Taxmann's Fundamentals of Political Science by Taxmann

Preface

The study of politics, in its essence, is a study of humanity itself-our quest for order, justice, power, and freedom. Political science, as a discipline, offers both a mirror to the past and a compass for the future. It examines the foundational structures that sustain societies, while also interrogating the evolving practices and challenges that shape our collective destinies. Yet, for many students and engaged citizens alike, the subject can appear either too abstract in its theories or too fragmented in its applications. This book seeks to bridge that divide.

Foundations of Political Science has been conceived as a comprehensive yet accessible text that introduces readers to the full spectrum of the discipline. It aspires not only to provide clarity in navigating classical theories, modern ideologies, and institutional arrangements but also to cultivate a habit of critical and reflective inquiry. Each chapter is designed to move seamlessly from conceptual frameworks to real-world illustrations, ensuring that the subject never remains confined to the pages of theory but resonates with the lived realities of governance, civic participation, and public life.

The structure of the book, spanning seven carefully curated chapters reflects the evolution of political thought and practice, beginning with the origins of the state and the nature of governance, and extending to the complexities of international relations and contemporary policy dilemmas. In doing so, it embraces both the Indian experience and the global context, offering a perspective that is at once grounded and expansive. The book consciously avoids simplistic generalizations, instead presenting politics as a layered, dynamic, and often contested terrain where diverse ideas, institutions, and actors converge.

What distinguishes this work is its commitment to balance: Academic rigor with clarity of expression; theoretical breadth with depth of analysis; and traditional concerns explored alongside pressing contemporary issues. It is intended to be more than a textbook; it is a companion for learners embarking on their first encounter with political science, a guide for scholars seeking to connect theory with practice, and a resource for citizens striving to make sense of the political currents shaping their world.

At its heart, the book embodies a conviction that the study of politics is not merely about passing examinations or mastering abstract concepts, but about nurturing the analytical skills and civic sensibilities required for responsible engagement in democratic life. If this book succeeds in sparking curiosity, fos-

tering dialogue, and encouraging readers to question received wisdom while formulating their own, it will have served its purpose.

This work has been shaped by my years of teaching, research, and dialogue with students whose questions, critiques, and insights have continually challenged me to refine my own understanding. It is to them and to all readers who approach this book with a spirit of inquiry that I dedicate these pages.

DR. MANISHA MIRDHA

Political Concepts and Types of State

Governance

Introduction to Elections and Voting

7.4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy refers to the way governments turn their political ideas into programs and actions that lead to real-world outcomes and changes. The ‘real world’ is always evolving, which has led to a greater emphasis on using evidence in the design, making, and implementation of policies. As the connections between society and its various public institutions have grown more complex and interdependent, there has been a growing need for thorough evaluations of government actions and the reasons behind choosing certain policy options over others. Public policy plays a crucial role in understanding political realities. It is deemed effective when it addresses issues efficiently, supports governmental institutions and policies, and fosters active citizenship. Public policies have existed as long as governments themselves, regardless of their form—be it oligarchy, monarchy, aristocracy, tyranny, democracy, or any other type. To address the diverse needs and challenges of the populace, governments must develop numerous policies, which are known as public policies.

In his book ‘Advanced Introduction to Public Policy’, B. Guy Peters21 defines public policy as the activities that governments undertake to influence their economy and society. Essentially, this means that public policy consists of legislation aimed at benefiting or affecting the electorate in various ways. It emphasizes the decisions that lead to the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of public health services, the administration of educational systems, and the organization of defense forces, among others. As an academic field, public policy incorporates elements from various social science disciplines, including economics, sociology, political economy, social policy, program evaluation, policy analysis, and public management, all applied to the challenges of governmental administration and operations. However, the study of public policy is distinct from political science or economics due to its emphasis on applying theory to real-world practice.

India has a rich history of public policy that dates back to ancient times. The Arthashastra22, authored by Chanakya in the 4th century BCE, is recognized as one of the earliest texts on public policy. During the period of British colonial rule, the Indian government was significantly shaped by Western ideas and governance models. The British implemented laws and regulations that primarily

21. Peters, B. G. (2015). Advanced Introduction to Public Policy. Edward Elgar. p.3. ISBN 978-178195-576-5

22. The Arthashastra (Sanskrit: ) is an ancient Indian treatise written in Sanskrit that covers various topics such as statecraft, politics, economic policy, military strategy, the role of the state, and social organization. It is attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, who lived around 350-275 BCE. Kautilya played a crucial role in establishing the reign of the great king Chandragupta Maurya, who ruled from approximately 321 to 297 BCE and founded the Mauryan Empire, which lasted from 322 to 185 BCE.

served their own interests rather than those of the Indian populace. Following independence in 1947, India established a democratic government grounded in the principles of secularism, socialism, and federalism. In the initial years of independence, public policy was mainly centered on nation-building and fostering rapid industrialization. Over the years, public policy in India has adapted to meet new challenges and seize opportunities. More recently, initiatives such as Digital India23 and Make in India24 showcase the country’s ambition to emerge as a leader in digital technology and manufacturing. Until recently, public policy in India was often viewed as a domain reserved for government officials and decision-makers impacting the public. This contrasts sharply with the United States, where there is no permanent group of officials dedicated to policy-making.

The belief in India that public policy should only concern those already in government is an unfortunate remnant of the British Raj. Following the advice of Paul Appleby, who was then the Dean of the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University, the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA)25 was founded in 1954. Since then, several other training centers for government officials have been established, including the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie26 and various state-level Administrative Training Institutes. These institutions primarily focus on the training needs of government officials, while also serving, to a lesser extent, managers from the corporate sector and civil society organizations.

A key aspect of public policy in India is the active participation of various stakeholders, including the government, civil society organizations, media, and private sector entities. These groups are essential in shaping public policy through advocacy, research, and the implementation of policies. For example, public policy think tanks like the Centre for Civil Society and the Observer Research Foundation offer valuable research and analysis that guide policy decisions. Additionally, social movements in India, such as the Right to Information

23. A key initiative of the Government of India aimed at transforming the country into a digitally empowered society and knowledge-driven economy. This program was launched in 2015 by the Prime Minister of India.

24. The ‘Make in India’ initiative was launched internationally in September 2014, reflecting India’s renewed commitment to manufacturing. Its goal is to position India as the top choice for global manufacturing and to encourage significant investments in this sector. The initiative is built on four key pillars aimed at fostering entrepreneurship in India and supporting various other sectors.

25. The Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) was founded in 1954 and operates as a research and training organization under the Ministry of Personnel of the Government of India. It focuses on training and research in Public Administration and Governance within India. The institute regularly conducts training programs for a variety of participants, including Civil Servants, Judicial Officers, and Public Administrators. Currently, the Director-General of the institute is Surendra Nath Tripathi.

26. Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration (LBSNAA) is a training institute for civil services focused on public policy and public administration, located in Mussoorie, Uttarakhand, India.

movement and the Anti-Corruption movement, have significantly influenced public policy and ensured that policymakers are held accountable.

People from all backgrounds should strive to understand public policy better. It’s essential to reintroduce the ‘public’ into public policy discussions to prevent it from being dominated by technocrats or eco-crats who may not fully grasp what truly matters to the average person. Public policy is far too significant to be left solely in the hands of policymakers, whether they are politicians, public servants, or experts. A well-informed public serves as the best safeguard for policies that genuinely reflect the public interest. The study of public policy should concentrate on various social and political issues, which often have multiple dimensions that can be explored through insights from nearly all social science fields. To fully appreciate and understand a social or political phenomenon, policy studies must adopt interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches in their intellectual, educational, and practical methods. This approach enables students to develop their capacity to make informed judgments about what is considered ‘right’ and ‘good.’ For instance, policies that yield positive outcomes for many may not be deemed ‘right’ if they infringe upon the fundamental rights of individuals as outlined in the Indian constitution. Let’s explore some perspectives on Public Policy from experts.

- Robert Eye Stone27 terms public policy as the nexus of government unit to its environment.

- Thomas R. Dye28 believes that whatever government chooses to do or also not to do is Public Policy.

- Richard Rose who is well-known for his work on lesson-drawing in public policy says that “public policy is not a decision; it is a course or pattern of activity.” in his book “Lesson-Drawing in Public Policy: A Guide to Learning across Time and Space” (1993). He discusses how governments can learn from policies implemented elsewhere. His framework helps policymakers understand when and how lessons can be effectively adapted to different political and institutional contexts.

- In Carl J. Friedrich’s29 opinion public policy is a suggested course of action of a person, group of persons or government within a given ecosystem offering opportunities and obstacles which the policy proposes to utilize and overcome in an effort to reach a goal or realize a purpose.

From the above mentioned definitions, it is evident that public policies are decisions made by the government, stemming from the actions it takes to achieve specific goals and objectives. Additionally, the process of formulating and imple-

27. Eyestone, R. (1971). The threads of public policy: A study in policy leadership. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. p.197

28. Dye, Thomas R. (1972). Understanding Public Policy. Upper Saddle, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-205-71685-2.

29. Friedrich, C. J. (1963). Man and his government: An empirical theory of politics. McGraw-Hill p.79

menting public policy involves a carefully organized approach. It necessitates a strong relationship and interaction among key governmental agencies, including the political executive, legislature, bureaucracy, and judiciary.

Conclusively we could say, Public policy is essentially a decision made by government bodies and agencies that impacts the public interest. The process of creating public policy involves a series of activities that ultimately result in a policy decision and its implementation. Public policies have existed for as long as there have been governments.

Policies are inevitable consequences of political actions. Gabriel Almond30 describes a political system as a collection of interactions with structures, each fulfilling its role to maintain the system as an ongoing entity. It involves a series of sequential steps that consistently transform inputs into outputs. Almond categorizes the inputs of a political system into broad functional areas such as ‘political socialization and recruitment, interest aggregation, interest articulation, and political communication’. The output activities are those carried out by the political system as a response to the needs or pressures it faces in the form of inputs. These outputs can manifest as governmental policies, programs, decisions, and more. Another perspective on the relationship between politics and policy is the ‘Black Box Model31’ introduced by Easton32.

The “black box” model of political system. Source: adapted from David Easton 1965.

30. Almond, Gabriel A. 1956. “Comparative Political Systems.” Journal of Politics 18(3): 391-409.

31. The black box model serves as a framework for comprehending the policy-making process in public policy. It conceptualizes this process as a “black box” that converts societal demands into actual policies.

32. Easton, David (1953). The political system: An enquiry into the state of political science New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 130.

This figure was uploaded by Adam M. Wellstead (Professor at Michigan Technological University, United States)

The remaining demands that are not addressed in the decisions are reintroduced into the same process for conversion into actionable decisions. These two models clearly outline the connection between politics and policies within a political system, highlighting the key principles of Public Policy:

1. Goal-oriented: The aim of Public policies is to achieve the objectives designed by the government for the overall good of the public. These policies clearly define the government’s programs.

2. Public policy results from the collective actions of the government. This means it reflects an arrangement or scheme of activity among governmental officials and actors, rather than being seen as isolated decisions.

3. Public policy represents what the government actually decides to do (or not do). It illustrates the relationship between government structures and the specific political context within a given regulatory system. It can manifest in various forms, such as laws, ordinances, court rulings, executive orders, and other decisions.

4. Public policy is proactive, reflecting the government’s concern and its actions toward a specific issue that the policy addresses. It carries the backing of legal and constitutional arrangements. Conversely, it can also involve decisions by government officials to refrain from taking measures on a particular matter.

To better analyze the concept of policy, it’s crucial to differentiate between goals and policies. Goals represent what policies aim to achieve or aspire to. A goal is essentially a preferred outcome that a society seeks to fulfil. These goals can be viewed from various angles, ranging from abstract values that a society wishes to attain to specific, concrete objectives. For instance, the eradication of abuse of any kind is an objective that the government aims to pursue. Governmental policies focus on these specific goals and serve as the means to achieve them. When the government states its goal of providing housing for all members of underprivileged communities, it is merely expressing an intention rather than establishing a public policy. Often, governments announce goals for political reasons, even if they have little intention of following through. To transform a goal into a policy, it must be put into action, requiring the design of programs aimed at achieving specific objectives.

It’s important to differentiate between a policy and a decision. Often, people use these terms interchangeably, but that’s not accurate. Individuals, organizations, and governments are always making decisions. However, not every decision

qualifies as a policy matter. At its core, decision-making involves choosing from available alternatives to take action. A decision arises only when multiple alternatives exist. Therefore, making a decision is fundamentally about selecting an option. The field of decision-making has evolved to analyze the conditions that enhance this process and how decision-makers can improvise their choices by increasing the number of alternatives at their disposal.

There are two main types of decisions: programmed and non-programmed. Programmed decisions are regular and don’t require fresh consideration each time they are taken. These decisions are mostly repetitive, and tailored methoda can be established for them. Each decision doesn’t need to be handled individually. In programmed decisions, multiple factors including but not limited to skills, habits, expertise and knowledge about the issue play a crucial role. For example, once the decision is made to keep the library open from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., there’s no need to reconsider that choice; it becomes part of the established procedures. On the other hand, non-programmed decision situations are either one time occurrence, sometimes new and mostly unstructured. There are no clear methods for these decisions, and each situation must be addressed separately. Such decisions are necessary in unprecedented circumstances, like the outbreak of an epidemic or pandemic (such as COVID-19) or the occurrence of an earthquake. Skills’ training is essential for making these decisions, and innovative thinking is important. Both categories of decisions must be made within a broader framework of course of action.

Public policy refers to the overall vision or perspective that the ruling regime establishes to guide its decision-making. Each organization or individual involved is expected to make decisions within this policy framework. A decision can be a one-time move, while a policy is made up of multiple measures or decisions aimed at achieving specific goals. Essentially, a policy is a collection of decisions that are interconnected and form a cohesive strategy. There are similarities in the processes of policy-formulation and decision-making, as both involve choosing among various alternatives and can follow similar methods for generating those alternatives. However, it’s important to recognize that policy is a broader concept, encompassing a series of decisions and typically considering a longer time frame. The goals and objectives of a policy are influenced by the values of the policymaker, which can be illustrated in the following way.

Understanding public policy becomes clearer when we examine its various characteristics. Here are some key features of public policy making:

1. Making Policies is a Complex Process: The process of policy making consists of numerous interconnected components that rely on communication and feedback loops, interacting in various ways. While some aspects are clear and easily observed, many others operate through less visible channels, often only partially recognized by the officials involved.

These hidden processes can be challenging, if not impossible, to detect. Consequently, guidelines may emerge from a series of individual decisions, leading to a ‘policy’ without any of the involved decision-makers fully realizing how a particular outcome was reached.

2. Public Policies are Dynamic: Policy making is an ongoing activity that occurs within a structured environment; it requires a steady flow of resources and motivation to thrive. This process is dynamic, evolving over time, with the sequences of its sub-processes and phases varying both internally and in relation to one another.

3. Policy making consists of various elements: The multi-facetedness inherent in public policy making is a key characteristic of the process. Formulating public policy often involves a wide range of sub-structures. The nature of these sub-components and their level of involvement in policy making can differ based on various issues, circumstances, and societal values. Each policy structure contributes differently, indicating that every substructure plays a distinct and sometimes unique role in public policy. The type of contribution made by these substructures is influenced, in part, by their characteristics both formal and informal, which can vary across different societies.

4. Decision-Making: Policy making is a nuanced form of decision-making. This is significant because it allows us to apply decision-making approaches to the policy-making process.

5. It establishes Major Guidelines: In most instances, public policy provides broad requirements rather than elaborate directives regarding the primary lines of action to be taken. Once the main lines of action are determined, more specific sub-policies are typically required to translate the general framework into actionable terms for implementation.

6. It leads to Action: Decision-making can lead to action, alterations in the decision-making process itself, or sometimes neither. Most significant social decisions, particularly in public policy, are designed to prompt action. Additionally, policies aimed at improving the policy-making process, like efficiency initiatives in government, are also action-oriented. Choosing not to take any action is, in itself, a policy decision.

7. It focuses on the Future: Policy making is inherently prospective. This characteristic is crucial as it brings in elements of uncertainty and unpredictable outcomes, which are fundamental to nearly all policy-making efforts. In practice, policy making often formulates policies in broad and flexible terms due to the inherent uncertainty of the future. This flexibility allows policymakers to adapt their strategies based on new information and helps them prepare for unexpected developments.

8. It is primarily shaped by Governmental Organs: While public policy can also be influenced by private individuals and non-governmental orga-

nizations—such as when it advocates for laws against certain behaviours or encourages citizens to take action in private settings—its main focus is typically on governmental bodies. Other influences are often secondary or intermediate.

9. It aims to achieve what is in the Public Interest: Although defining the “public interest” can be challenging, the term suggests a broad orientation that is both essential and significant. Additionally, there is substantial evidence that the concept of “public interest” plays a crucial role in the public policy-making process, making it a “real” phenomenon and a vital tool for understanding how policies are developed.

10. Usage of Best Possible Means: In simple terms, policy making seeks to achieve the greatest overall benefit. Gains and losses can manifest as realized values and impaired values, respectively, and often cannot be measured in comparable units. As a result, quantitative methods are frequently not applicable in this area of public policymaking. The ultimate goal is always to utilize the best possible means. Rather than always making the most satisfying decisions, policymakers sometimes choose to ‘satisfice.’33

11. Involvement of Various Bodies and Agencies: The Electorate, Industrial workforce, intelligentsia, legislators, public servants, political parties, political executives, and the judiciary are among the many entities that engage in public policy making and can significantly impact the policy process.

7.5 TYPES OF PUBLIC POLICY

Policies can be classified or categorized based on their characteristics, goals, or instruments. Whether it’s shaping laws, allocating resources, or ensuring fairness, understanding these categories sheds light on the complex nature of policymaking. By conducting regular reviews and updates, governments ensure that policies stay relevant and effective, aligning with the changing needs and aspirations of society.

33. Satisfice-To decide on and pursue a course of action that will satisfy the minimum requirements necessary to achieve a particular goal. A decision making strategy that aims for a satisfactory or adequate results rather than the optimal solution.

Distributive Redistributive

Types of Public Policies

Distributive policies

Distributive policies are designed for specific sections of society. They can involve the provision of resources, peoples’ welfare, or health assistance, among other areas. These policies encompass all public aid and welfare programs. Distributive policies not only provide goods and services to members of a community but also share the costs of these goods and services among them. Examples could be government initiatives that influence spending on welfare, public education, highways, and public safety, as well as benefit plans from professional organizations. Additional illustrations of distributive policies are adult education programs, food relief efforts, social insurance, and vaccination camps. These policies are crucial for promoting fair resource allocation and ensuring that benefits are distributed equitably among individuals or groups within society. Their primary goal is to reduce inequalities and improve social and economic welfare. Various types of distribution policies include:

Housing Policies

Social Security Programs

Education Funding

Agricultural Subsidies

Redistributive policies

Redistributive policies focus on reorganizing policies aimed at achieving fundamental social and economic changes. Certain public goods and welfare

services tend to be unevenly distributed among different segments of society, and redistributive policies aim to address this imbalance. As the term implies, redistributive policies involve reallocating collective resources. Their main goal is to foster equality. Examples of such policies include temporary assistance for needy families and food programs like the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. These policies are vital for strategies aimed at controlling inequities and promoting responsible growth and balanced development across its three dimensions social, economic and environmental. They serve as a powerful tool for enhancing equality of outcomes by redistributing income and improving equality of opportunity through better access to income-generating assets, such as human capital and wealth (including land, industrial, and financial capital) among individuals and between the public and private sectors. In addition to their significant potential for reducing inequality, redistributive policies are essential for promoting values aligned with sustainable development and for creating a socio-economic environment that encourages financial stability, economic growth, political inclusion, gender equality, social mobility, and environmental sustainability. Redistribution policies are crucial in managing federal, state, and local taxation and financial decisions that impact income inequality and resource allocation. Some examples of redistribution policies include:

Progressive Taxation

Social Safety Nets

Minimum Wage Adjustments

Substantive policies

These policies focus on the overall welfare and progress of society, encompassing initiatives such as regenerative development, employment opportunities and stabilities, economic growth, education, law enforcement, anti-pollution measures, climate resilient development etc. They result from thorough policy formulation and have a broad impact on the welfare and development of society as a whole, rather than targeting specific or privileged groups. When creating these policies, it is essential to consider the core principles of the constitution, the socio-economic challenges faced, and the moral expectations of the community. Substantive policies form the backbone of public policy efforts, designed to tackle fundamental societal issues directly and characterized by their focused approach to addressing urgent problems.

Some examples of substantive policies:

Educational Reforms

Criminal Justice Reform

Immigration Policies

Technology and Innovation Policies

Regulatory policies

Regulatory policies focus on overseeing trade, business practices, safety standards, public utilities, and more. This regulation is carried out by independent organizations that operate on behalf of the government. In India, entities like the Insurance Corporations, Hospitals, Reserve Bank of India, Hindustan Steel, Electricity Boards, Transport Corporations, and Financial Corporations are involved in these regulatory activities. The policies established by the government regarding these services and the organizations that provide them are referred to as regulatory policies. These guidelines aim to manage various sectors of the economy, ensuring compliance with government plans and preventing any deviations. For instance, the banking sector is closely monitored by the RBI, following government policies. Likewise, the RBI regulates the money market, while SEBI oversees the stock market. Regulatory policies protect public interests and uphold industry ethics, facilitating safe operations across different fields, each facing its own set of challenges. Some examples of regulatory policies include—

Environmental Policy

Food Safety Regulations

Labour Regulations

Financial Regulations

Healthcare Regulations

Other kinds of policies

Constituent policy

Constituent policy issues relate to the establishment or restructuring of institutions. Each of these issues represents a distinct arena of power. However, it’s worth noting that Lowi’s34 perspective of politics as a function of policies has faced criticism for being overly simplistic, methodologically questionable, and lacking in testability. Cobbe and Elder35, for example, point out that Lowi’s typology has fundamental limitations. It fails to offer a framework for comprehending change, as the categories become increasingly unclear and more diffuse.

Capitalization policies

Under capitalization policies, the Union government provides financial subsidies to state and local governments. These subsidies can also be extended to central and state business enterprises or other significant areas when needed. Such policies differ from substantive, regulatory, distributive, and redistributive policies, as they do not specifically include provisions for public welfare services. Developing effective policies necessitates thorough analysis and evidence-based

34. Lowi, T. J. (1964). American business, public policy, case studies, and political theory. World Politics, 16(4), 677–715. https://doi.org/10.2307/2009452

35. Cobb, R. W., & Elder, C. D. (1972). Participation in American politics: The dynamics of agenda-building. Allyn & Bacon.

decision-making. Skilled policymakers play a vital role in crafting and implementing policies aimed at improving society.

7.6 FORCES IN THE POLICY MAKING PROCESS

Public policy is a complex and multifaceted process that involves the interaction of various agencies. This includes numerous businesses, interest groups, and individuals who compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in specific ways across a range of policies. These stakeholders use a variety of tactics to promote their interests, such as lobbying, publicly advocating their positions, educating both supporters and opponents, and rallying allies around particular issues. It’s uncommon for absolutely perfect policies to emerge from the political process; more often, policy outcomes result from compromises among the involved parties. Understanding policy-making requires considering the broader environment in which it occurs. Due to the diverse factors that can influence policy in different directions, changes in public policy often unfold slowly. In the absence of a crisis—and sometimes even during one—these influencing factors can counterbalance each other, hindering the development and implementation of new policies and leading to gradual rather than radical changes. Frequently, those influencing agents are more successful at preventing policy changes than in getting new policies enacted. Policy-making is a collective endeavour involving many participants. This discussion aims to outline who takes part in the policy-making process, how they do so, and what factors typically shape policy behaviour. In our country, several key entities play significant roles in this process.

Citizens: Citizen involvement in the development and execution of public policies is seen as a vital component of participatory democracy. When all stakeholders are engaged in the process, their legitimate interests are likely to be safeguarded, and the costs associated with implementing such policies may decrease, as they will be less likely to seek judicial or other remedies to defend their interests. Citizen participation fulfils several key roles: (1) It offers citizens the chance and creates the necessary conditions to engage in political life consistently—not just during election periods. (2) It establishes a framework for citizens to advocate for their legitimate interests, thereby fostering a dynamic democratic society. (3) It enhances the transparency of public authorities’ work and brings them closer to the communities they serve. (4) It improves the quality of public policy decisions and facilitates their effective implementation.

Constitution: The Constitution serves as the highest law of the land, and all policies created must align with its framework. As a detailed document, it outlines the functioning of government, its goals, and its limitations. The Preamble states the objectives, while the Directive Principles provide the guidelines for how the state should formulate its policies.

AUTHOR : MANISHA MIRDHA

PUBLISHER : TAXMANN

DATE OF PUBLICATION : SEPTEMBER 2025

EDITION : 2025 EDITION

ISBN NO : 9789371269612

NO. OF PAGES : 396

BINDING TYPE : PAPERBACK

Taxmann's Fundamentals of Political Science