STEMISE | Issue 2

Issue 2 | June 2024

STEMWISE

Featuring Compelling

Scientific Breakthroughs and

Cutting-Edge Discoveries

The photo featured on our cover has been taken from https://dk.pinterest.com/pin/20477373297189465/

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M es s ag e f rom c reators E v g en i a Ni c h eperov i c h an d M ati l de C os tan z o

Stemwise issue 2

We are thrilled to announce that the second issue of the STEMwise magazine has arrived! After receiving such overwhelmingly positive feedback from our first edition, we were inspired to dig even deeper into the fascinating world of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Our team has worked tirelessly to curate a collection of articles, photographs, and features that we believe will inform, inspire, and ignite your curiosity.

In this latest issue, you can expect to find a diverse collection of content that showcases the latest advancements and innovations across various STEM fields. From groundbreaking research projects pushing the boundaries of human knowledge to insightful articles about leading experts who are shaping the future of their respective fields, there is something for everyone to enjoy!

Whether you are a seasoned professional looking to stay on top of the latest developments in your field, a student eager to explore the many career paths available in STEM, or simply someone who marvels at the wonders of the universe, STEMwise has something for you.

Thank you for joining us on this exciting adventure.

Together, let's celebrate the incredible achievements of the STEM community and champion a future where science, technology, engineering, and mathematics continue to thrive and enrich our lives.

Happy reading!

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Stemwise issue 2

CONTENTS The Fight Against Extinction

BY STEFANIA HANNAH

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Digging Deeper Into Living Organisms: Eukaryotic Cells

BY AYAN NAZAMOVA

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The Role Of Gut Microbe In The Health Of Humans

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BY BOGUMIL ROZANSKI Mathematics and Aesthetics: Decoding the Beauty of the Golden Ratio

BY EVGENIA NICHEPEROVICH

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Mitosis: Unveiling the secrets of the future of cloning and self-replication of organisms

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BY BOGUMIL ROZANSKI

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CONTENTS Tadpoles to Xenobots - Dr. Blackiston's Bio-Robotics Revolution

BY MATILDE CONSTANZO

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Unlocking the Potential of Ozempic: A Breakthrough in Weight-Loss

BY EVGENIIA NICHEPEROVICH

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Photography

BY OLEKSANDRA BODNAR, STANISLAW SIDOR, HIPPOLYTE GAUCHERAND AND DIVIDE RAHO

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Exploring The Wonders of Gene Editing

BY BIANNA-ALECSANDRA MANTA

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Discovering the Effect Of Cold On The Brain

BY MATILDE CONSTANZO

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Viruses: What Are They, and What Do They Do?

BY AYAN NAMAZOVA

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Unleashing The Power of ThoughtExploring Brain-computer Interfaces

BY BRIANNA-ALECSANDRA MANTA

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The Deadly Virus Amoung Us – Rabies

BY STEFANIA HANNAH

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The Fight Against Extinction

By Stefania Hannah

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What happens when a natural phenomenon is accelerated by human interference, how does it affect our world and how can we change it? Extinction is a natural process that involves the complete disappearance of a species, mostly due to its inability to adapt to its environment, our planet has experienced with millions of species for millions of years, a clear indicator of this is the fact that 90% of all species that have ever existed on Earth are now extinct. The earth has gone through five mass extinction events, many now believe it entering its sixth, and truthfully, whether that is fully true or not, it is impossible to deny that at this very moment in time species are dying out at largely faster rates, according to the US wildlife service, 21 species of animals have gone extinct in just 2023, which is not considered too accurate as no smaller organisms or plants were accounted for, over 500 species have gone extinct in the last 100 years. All of this is believed to be due to human activity.

This has various effects on the Earth, with biodiversity loss being the most significant concern. Biodiversity refers to the vast range of organisms that may be found; without it, an ecosystem’s production shuts down and prevents it from performing its regular tasks, resulting in the breakdown of food webs and other aspects of our climate. Human activity has been damaging ecosystems for over 50 years, leaving 60% deteriorated and over-exploited. Food webs are especially important as they help track the loss of energy between each trophic level (position on food web), and how increasing or decreasing the amount of an organism on a level will affect the food web, as shown on the image.

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While food webs affect humans too, there are much larger concerns like losses in crop pollination, water purification, as well as cultural losses for larger communities that may depend on these species in one way or another.

So, how can humanity slow this down?

Extinction will never and should never be outright stopped, but it has to be slowed down, or we will soon also go extinct. The main way in which humanity could do this is to simply be less selfish with everything. Often the extinction of animals can be attributed to ruining their natural habitats, hunting them, changing their habitats due to accelerated climate change, pollution, and diseases. One of the most famous examples is the dodo bird, which went extinct after Dutch soldiers haunted them, destroyed their nests, changing their habitats National Academy of Sciences (US, Fitch, W. M., & Ayala, F. J. (2010). The due to accelerated climate change, Role of Extinction in Evolution. pollution, and diseases. One of the Nih.gov; National Academies Press (US). most famous examples is the dodo https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/N bird, which went extinct after BK232212/ Dutch soldiers hunted them, Rafferty, J. P. (2019). Biodiversity loss | causes, effects, & facts. In destroyed their nests, and Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/bi deforested their island of odiversity-loss

Mauritius. Therefore, one of the Extinction & Biodiversity. (2019, June 29). The Conscious Challenge. easiest ways to stop human https://www.theconsciouschallenge.or induced extinction would be to g/ecologicalfootprintbibleoverview/ext inction-biodiversity continue to work on Earth’s CENTER for BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY. climate change and pollution, (2010). The Extinction Crisis. enforce anti-poaching laws and Biologicaldiversity.org. https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/pr enforce habitat-protectant laws. ograms/biodiversity/elements_of_biodi versity/extinction_crisis/index.html More difficult to abolish practices would be governmental as well as personal need for perpetual economic growth (main contributor to most environmental problems), protecting wildlife habitats, and working on restoring already endangered or extinct species. A more controversial attempt at this is the work on bringing back the woolly mammoth, or the use of genetic modification to protect cavendish bananas from diseases.

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Digging Deeper Into Living Organisms: Eukaryotic Cells.

By Ayan Nazamova

Eukaryotic cells are the cells found in living organisms such as Stemwise issue 2

plants, animals, fungi, and many unicellular organisms. To classify a cell as eukaryotic, the cell has to have a clearly defined nucleus, which contains the supercoiled genetic material of the cell in the form of chromosomes.

Moreover, eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound organelles present in the cytoplasm, such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and chloroplasts in plant cells. A difference between eukaryotic plant cells and eukaryotic animal cells is the presence of an additional outer layer called the cell wall in plant cells. However, some eukaryotic cells, such as red blood cells, which are the biggest component of blood and are essential for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body for metabolic reactions, do not have a nucleus or mitochondria, to ensure they are best adapted for their function.

All eukaryotic cells have 80S ribosomes, which are the site of protein synthesis. The synthesized proteins are essential for cell growth and repair, enzyme activity, structural support, etc.

Scientists believe that the first eukaryotic cells have evolved between around 1.7 and 1.9 billion years ago. Eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from the domain of Archaea, which is a domain of single-celled organisms that are much simpler and smaller than eukaryotes. Archaea lack membrane bound nuclei, and thus their genetic material is found in the nucleoid which is a region without a membrane in the cytoplasm of the cells, hence archaea are classifies as prokaryotes.

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Eukaryotes are theorized to have formed by the process of endosymbiosis: the smaller prokaryotic cells, such as the mitochondria and chloroplasts, were engulfed by larger prokaryotic cells.

However, instead of getting digested by the larger cell, the smaller cells began to replicate by mitosis and produce more of their species.

Eukaryotes can reproduce asexually through mitosis, producing genetically identical offspring, or reproduce sexually by meiosis and gamete fusion, creating genetic variation. They all begin from a singular stem cell, which continues to replicate and divide and eventually differentiates into the specialized cells in the body, having specific structural adaptations and functions within the organism.

Overall, eukaryotic cells are the basis of most living organismsthere are trillions of eukaryotic cells in the human body! Eukaryotic cells work together in complex ways to perform various functions necessary for the survival and functioning of multicellular organisms, such as humans, animals, and plants.

Eukaryotic cell (2022). Retrieved from https://www.osmosis.org/answers/eukaryoticcell Eukaryote. (2024). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote Eukaryote. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/eukaryote 8

The role of gut microbe in the health of humans

By Bogumil Rozanski

Our microbiome within our gut is essential for the survival of Stemwise issue 2

human beings as it plays a key role in maintenance of our internal ecosystem which consists of a combination of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and even viruses. It is estimated according to the recent study about an astounding 35000 different species of bacteria can be found within our guts. Whenever antibiotics or any form of medication is administered the gut microbiome may become damaged as the antibiotics disrupt cell function of pathogenic bacteria as well as the healthy gut bacteria which are an integral part of the organism’s immune system. Our intestines both large and small are considered to have the largest microbial fauna in the entire human organism. The gut microbes help to defend the organism from pathogenic invaders, synthesize Vitamin K essential for maintaining healthy bone density and clotting of blood, maintaining nervous system function, helping with the breakdown of carbohydrates and supplying essential nutrients. Our digestive system which includes the gut is essential for digestion of foods and extracting and supplying nutrients for the proper function and survival of the organism.

Without our indispensable little friends our immune system would be severely weakened and prone to attacks from pathogens which would result in lower life expectancy in humans. In recent years scientists found a link between a healthy gut microbiome and proper brain function as the microbes in our gut are responsible for some basic neurogenerative processes such as forming a blood-brain barrier to prevent strokes from happening and can also modulate many behavioral changes in human beings. There was also correlation found between gut microbiome health and neurological conditions such as autism, depression or anxiety 9

depending on its health and development even as early as the fetal stage of growth. The gut microbiome is incredibly complex and requires separation to help us fully understand it and to this day scientists do not know the entire microbial composition and with it the full function and importance of the gut microbiome.

Knowing the importance and benefits of having a healthy microbiome how can we maintain it?

By increasing daily intakes of probiotics which include consumption of more diary products or supplementation from pharmacies, maintenance of good sleep schedule was found to massively improve gut function and reduce risk of inflammatory diseases, altering your diet including avoiding processed food and sweets which include monosaccharides and deprive your gut microbiome of their nutrients .

(Jandhyala, S. M., Talukdar, R., Subramanyam, C., Vuyyuru, H., Sasikala, M., & Reddy, D. N. (2015). Role of the normal gut microbiota. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 21(29), 8787. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v21.i29.8787) Dogra, S. K., Chung, C. K. C. K., Wang, D., Sakwińska, O., Mottaz, S. C., & Sprenger, N. (2021). Nurturing the early life gut microbiome and immune maturation for long term health. Microorganisms, 9(10), 2110. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9102110 Badaut, J., Cohen, S., Virgintino, D., & Stonestreet, B. S. (2017). Development of the Blood-Brain barrier. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 13141325.e4). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-35214-7.00132-3

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Mathematics and Aesthetics: Decoding the Beauty of the Golden Ratio

By Evgenia Nicheperovich

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Most of you will probably have heard of this phrase before – the ‘Golden Ratio’. It is also known as the golden number, golden proportion, or the divine proportion, is a ratio between two numbers that equals approximately 1.618. Usually written as the Greek letter phi (φ), it is strongly associated with the Fibonacci sequence-starts like this: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 and continues on forever. Each number is the sum of the two numbers before it. It’s a simple pattern, and perhaps not that impressive on its own. The Golden Ratio is often found in nature, art, and architecture.

You can find the Golden Ratio when you divide a line into two parts and the longer part (A) divided by a smaller part (B) which is equal to (A+B)/A which is 1.618.

Beauty One fascinating example of the use of golden ratio is our intricate faces. Bella Hadid has been crowned ‘the most beautiful woman’ in the world, due to the golden ratio theory itself. The cosmetic surgeon Julian De Silva used the golden ratio to mathematically calculate how close women are to physical perfection and symmetry, using precise calculations of the different features on one’s face – nose, lips, eyes etc. Bella Hadid boasts a 94.35% of symmetry. Though there are considerable debates as to whether this is an ethical consideration of beauty, or even an accurate consideration, it’s an application of precise mathematic calculations used in the industry.

Architecture The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the 7 wonders of the world. The ratio of the slant height of the pyramid to half the base dimension is 1.61804, a number that is scarily close to the Golden Ratio. Considering the pyramids were built roughly from 2550-2490 B.C., it’s shocking how these mathematic truths have persevered throughout society.

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Music Mozart based many of his works, especially his renowned piano sonatas, on the Golden Ratio. How is that even possible, you may ask? The prodigy arranged his piano sonatas so that the number of bars in the development and recapitulation divided by the number of bars in the exposition would equal approximately 1.618, the Golden Ratio. Even if you are confused on the jumble of the music terminology, essentially mathematical precision was used by one of the greatest musical geniuses of our time.

Nature Lastly, the golden ratio is a common number in nature, and the number of petals in many flowers follow the Fibonacci sequence.

Oddly Pi appears as each petal is placed at 0.618034 per turn (out of a 360° circle), to allow the best possible exposure to sunlight.

The Golden Ratio is fascinatingly complex concept and number. It has many uses in our everyday lives from the graceful spiral of a seashell to the intricate arrangement of petals in a flower, from the harmonious melodies of music to the timeless proportions of ancient architecture, and even in the elegant symmetry of our own bodies, the influence of the Golden Ratio is unmistakable. So, the next time you marvel at the beauty of a nautilus shell, the majesty of a cathedral, or the melody of a symphony, take a moment to reflect on the subtle presence of the Golden Ratio, quietly shaping the world around us in ways both seen and unseen.

Golden ratio. (2024, March 14). Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio The Golden Ratio - What it is and How to Use it in Design. (n.d.). https://www.invisionapp.com/inside-design/golden-ratio-designers/#

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Mitosis: Unveiling The Secrets Of The Future Of Cloning And Self-replication Of Organisms.

By Bogumil Rozanski

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Us living organisms are constructed of cells which are basic functional units of life. According to the cell theory proposed by Schleiden and Schwann famous scientists in the 19th century, cells are the simplest units of living matter, each new cell came from a preexisting one and that all living organisms are composed of at least one cell. Our cells contain genetic material as DNA which can be found within the nucleus and is unique to each human being alive differing in only about couple lines of sequence resulting in the differences in our phenotypes being the physical and visible characteristics and explaining the differences between humans despite having the same genes. DNA condenses into chromosomes which play a key role in the replication of organisms through a process of mitosis which is a nuclear division producing two genetically identical cells from one parent cell. Our cells contain 46 chromosomes which the full set of genetic material.

Currently research is ongoing in the field of cloning where mitosis of unspecialized cells called stem cells is put under the loop for potentially cloning large multicellular organisms in the future. Cells could be collected from adult cells or embryos and grown under conditions which allow the cells to divide rapidly, and a way must be found to reverse the cells to an undifferentiated cells which could eventually form the new individual who is genetically identical to the parent.

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Cloning has a massive potential to increase the survival advantage of organisms E.g. A polymerase gamma gene which codes for replication of mitochondrial genetic material and some individuals with a mutation in this gene may experience having higher numbers of mitochondria which could be cloned passing down the advantage to the generations of his offspring which could help to withstand prolonged periods of exercise and help to perform better in sports.

However there exists ethical obstacles and negatives to cloning as an individual with advantageous characteristic should not be forced to be cloned and the person who clones themselves is technically having a child and should be held responsible for their offspring Whilst cloning seems like the key to our future it may be as well what brings an end to it as cloning is a form of asexual reproduction which results in massive reduction of genetic variation of a population which helped organisms for billions of years to adapt to changes in environment and thrive for so long therefore a complete lack of adaptation to new environment could bring extinction to our species.

Paul S (2016) Human Cloning and the Potential Effects on Evolution. Obstet Gynecol Int J 5(2): 00151. DOI: 10.15406/ogij.2016.05.00151 Soini, S., Ibarreta, D., Anastasiadou, V., Aymé, S., Braga, S., Cornel, M. C., Coviello, D., Evers-Kiebooms, G., Geraedts, J., Gianaroli, L., Harper, J., Kosztolányi, G., Lundin, K., Rodrigues-Cerezo, E., Sermon, K., Sequeiros, J., Tranebjærg, L., & Kääriäinen, H. (2006).

The interface between medically assisted reproduction and genetics: technical, social, ethical and legal issues*. ESHRE Monographs, 2006(1), 2– 51. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/del390

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Tadpoles to Xenobots - Dr. Blackiston's Bio-Robotics Revolution

By Matilde Constanzo

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Doctor Douglas Blackiston is a developmental biologist at Tufts University and has always had a passion for transformation of organisms. Starting from caterpillars and butterflies, all the way to tadpoles and frogs, Doctor Blackiston has investigated how biology is adaptive. One of his most staggering projects was transplanting eyes into the tails of blind tadpoles, where he managed to restore their vision utilising tissue plasticity. Lately Dr. Blackiston has been working on a research project which blends biology and robotics. Him and his colleagues “repurposed frog stem cells into programmable synthetic organisms to explore the design space of cells and their interactions”.

Frogs are the perfect organism to use, as their transformation from tadpoles that can breathe underwater, to frogs that drown in water is extraordinary. Additionally, frogs share a large number of genes with humans, and a tadpole’s skin is shockingly similar to the inside of human lungs. When introducing human mutations for lung disease into frogs, they showed to have problems with their skin clearing mucus, just like humans with lung disease. This past study was an amazing opportunity to better understand the way cells in the lungs and airways are organised, function, and repair.

The team that took part in the study where frog stem cells were repurposed consisted of the biologists Douglas Blackiston and Micheal Levin from Tufts University, and the roboticists Josh Bongard and Sam Kriegman from the University of Vermont.

Biology was obviously used, but the star of the show was robotics which produced xenobots. A xenobot is a synthetic lifeform that is designed by computers to perform a specific 15

function, and it is built from merging together different biological tissues. Usually, roboticists build robots out of fake materials, like silicone cubes. Which got Dr Blackiston, “Why don’t we just replace these cubes made out of silicone with cells?” This idea is revolutionary, not because it is a difficult thing to do, but because no one had ever carried this type of experiment out, as it is like fabricating an organism.

An extensive amount of work has been done in the past to understand how to manipulate cells.

Therefore, the researchers had to break down the embryonic tissue from these frogs, in order to be able to reassemble all the components and build this new organism.

Designing xeobots for these frogs helped the researchers understand what the system is capable of. After observing a variety of different behaviours of the cells, the scientists hope to take this research to the next level and develop the idea of making synthetic organisms.

Solanki, N., Mahant, S., Patel, S., Patel, M.P., Shah, U., Patel, A., Koria, H. and Patel, A. (2022). Xenobots: Applications in Drug discovery. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 23. doi:https://doi.org/10.2174/1389201023666220430154520.

Tran, L. (2024). A Leap Towards Building Synthetic Organisms. [online] The Scientist Magazine®. Available at: https://www.the-scientist.com/a-leap-towardsbuilding-synthetic-organisms-71715.

Wu, K.J. (n.d.). Scientists Assemble Frog Stem Cells into First ‘Living Machines’. [online] Smithsonian Magazine. Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/scientists-assemble-frog-stemcells-first-living-machines-180973947/.

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Unlocking the Potential of Ozempic: A Breakthrough in Weight-Loss

Stemwise issue 2

By Evgeniia Nicheperovich

New-generation weight-loss drug has been a breakthrough all over the world in the past months. Ozempic, known generically as Semaglutide, was approved in 2017 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Ozempic is a weekly injection that helps lower blood sugar by helping the pancreas make more insulin.

Ozempic works by mimicking a naturally occurring hormone. As those hormone levels rise, the molecules go to your brain, telling it you are full. It also slows digestion by increasing the time it takes for food to leave the body. This is similar to the effect of bariatric surgery (weight loss and obesity surgery).

While Ozempic is not specifically labelled as a weight loss drug, studies sponsored by Novo Nordisk, the company that makes Ozempic, suggest people who take Semaglutide—the active compound in Ozempic—may lose weight. In fact, the FDA approved Semaglutide for weight loss in 2021 under the brand name Wegovy. However, Wegovy provides a higher dose of Semaglutide than Ozempic—2.4 milligrams of Semaglutide in Wegovy compared with 0.5 milligrams, 1 milligram or 2 milligrams of Semaglutide in Ozempic.

In one large clinical trial sponsored by Novo Nordisk, 1,961 adults with excess weight or obesity who did not have diabetes were given 2.4 milligrams of Semaglutide or a placebo once a week for 68 weeks, along with lifestyle intervention. Those who took Semaglutide lost 14.9% of their body weight compared with 2.4% for those who took the placebo (a treatment that appears real but is designed to have no therapeutic benefit).

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A 0.25 or 0.5 milligram dose of Ozempic currently retails on the Novo Nordisk website for $935.77 without insurance. However, those with private or commercial insurance who are eligible for prescription may pay as little as $25 for a one-, two- or threemonth supply, according to the company.

Benefits of Ozempic: · 5% to 20% body weight loss · Reduced waist circumference · Improved blood sugar levels · Improved blood pressure · Improved cholesterol levels

Side effects of Ozempic: · Inflammation of the pancreas · Vision changes · Kidney problems · Thyroid tumors or cancer

Doctors from all around the world do not recommend taking Ozempic solely for weight-loss purposes unless you have type 2 diabetes, as doing so may prevent patients who require the medication for blood sugar management from getting it.

Interrupting their treatment with Ozempic creates serious health risks.

Ozempic for weight loss: Does it work, and what do experts recommend? (2023, August). UC Davis Health. Retrieved March 31, 2024, from https://health.ucdavis.edu/blog/cultivating-health/ozempic-for-weight-loss-doesit-work-and-what-do-expertsrecommend/2023/07#:~:text=Ozempic%2C%20known%20generically%20as%20se maglutide,the%20pancreas%20make%20more%20insulin Key Bariatric Terms https://www.princetonhcs.org/care-services/institute-forsurgical-care/the-center-for-bariatric-surgery-and-metabolicmedicine/resources/key-bariatricterms#:~:text=Bariatric%20Surgery%3A%20Also%20known%20as,treatment%20of %20morbidly%20obese%20individuals.

Northrop, A. (2024, February 13). Ozempic For Weight Loss: Cost, Side Effects And Efficacy. Forbes Health. https://www.forbes.com/health/weight-loss/ozempicfor-weight-loss/

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Exploring The Wonders of Gene Editing

By Brianna-Alecsandra Manta

Genetics have undergone a revolution thanks to gene editing technologies, which provide previously unheard-of levels of accuracy and control over an organism's genetic makeup. From making crops tougher against pests to fixing genetic diseases, scientists are able to change the structure of countless entities.

CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene editing technology which, at its core, is formed from two crucial components: a guide RNA to identify particular DNA sequences, and the Cas9 enzyme, which gets this information passed on regarding where to cut the DNA, allowing modifications to the genome. Gene editing can form stronger and more resilient crops which can withstand harsher conditions.

Scientists can increase crop yields and reduce the need for pesticides by modifying the genes that cause these characteristics, increasing global food security. This technology presents a promising medical intervention for a multitude of hereditary illnesses. Diseases that were previously considered incurable, are now an area of research and study by scientists that aim to treat them through gene editing. Therapeutics based on CISPR are already being developed for sicknesses such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and various forms of cancer.

However, despite all of its promise, gene editing technologies raise ethical concerns. The ability to alter an organism's genetic makeup raises issues regarding its impact on ecological balance and biodiversity, among many other.

Concerns also arise about the misuse of gene editing, such as the unintentional creation of genetically modified organisms.

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Different countries have several laws regulating the use of gene editing technology; some have strict rules in place to guarantee responsible use. In order to reduce dangers and optimize advantages related to gene editing, it is imperative that ethical guidelines and a supervisory framework be put in place.

Although negotiating different legal environments can be complex, gene editing poses a large potential for the future. As our current knowledge and understanding of genetic advances, so does our capacity to use this technology to tackle substantial problems facing humanity. We may fully fulfil this technology's promise to benefit lives and influence the course of future generations in a positive manner if ethical and regulatory concerns are appropriately addressed.

Junwei, W. and Yingjun, L. (2023) CRISPR-based gene editing technology and its application in microbial engineering. Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667370323000334 What is genome editing and CRISPR-Cas9? (2022). Available at https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/genomicresearch/genomeedi ting/ Judith, L. (n.d.) Gene editing. Available at https://www.britannica.com/science/gene-editing/Applications-andcontroversies

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Discovering The Effect of Cold On The Brain

By Matilde Constanzo

I think we are all aware of the fact that living in Poland during the winter means snow, ice, and very low temperatures. But does that iciness affect our brain?

Luckily, the human brain is able to maintain its temperature at 37°C, meaning that for the average person that is out in the cold weather, the brain temperature is protected. But this is only true as long as the exposure to the frosty temperatures is short term, as long-term exposure can cause serious brain damage.

When the temperature drops, the cold sensing nerves in the skin send electrical signals to a specific area of the brain, the preoptic area, which has the role of regulating bodily temperature. This thermostat is then able to send signals back to the body to inform it that you must thermoregulate. Our bodily temperature regulates by constricting blood vessels, stimulating muscle twitching commonly known as shivering, and producing heat by burning more fuel.

The neuroscientist Neeraj Lal decided to investigate how cold triggers hunger signals in the brain to replenish the calories that are burnt each day to maintain one’s body temperature, using mouse brains. They found that the xiphoid nucleus produced higher levels of c-Fos as temperature dropped. c-Fos is a protein used as a marker for neuronal activity.

To investigate the role of the xiphoid nucleus, the researcher arranged receptors for neurotransmitters in the xiphoid nucleus that were sensitive to a specific drug, enabling them to artificially stimulate the xiphoid nucleus.

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When the xiphoid nucleus was stimulated in cold temperature, the mice ate more. When they suppressed the neuronal signals in the xiphoid nucleus, the mice ate less in cold temperatures.

When both conditions were carried out in warm temperatures, the amount of food consumed by the mice did not change significantly, suggesting that the xiphoid nucleus plays a role in controlling appetite in response to cold.

At extremely low temperatures, the ion channel proteins in the brain also malfunction. Meaning a higher number of potassium ions leave the neuron, and when that happens, the neuron will shut down, but not before triggering the spread of this ion imbalance. As a result, the neural activity in parts of the brain shut down after exposure to extreme cold.

Some scientists think that the brain might shut down in the cold to protect itself from further damage. Therefore, remember to wear your hat during winter!

The Scientist Magazine®. (n.d.). How Cold Affects the Brain. [online] Available at: https://www.the-scientist.com/how-cold-affects-the-brain-71712. www.sciencedirect.com. (n.d.). C-Fos - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics. [online] Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/cfos#:~:text=Although%20c%2DFos%20and%20other.

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Viruses: What Are They, and What Do They Do?

By Ayan Namazova

Viruses are unique organisms called pathogens that are not classified as eukaryotes or prokaryotes for a number of reasons. Firstly, viruses are considered to be non- living because they do not carry out the 8 processes of life such as metabolic reactions, sensitivity, growth, etc. Moreover, viruses do not have nuclei. Instead, their genetic material (which can be RNA or DNA) is surrounded by a protein coat called capsid, which has attachment proteins on it to attach to a host cell. Viruses also lack cellular organelles such as mitochondria. Furthermore, some viruses contain an extra outer layer called a lipid envelope, formed from the membrane of the host cell.

So how are viruses not extinct if they do not have mitochondria to produce ATP and replicate, and how do they grow?

Well… viruses undergo a slightly different method of replication, which heavily relies on their host cells. There are two ways viruses can reproduce: the lytic and lysogenic cycles. In the lytic cycle, the virus injects its genetic material into the cytoplasm of the host cell. The virus DNA then hijacks the host cell’s protein synthesizing machinery, starting to replicate within the host cell, until the host cell undergoes lysis (burst), thus releasing the newly replicated virus particles. In the lysogenic cycle, after the viral cell infects the host cell, the genetic materials of the host and viral cells combine, which means that when the host cell replicates, the genetic material of the newly formed cells contains viral DNA and the host cell’s DNA. This replication continues until the cells’ environments change, which triggers lysis in the cells. Viruses can infect human, animal plant, fungal, and bacterial cells. Each type of virus can only infect specific host cells.

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What are the most common viruses and how can we prevent infection?

Some of the most common viruses are HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and influenza. There have been successful vaccines against the influenza virus such as the inactivated influenza vaccines, recombinant influenza vaccines and live attenuated influenza vaccines. However, for some other viruses, such as HIV, no successful injections have been created yet, since the virus replicates very rapidly and unpredictably.

Overall, viruses are one-of-a-kind organisms that do not resemble other living cells in function and structure.

Olson, D. (2024). Influenza vaccine options: 2023-2024 season. Retrieved from https://www.nfid.org/resource/influenza-vaccine-options-2023-2024-season/ Professional, C. C. medical. (n.d.). Viruses: What they are & how they work.

Retrieved from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24861-virus

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Unleashing the Power of Thought: Exploring Brain-Computer Interfaces

By Brianna-Alecsandra Manta

In a world where technology seems to be developing at the

speed of thought, imagine a device that lets you operate your smartphone, video game, or even turn on the light switch in your own home with nothing more than your thoughts.

Although it sounds like something from science fiction, this is the work of Brain – Computer Interfaces (BCIs).

Fundamentally, a Brain – Computer Interface is a system that allows real time communication between the brain and an external device, eliminating the need for conventional input devices such as joysticks and keyboards. Instead, BCIs convert neural impulses into commands which can be executed by technology, allowing users to control devices using just their thoughts. BCIs have a wide range of possible uses, including in the fields of healthcare, assistive technology, and gaming. In the medical industry, they have the potential to help people with motor disabilities such as spinal cord injuries or stroke survivors, by giving them a way to communicate and regain their autonomy.

Researchers have found that these interfaces give its users the ability to use their minds to move prosthetic limbs precisely, such as texting with the use of a robotic arm. BCIs also can fully reform neurorehabilitation by helping stroke and traumatic brain injury patients recover their motor skills and neural plasticity. Through the utilization of the brain's ability to remodel and adapt itself, these machines provide new therapeutic options that can improve recovery results and the overall quality of life. In gaming and virtual reality, they enable immersive experiences where people may use their thoughts to control virtual 33

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surroundings or characters, creating new forms of entertainment. BCIs also have the potential to improve productivity and efficiency in jobs like emergency response or air traffic control which call for quick decisions and multitasking. Researchers must overcome a variety of obstacles, from decoding complicated neurological signals to guaranteeing user privacy and security, to be able to safely and ethically exploit the full potential of these systems.

Brain – computer interfaces provide unprecedented chances and opportunities to grant people the ability to command a substantial amount of technology with the sheer power of their mind, which commands a remarkable leap forward in human – machine interaction.

Adrien, B. (2024) Are Brain – Computer Interfaces Good or Bad? Available at https://www.wearedevelopers.com/magazine/brain-computer-interfaces-good-orbad Brooke, B. (2023) Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI) Explained. Available at https://builtin.com/hardware/brain-computer-interface-bci Christopher, H. and Jennifer, C. (2020) Handbook of Clinical Neurology (2020).

Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/brain-computerinterface

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The Deadly Virus Among Us - Rabies

By Stefania Hannah

The world health organization (WHO) defines rabies as ‘a vaccine-preventable, zoonotic, viral disease affecting the central nervous system’. A viral disease is an infection caused by a virus; the main virus responsible for rabies is Lyssaviruses which is found on all continents except Antarctica and originates from the genetic lineage of bats.

How can you be infected by rabies?

Surprisingly up to 99% of all rabies cases are caused by domestic animals, most often in the form of a bite, where the virus enters the human body and progresses up the spinal cord ending up in the brain, where it multiplies using the host body.

The corruption of the brain allows it to travel to other nerves, most prominently the salivary glands and then the saliva.

What is the effect of rabies on humans?

In this day and age, it is rare to hear that a disease has a near 100% mortality rate once clinical symptoms appear, yet this is the case for rabies. The reason for this is because once the virus reaches the brain it causes severe inflammation as well as utilizes tactics to fight the hosts immune system and hide from antiviral drugs which makes it difficult to target. One fascinating way it does this is by forming a blood barrier that acts as a shield from cells and large molecules trying to enter the brain. It can also kill moving protective T cells and move through the body without alerting sensors. When having rabies patients can often develop what’s described as ‘zombie’ like symptoms, this includes deliria, hallucinations, heightened aggression, hydrophobia (now known

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to be caused by throat spasms) and insomnia, et these usually end within 10 days of starting. This is the reason rabies is so difficult to detect before its symptoms appear, by which time it is often too late.

Once a human contracts rabies they will go through these following stages: 1. Incubation, where a person must be isolated, can last from a few days to years (but usually 1-3 months).

2. Prodrome is when the host's immune system begins to try and fight back, which will give symptoms of the flu. During this stage, the person may also experience nerve damage, this can last from 2 to 10 days.

3. Acute neurologic period is when muscle fasciculations, priapism, and convulsions occur, during this time patients may die, advance to paralysis (could only occur in bitten limb).

4. Coma, this stage will usually occur early on in stage 3, by then patients exhibit many of the stranger effects of rabies.

5. Death, or, rarely, recovery.

Recovery for rabies patients is not common and is not easy either, but it is possible, and with current medical advancements and research it becomes more possible than ever!

World Health Organization. (2023, September 20). Rabies. Who.int; World Health Organization: WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rabies Microbiology Society. (2020). Rabies virus: can we treat the untreatable?

Microbiologysociety.org. https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/rabies-virus-canwe-treat-the-untreatable.html CDC. (2020, November 30). What is Rabies? . CDC; Centers for Disease Control and prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/about.html

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