high level of interactivity, thereby allowing teachers to plan for studentcentred, inquiry-based science lessons. This comparative study will allow teachers to quickly compare the features and disciplines of animation repositories, and potentially decrease their searching time.
Introduction
Animations, including interactives, simulations and online games, have become an increasingly influential resource in science education across K-12 classrooms, as they represent a resource to engage and support students learning (Dalacosta et al., 2009; Karimi, Sari & Yassin, 2024; Li, Antonenko & Wang, 2019; Smetana & Ball, 2012). Science is multifaceted, being both a body of knowledge and the process of acquiring new knowledge. Both science knowledge and science processes are interdependent, and in Australia, educators are expected to teach science as such (ACARA, 2022). This can be challenging for teachers given that science deals with the very minute (atoms and subatomic particles) to the very large (supergalaxies and the Universe) across a time scale of billions of years. In addition, experiments, which play a critical role in science education, are not always helpful in supporting students’ understanding of complex invisible concepts or processes (Akpinar, 2014). Animations, however, have the potential to be powerful learning tools, “bringing to life” abstract concepts and processes (Wieman & Perkins, 2006).
There are numerous definitions of ‘animation’ in the literature, however our work defines science animations as digital resources that are pictorial, that include simulated change (e.g. He, 2020; Schnotz & Lowe, 2008) and that focus on scientific concepts, skills, and/ or phenomena. Therefore, this umbrella term of science animations captures other digital resources such as science interactives, science simulations and online games that deal with science concepts. Augmented reality and virtual reality are not included within the scope of this work.
The breadth and diversity of science animations available allows for their utility across both science knowledge and processes. Animations allow students to engage with and understand complex science concepts; the dynamic aspect of animations supports students’ ability to manipulate components of complex and abstract systems or to view simplified versions of dynamic processes (Berney & Bétrancourt, 2016; Höffler & Leutner, 2007; Ploetzner & Lowe,
2012). Animations can address the temporal issues associated with science knowledge; students can ‘go back in time’ to observe events, or to even change the time scale to be able to quickly observe patterns over time. Animations also have the potential to support students’ development of science inquiry skills and processes. These resources can be used for scientific investigations, to explore hypotheses, to create representations, and communicate knowledge about scientific systems. Experiments not able to be demonstrated in the classroom can also be explored via animations and the complex activity of problem solving can be undertaken in a low-risk environment (Smetana & Bell, 2012).
Science teachers are aware of the potential benefits of animations. In general, teachers believe that animations can play a role in improving students’ science conceptual understanding and skills as well as motivating students to engage in the learning (Ben Ouhai et al., 2022; Easley 2020; Lee et al., 2021; Zacharia, 2003). A recent survey of Australian science teachers found they generally have a positive attitude towards science animations and use them in a variety of ways. These include as planning and assessment tools, as independent student resources and as classroom resources that are either student or teacher led (Morrison et al., forthcoming). A similar attitude towards animations is demonstrated by science students where they have positive perceptions and experiences using animations in the classroom (Batamuliza, Habinshuti, & Nkurunziza, 2024; Beichumila, Bahati & Kafanabo, 2022).
Australian high school students have found simulations to be very helpful for visualising abstract concepts and for understanding how mathematics is applied to science concepts (Lin, 2020). However, the implementation of animations into the science classroom can be hampered by a range of challenges, such as time availability, teachers’ technological knowledge and knowledge of effective instructional methods, as well as suitable facilities (Bo et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2021; Palacios, Pascual, & Moreno-Mediavilla, 2024).
Science animations are typically designed for a particular curriculum and age group, and to address a specific scientific phenomenon. However, no two classrooms are the same, and no single animation is likely to match the diverse needs of a specific class for a particular lesson. Hence, teachers must search for, select, and integrate animations to suit their classroom context and the targeted learning outcomes. International reports suggest that science teachers face “difficulties in selecting, evaluating and making use of internet resources” (So et al., 2014, p.390). A recent survey of Australian science teachers by Morrison et al. (forthcoming) moreover suggests teachers spend a substantial amount of time looking for and evaluating science animations. Most teachers surveyed are looking for animations at least once a month, whilst a quarter of teachers search weekly for these resources. These searches equate to most teachers spending between 30 minutes to an hour of looking online, with physical science and biological science being more sought-after science discipline areas (Morrison et al., forthcoming). Australian science teachers also identified several important features associated with animations that they find appealing, namely, that the animations accurately depict the science concepts, are easy for students to use and allow students to interactively manipulate the scientific representations (Morrison et al., forthcoming).
One common thread that unites science animations, interactives, simulations, and online games is interactivity; this is a critical feature that allows students to understand scientific concepts and processes by playing with the animations (Unsworth, 2020). The interactive affordances of science animations can vary significantly between and within animations, in the degree of interactivity, type of interaction and pace (Bétrancourt, 2005; Dulmă & Gurscă, 2006; Mayer & Moreno 2003; Ploetzner & Lowe, 2012; Schulmeister, 2003; He et al., forthcoming). Animations with higher levels of interactivity are more aligned with inquiry-oriented and student-centred learning and allow for students to develop more complex science knowledge and processes (Schulmeister, 2003). For example, simulations allow students to interact by choosing variables or defining parameters and then observe the newly created
representation, thus enhancing student understanding of the interconnectedness of variables associated with the science concept.
The level of interactivity within a science animation, therefore, has the potential to influence teachers’ classroom pedagogy (Maton & Howard, 2021). Thus, the integration of animations into science teaching and learning goes beyond the searching for and selection of the animation. Teachers need to initially design teaching and learning to successfully integrate these ready-made resources into their classroom practice and then utilise a range of pedagogical practices to complement and capitalise on the interactive features of science animations. Thus, a greater appreciation of the interactivity of animations can help teachers to design teaching and learning which can foster higher levels of student cognitive engagement (Schulmeister, 2003).
Given that both teachers and students see the value of using animations as a science learning tool, the purpose of this article is to review and compare a number of highly credible and user-friendly science animation repositories that are available to Australian K-12 science teachers.
Method
Five animation repositories were selected for comparison: Inquisitive, Scootle, STILE, Phet Interactive Simulations, and Arludo. These repositories have been developed either by scientists, science educators, or educators, and are easy to use and navigate and display a range of interactive features. While many of these repositories cater to multiple learning areas, not just Science, each addresses multiple science disciplines and multiple school year levels. The science disciplines represented were biology, chemistry, earth and space sciences, physics, and psychology. Three repositories address curriculum-based science inquiry skills. This inclusive approach ensured a diverse range of animations were reviewed. In addition, Phet Interactive Simulations and STILE animations were rated highly by Australian science teachers who identified them as animations they would use in the classroom (Morrison et al., forthcoming).
Animation repositories were reviewed one at a time, with at least 50% of the animations within each repository being viewed. We found that all repositories categorised animations into a science discipline and year level. In terms of interactivity each science animation was coded for various features including the presence or absence of sound, built in questions, multiple segments and interactivity. To document interactivity we followed the science animation interactivity framework (SAIF) developed by He and colleagues (forthcoming). Initially animations were coded into two discrete degrees of interactivity - manipulate screen and manipulate representation Manipulate screen allows users to change or control the navigation, pace, and/or direction of moving through the animation. Thus, users can shift the display but cannot change the representations being displayed. Due to the fixed nature of the representations, manipulate screen is characterised as instructive with information only being transmitted to the user, and hence has limited interactivity (Bower 2009; Figure 1). Manipulate representation, allows users a higher level of interactivity, as they can change the representation or even generate new representations. This flexibility allows for a more productive learning environment
where information flows both ways between the user and the animation (Bower 2008; Schulmeister, 2003; Figure 1). These two categories of interactivity were further divided into increasing orders of interactivity. For example, manipulate screen was divided into navigation, select pictorial display, and manipulate timeline. Manipulate representation was divided into change user view, change represented objects’ position, generate new visualisation by manipulating parameters, game and construct representation (He et al., forthcoming). See Table 1 for a brief description of the interactivity categories identified above. For comparison across the repositories the most common degree of interactivity was also recorded.
Additional features were considered important factors influencing the usability of animations for teachers (Lee et al., 2018). There features included links to the Australian science curriculums and syllabi, the potential use of the animation for formative and summative assessment and the potential teaching approaches and strategies. The cost of accessing the animations was also considered an important practical consideration for inclusion as a class resource.
Figure 1 Instructive-Productive cline and its relationship to the interactivity categories of manipulate screen and manipulate representation.
Manipulate Screen Manipulate Respresentation
INSTRUCTIVE–PRODUCTIVE CLINE INTERACTIVITY
Results
An overview of the science disciplines represented in each repository is shown in Figure 2 below and the features associated with each repository shown in Table 2.
Inquisitive https://www.inquisitive.com/au
Inquisitive is a multimodal teaching program that includes science-resourced lesson plans and unit sequences. Aimed at foundation through to Year 6, this fee-paying subscription resource allows teachers access to 114 animations, including non-interactive and interactive animations, interactive Ebooks and games (Table 2).
Table 1 Classification and descriptions of the interactivity categories based on Bétrancourt (2005), Bower (2008), Dulmă & Gurscă (2006), He et al (forthcoming), Mayer & Moreno (2003), Ploetzner & Lowe (2012), and Schulmeister (2003)
Interactivity category Description
Navigation
Users can move between sections of the animation typically by clicking on arrow icons or icons such as “next.”
Level of interactivity
Manipulate screen
Select pictoral display
Manipulate timeline
Change user view
Users can select pictorial displays which typically reveal to the user more information.
Users can stop or start the animation or move the start of the animation from a selected position.
Users can shift between different views or perspectives of the animation. Examples include being able to zoom in and out and changing the viewing perspective of the object.
Change represented objects’ position
Generate new visualisation
Manipulate representation
Game
Construct representation
Users can change an objects orientation or displace an objects position within the animation. This can be either directly or indirectly; objects can be “drag and dropped” to different positions within the animation or users can click on icons within the animation to generate the change they want.
Users can generate new visualisations by changing variables associated with the animation. For example, users can select an independent variable to experiment and examine how changing the independent variable effects the dependent variable.
Users play games by simultaneously selecting and changing numerous variables associated with the concept being addressed by the game. Users’ decisions results in actions from the game, which require additional user responses to 'stay' in the game.
Users can construct their own representations. Rather than just alter the representations based on a series of predetermined variables, in this category users construct their representations based on the data and/or information the user has collected.
These categories allow for limited interactivity with the user and the animation and are ranked low on the instructive-productive cline (Figure 1). Users can only control the pace and/or direction at which they move through the animation or where they begin or end viewing the animation. Select pictoral display allows the user to shift the display to reveal additional information, but the user cannot choose the representations being presented. Transmission of information is only in one direction, from the animation to the user.
This level of interactivity allows users to feel in control of the representation via being able to view the representation from a variety of perspectives or sizes or to actively navigate within it.
This category of interactivity represents a higher level of interactivity than the categories described above (Figure 1). This is due to users being able to change an object's position within the animation which typically helps to demonstrate the relationship between the moveable objects and other objects in the animation.
This category, largely found in simulations, allows users to explore the relationships between the variables associated with the scientific concept and skills addressed in the simulation. Thus, the simulations interact with users’ cognitive concepts and thought processes.
Games represent a higher level of interactivity (Figure 1), users typically experiment in more authentic science problems. Users formulate and validate hypotheses and ideas about concepts within more complex environments, such as ecosystems, that are not easily observed in short periods of time.
This category represents a high level of interactivity and ranks high on the instructive-productive cline (Figure 1). The higher level of interactivity is a more student-centred approach, allowing users to demonstrate their understanding of the scientific concepts and relationships being explored in the animation.
2. Comparison of science animation repositories and the percentage of animations within each repository addressing science disciplines.
The 114 animations within Inquisitive addresses the four science discipline areas of biology, chemistry, earth and space sciences, and physics as well as science inquiry skills. Although most animations are represented by the discipline Earth and Space Sciences (Figure 2). There are two animations that address the Science Inquiry Skills of the Australian Curriculum, although these are repeated across years 3, 4 and 5 in the units. The animations are embedded into ‘Inquisitive lessons’, with the lessons being linked to the Australian Curriculum and the New South Wales Syllabus.
The interactive features of the animations associated with the Inquisitive lessons largely relied on sound as an interactive feature, with nearly 50% of the animations being animated videos. Sound was also used in the interactive animations to provide students with instantaneous feedback. Many of the animations found on Inquisitive had a low level of interactivity and would be classified at the instructive end of the instructive-productive cline (Figure 1; Bower, 2008), with most animations allowing the user to only manipulate the screen to move the timeline (Ploetzner & Lowe, 2012; Mayer & Moreno, 2003). For the 36% of animations that allowed students to manipulate the representation (Bétrancourt, 2005) they were largely drag and drop interactives whereby students had to categorise images associated with science concepts (Table 1).
Figure
Table 2. Comparison between five science animation repositories for Australian science teaching.
Science Animation Repositories
Links to Australian curriculums
Range of animations
Most common level of interactivity
Animations
Audiobooks
Interactive Animations
Interactive ebooks Game
Manipulate screen: manipulate timeline
Built in questions Yes
Recording of data / answers to questions
Interactive Animations Games Simulations
Animations
Digital escape rooms
Interactive animations Games
Simulations Virtual reality
Manipulate representation: generate new visualisation
Variation between animations
Manipulate representation: generate new visualisation
Only simulations Only games
Manipulate representation: generate new visualisation Game
Questions typically follow the animations No - but suggested activities sheets Prior to the game
Potential teaching approaches In class Flipped classroom In class Flipped classroom Homework Revision In class Flipped classroom Distance learning Homework Revision In class Virtual experiments Flipped classroom Homework Revision In class Flipped classroom Distance learning Homework Revision
Cost of access to repository
Subscription required Free with Australian education email address
Subscription required Free Free, subscription allows access to worksheets
Within the Inquisitive science units, many of the animations and interactives were used as stimulus material. For the more interactive animations, such as the drag and drop responses, there is the potential for student answers to be used as formative assessment. However, the inability of the interactives to record this information limits this application. The Inquisitive units include a summative assessment at the end of each unit, although they never utilise the animations or interactive materials of the unit. Teachers are able to allocate animations and interactives to the class or individual students, which could support a flipped classroom model or allow teachers to allocate animations for homework and / or revision.
Scootle
https://www.scootle.edu.au/ec/p/home
Scootle is a quality assured digital learning resource repository that aligns animations, simulations and games with the Australian curriculum. Of the 24 science animations examined, the four science disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth and space science and physics are represented as well as one animation that addresses science inquiry skills (Figure 2). The science content and skills associated with the animations would suit students from Years 3 through to 10. Access to the animations is via the Scootle website and they are freely available to all Australian teachers.
The Scootle science animations included in this study largely utilised sound effects to provide students with instantaneous feedback, although voice-over was rarely used. Text within the animations was mainly used to provide instructional support. About half of the animations were segmented with initial segments of the animations introducing students to the concept, while additional segments increased in the level of complexity associated with the science concept. Most of the animations included built-in questions, although no animation demonstrated the ability to record answers to the questions. Thus, limiting the ability of teachers to use students’ responses for formative or summative assessment. In terms of interactivity, most of the simulations would
be classified at the productive end of the instructive-productive cline (Figure 1; Bower, 2008), with most animations allowing the user to manipulate the representation to allow for the generation of new visualisations (Dulmă & Gurscă, 2006).
Due to the standalone nature of these animations, teachers can easily incorporate these resources into lessons and the sequence of units. This also allows for these animations to be assigned as homework, revision or as part of flipped classroom model. Although the present inability to record students’ responses online would need to be considered. Some animations allow students to undertake virtual experiments. For example, students can explore the impact of changing different variables on the growth of tomato plants in Plant Testing or examine how important speed and reaction time are in stopping vehicles via the It’s a Drag animation. Thus, these virtual experiments allow teachers to reduce overall cost, space, risk and/or time needed to undertake these experiments (Pyatt & Sims, 2012). In addition, numerous animations utilise other representations used in science such as graphs, diagrams, and symbols. Because of this, these animations have the potential to support students’ broader scientific literacy understanding (Unsworth, 2020). The Scootle repository also included Phet Interactive Simulations.
STILE
https://stileeducation.com/au/
STILE was developed in 2012 by Dr Alan Finkel, former Australian chief scientist, and is an augmented science resource for teachers from Year 5 through to Year 10 (Lambert, 2017). This fee-paying subscription resource allows teachers access to 106 animations, including interactives, simulations, games, virtual reality and escape rooms (Table 2).
STILE has animations that address concepts from the four science disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth and space science and physics as well as science inquiry skills (Figure 2). The animations are typically included within a lesson sequence and the lessons, and hence the animations, are linked to the curriculum. STILE has mapped lessons to the Australian Curriculum, Victorian Curriculum, Western
Australian Curriculum and New South Wales Syllabus. This allows teachers from across the country to map the learning back to their relevant curriculum documents.
The animations included in the STILE lessons utilise a variety of interactive features including using sound to provide instantaneous feedback to students with voice-over and text being used in most animations to provide instructional support. Although, it should be noted virtual reality and escape rooms were not surveyed as part of this research. Some animations are segmented, with initial animations introducing students to the concept, whilst additional segments increased in the level of complexity associated with the science concept. The STILE repository also included some Phet Interactive Simulations in the platform, the majority of which addressed physics concepts.
In terms of interactivity most of the animations would be classified at the productive end of the instructive-productive cline (Figure 1; Bower, 2008), with most animations allowing the user to manipulate the representation to allow for the generation of new visualisations. Moreover, about 10% of the animations within the STILE resource allow students to construct representations (Schulmeister, 2003), thereby delivering a higher interactive experience for students. For example, in the lessons “Influence of Social Media” and “Conducting Science Investigations” students can construct graphs based on the data they collect. Additionally, some of the simulations within the STILE repository allow students to interactively engage with dynamic systems such as ecosystems on a macro and micro scale. Students can manipulate a range of different variables to explore human impact on the ecosystem or the evolution of bacterial resistance for example, as well as examine how different variables in a dynamic system interact with one another.
STILE is a customisable platform that allows for a wide variety of interactions between students and the associated animations. The platform can be used as a classroombased resource that integrates face to face and online interactions, or it can be used within a flipped classroom model whereby students can access animations outside of
the classroom. This flexibility also allows for distance learning as well as setting tasks associated with animations for homework and / or revision. The animations in STILE are embedded into the lesson sequence and built-in questions normally follow each animation, thus allowing for formative and summative assessment of student learning. The power to customise the lesson sequence allows teachers to customise assessment questions and techniques associated with the animations, as well as provide online feedback
Phet Interactive Simulations
https://phet.colorado.edu/
Phet interactive simulations, developed by the University of Colorado and Nobel Laureate Professor Carl Wieman, are a free online resource. There are approximately 80 simulations that address four science disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth and space sciences and physics, although there is a disproportionate number of physics and chemistry simulations (Figure 2). The simulations have been designed to engage year levels Kindergarten through to Year 12 (Table 2), however, most of the science simulations would be more suited for year 3 Australian students and upwards.
The Phet Interactive Simulations utilise several interactive features, although text and voiceover are limited in the simulations. Sound is used to provide students with instantaneous feedback. Typically, the simulations are divided into distinct segments with an introduction tab that orients the student to the simulation and the science concept. The additional segments of the simulation typically increase in the level of complexity associated with the science concept being explored in the simulation. A large proportion of the simulations engage in other representations used in science such as graphs, diagrams, and symbols. And in terms of interactivity most of the simulations are more towards the productive end of the instructive-productive cline (Figure 1; Bower, 2008), with most simulations allowing the user to manipulate representation that would then generate new visualisations (Schulmeister, 2003).
Phet Interactive Simulations have been designed to engage students in an inquiry
approach via exploration and discovery. This approach aims to allow students to develop a deeper understanding of the science concept they are exploring as they move through the simulation. Whilst very few of the simulations contain built in questions, some do have built in games and quizzes at the end to allow for formative and summative assessment of students understanding, for example Balancing Chemical Equations. It should be noted there is no capacity to record students’ responses online.
One of the advantages of Phet Interactive Simulations is the opportunity for teachers to design learning around the virtual simulation experiments Phet offer. These virtual experiments, allow students to explore a range of different variables that can influence or contribute to a scientific concept, for example Projectile Motion. These virtual experiments offer teachers an overall reduction in the cost, space, risk and/or time needed to undertake these experiments (Pyatt & Sims, 2012). Additionally, there are some concepts in science learning that are difficult to directly observe due to additional interactions – such as friction in the case of projectile motion. Another important aspect of these virtual experiments is that they can exclude these interactions to potentially support students fundamental understanding of concepts.
Phet Interactive Simulations was established 20 years ago and there is a significant body of literature examining the implementation of the simulations in the classroom. On the Phet website there is also a range of teaching resources, including teaching tips, suggested questions, and activities (including worksheets that indicate timing, year level, teaching area i.e. lab, homework, etc), and video primers for teachers to access. In addition, many of the Phet simulations are translated into a range of different languages.
Arludo https://arludo.com/
This game-based group of animations was founded by Australian academic and behavioural ecologist Dr Michael Kasumovic. Twenty-five games are available that largely focus on biology and psychology (Figure
2). Each game is aligned to the Australian curriculum, NSW syllabus, and Victorian curriculum, with additional cross-curriculum links for other key learning areas such as Mathematics, English and Digital Technologies. The games can be accessed for free, although for a subscription fee, teachers are provided with additional access to data collection and digital worksheets. The digital worksheets include built-in questions, with the potential for activities to be undertaken before and after the game is played.
The Arludo games use a range of different interactive features. Text is not incorporated into the game, although prior to playing the game there are tips on how to play the game that can be viewed. Music and sound effects are a key feature incorporated into the game and provide students with feedback on their progress. Games can be played numerous times, allowing students to learn from each game played. As students play, game data is collected and recorded, and teachers can download class data from the games played. Students can also see their own data. The creation of graphs from the game data potentially allows teachers to support students’ broader scientific literacy understanding once the game is completed. In terms of interactivity all the animations are games where students play the games, but also by playing the game construct new representations in the form of graphs (Figure 1; Schulmeister, 2003).
Arludo games have been designed to engage students in the science inquiry process, with each game representing a science experiment. Students initially design scientific hypotheses and then use the game to test their hypotheses through the collection of data. These scenario-based experiences are designed for students to develop a deeper understanding of biological concepts, and the role data plays in drawing conclusions. The Arludo games can be used as a classroombased resource that integrates face to face and online interactions, or it can be used within a flipped classroom model whereby students can access games outside of the classroom. This flexibility also allows for distance learning as well as setting tasks associated with the games for homework and / or revision.
The digital worksheets provided by Arludo incorporate built in questions that record students’ responses; thereby allowing teachers to check students understanding, with the potential for the worksheets to be used as either formative or summative assessment.
As in the Phet Interactive Simulations and STILE animations, there is the opportunity for teachers to design learning around the games. Through the playing of the games the students can explore a range of different variables that contribute to a science concept. For example, students assume the role of a lizard in Inglorious Baskers and compete with other lizards for food and basking spots while trying to avoid being predated upon by birds. Thus, through playing the game students develop an understanding of biological behavioural adaptations. Given the dynamic nature of ecosystems, the games allow for students to explore the different components of ecosystems and how they interact with one another, which is typically difficult for teachers to demonstrate in the classroom. Thus, like the Phet Interactive Simulations, the Arludo games allow students to engage in virtual experiments that have the potential to support students fundamental understanding of concepts.
Discussion
Science animations are an important resource for teachers that allow students to explore a range of concepts and processes within the science classroom. This research helps highlight the variety of science animations available to teachers across the K-12 year levels potentially reducing the difficulties they experience in finding, selecting, and evaluating such resources online (So et al., 2014). The animations viewed as part of this review of the animation repositories, allowed for the additional practice of skills, consolidation of knowledge or introduction to science knowledge, concepts and processes of inquiry. Importantly, resources developed within the Australian context allow teachers to easily align the learning material to relevant state and federal syllabuses and curriculums. The incorporation of Phet Interactive Simulations in the STILE and Scootle
repositories highlights the recognition and utility of these simulations in the science teaching community. Indeed, Australian science teachers rated Phet Interactive Simulations highly in a recent survey (Morrison et al., forthcoming).
Interactivity has been identified by Australian science teachers as one of the most appealing features of science animations (Morrison et al., forthcoming). And the results of this research show the variation of interactivity that exists within science animation repositories. Most of the animations reviewed were in the higher range of interactivity (Table 2), although the animations within the Inquisitive repository consistently had a lower level of interactivity comparatively. Given animations with higher levels of interactivity are more aligned with inquiry-oriented and student-centred learning, this would suggest the Inquisitive animations would potentially be used more as a teacher-directed resource. It is unclear whether this is related to the resource being used in primary classrooms where inquiry-based science teaching can be limited (Deehan & MacDonald, 2024). The science animations within the repositories with a more targeted focus on high school, for example Phet Interactive Simulations, STILE and Arludo, consistently demonstrated higher levels of interactivity. This suggests there is the potential for animations to be used in a more student-centred approach to develop students understanding of complex science concepts and support teachers in delivering a more inquiry-based style of science learning.
Teacher design of the lesson and/or lessons that incorporate science animations play a key role in influencing how students will engage with an animation and what they will learn from an animation (Easley, 2020; Rutten et al., 2012). All the science animations reviewed here can be used in the classroom, and the development of the instructional sequence should consider the interactivity level of the animation, as animations with a higher level of interactivity lend themselves to more studentcentred approaches. Science animations which have a high degree of interactivity (for example Manipulate representation to generate new visualisation and above) should form part of an instructional sequence that encourages exploration, investigation,
comprehension of the phenomena and the development of critical thinking using a range of science literacies. Of the animations reviewed here, the majority contained either questions built into the animation, or questions before or after the animation. Thus, through questioning and providing feedback, animations have the potential to activate productive thinking, scaffold student thinking and help students construct their scientific knowledge (van der Meij & de Jong, 2011).
The virtual experiments that are available via the Phet Interactive Simulation repository allow teachers to design teaching and learning using a range of different approaches including open inquiry, guided inquiry, predict observe explain, and even the wellknown 5E instructional model of inquiry (Makamu & Ramnarian, 2023; Palacios et al., 2024). The ability of STILE and Arludo to record students’ responses makes them an appropriate resource for distance learning or learning from home during school closures. Given the issues of time constraints in the classroom, a few studies highlight the effective use of animations within a flipped classroom approach (Bo et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2021). In addition, the functionality of recording student answers also increases the teachers’ opportunity to formatively and summatively assess students’ learning. Of the five repositories reviewed, only STILE and Arludo cater for students’ answers to be recorded and reviewed by the teacher, with STILE also having the option for the teacher to provide students with feedback on the platform. Animations are increasingly being used in science assessment. For example, the New South Wales state-wide Validation of Assessment of Learning and Individual Development (VALID) incorporates science animations across the three assessed year levels 6, 8 and 10 (English, 2020). Therefore, using science animations in the classrooms is an important part of developing students’ multimodal science literacy (Unsworth, 2020).
Conclusion
As a single resource in the science classroom, science animations will not be able to transform science learning. Critical to transforming science learning are the teachers and how they will use resources such as animations. We acknowledge that there are many more animation repositories available to science teachers. However, the compilation of the information in this research around five popular science animation repositories will allow teachers to easily compare them in terms of features and the disciplines being addressed and potentially save teachers time searching for animations to include in their classes.
About the authors
Dr Louise Puslednik is a Science Education academic with a strong research interest in helping teachers to design authentic learning experiences that transforms students learning beyond the classroom.
Dr Renee Morrison is an innovative scholar whose research investigates the role of educators and considers the relationship between digital practices and discursive practices.
Dr Yufei He is a Literacy academic whose research focuses on the semiotics features and interactivity of science animations used in both the primary and secondary science classroom.
Professor Len Unsworth is a Language and Literacy Professor with research interests in literacy and the meaning-making resources of images and image-language interaction in digital texts, including animation.
Professor Theo van Leeuwen is a founding figure of social semiotic approaches to media and communication. He has written many books and articles on discourse analysis, visual communication and multimodality.
Dr Yaegan Doran is a Language and Literacy academic. His research focuses on language, semiosis and education from the perspectives of Systemic Functional Linguistics and Legitimation Code Theory.
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Book review
The Great Australian Science Book
Written by: Professor Luke O’Neil
Published By: CSIRO
Publishing
Information: www.publish.csiro.au/book/8083/
Citation: O’Neil, L. (2025). The Great Australian Science Book. Clayton, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing.
Review by W. P. Palmer.
This is a large colourful book, 92 pages long, written by Professor Luke O’Neil, and illustrated by Linda Fährlin. The book is accurate, original and innovative, though it is difficult to imagine how it would be used in schools. The author does not suggest an age range, but the images of children featured in ‘Welcome aboard’ on pages 2-3 suggest that the book is designed to be read by six-to ten-year-olds. The reading level required for understanding would appear to be better suited to older children.
It is like an encyclopaedia in covering a broad scientific range but is specific in emphasising Australian scientific endeavour and recent Australian discoveries with the Australians who discovered them named. The Great Australian Science Book also contains the author’s humour on every page. Examples are: the moon shown as being made of cheese (pp. 4-5); the planets of the solar system, drawn with faces on them and with some making humorous comments (pp. 12-13); Dino-sore (p. 25); “Can you be-leaf it?” in the section on plants (p. 30); and the comment from the baker in the bakery “At least you will make a lot of dough” (p. 65).
The book is divided into four main sections which are: the universe, planet earth, the human body, and the very small, with an introduction entitled ‘welcome on board’ and a farewell entitled ‘bon voyage’. Each of the main sections is subdivided into between seven and twelve one or two page subsections with titles such as, the big bang, climate change, genes, and magnetism. The last subsections of each section are entitled ‘the future’ and also ‘be a scientist’ which should provide a useful focus for students.
A minor apparent error, which is often contested, refers to The Royal Society, London, UK as the world's oldest scientific organisation (founded 1660) (p. 86), whereas the German National Academy of Sciences, Leopoldina was founded in 1652 1
In such a short book, considering the vastness of science, it may seem unfair to criticise the omission of some scientific content. However, Professor O’Neill mentions in a very personal way, five scientific questions (p. 2) that caused him to wonder and to become a scientist. The first such question was: – why is the sun so hot? This question and several of the other these five questions which are emphasised fail to receive any full answer in this book. The third question was about birds and flight does not appear to be explained, but birds get their only mention under the topic of dinosaurs (pp. 24-25).
I like the short test for truth in the ‘bon voyage’ section which would be very useful for students. I also liked the timeline on discovery (pp. 88-89) which allows students to see science in a historical context. I think that the index (pp. 90-92) could be more detailed and that the book would be improved with a glossary. I did not like the huge variations in print size which made reading the smaller print difficult when combined with some colour combinations. The page numbers were particularly difficult to read.
Much science is covered in an interesting way with excellent diagrams and illustrations. I think it would appeal to some students especially if it were their own book, which they used as a fun reference work lasting them several years.
1. Mission Statement of the German National Academy of Sciences, Leopoldina, at URL: https://www.leopoldina.org/ueber-uns/ueberdie-leopoldina/leitbild-der-leopoldina/
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