Vertical Gardening in a Northern City; Speculations for Winnipeg

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Vertical Gardening in a Northern City;

Speculations for Winnipeg

A Practicum By: Tamara Urben-Imbeault

II

Figure 1: Vertical garden idea web.

“Unless one merely thinks man was intended to be an all conquering and sterilizing power in the world, there must be some wise principle of coexistence between man and nature, eYen if it has to be a modiÉ€ed kind of man and a modiÉ€ed kind of nature Č… )rancis /ormier, , p

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DEDICATION PREFACE EXPERIMENTS REVISITED 1. INTRODUCTION 2. A SHORT HISTORY of VERTICAL GARDENING 3. TYPES OF VERTICAL GARDENS 3.1 Soil Bearing Systems Vines and Climbing Plants Espalier Trained Trees Retaining Wall Planters Panel Systems 3.2 Soil-Free Systems Hydroponic Felt Systems /LYLQJ :DOO %LRĂ€OWHUV 4. BENEFITS OF VERTICAL GARDENING 4.1 Aesthetic Improvement 4.2 Reduction of the Urban Heat Island Effect 4.3 Reduction of Heating and Cooling Costs in Buildings 4.4 Winter Impact On Building Performance 4.5 Pollution and Dust Control 4.6 Mitigation of Stormwater Runoff 4.7 Noise reduction and refraction 4.8 Integration of Native Habitats in Cities 4.9 Food Production 4.10 Biophilia 4.11 Marketing 5. DIFFICULTIES ASSOCIATED WITH VERTICAL GARDENING 5.1 Lack of Knowledge and Awareness 5.2 Lack of Empirical Evidence 5.3 Lack of Incentives 5.4 Cost 5.5 Lack of Industry Standards and Codes 5.6 High Visibility of Failed Vertical Gardens 5.7 Associated Risks and Unknown Factors

3 4 5 6 9 12 14 21 23 23 27 27 27 29 29 30 33 33 35 38 39 40 41 42 43 43 44 45 49 50 50 51 52 52 53 54

6. MICROCLIMATE OF A VERTICAL GARDEN 7. REGIONAL AND NEIGHBOURHOOD CLIMATES IN WINNIPEG 7KH 3ODFH DQG LWV ,QĂ XHQFH :LQQLSHJ 2QH *UHDW &LW\ 7.2 Zone 2B 1HLJKERXUKRRG 0LFURFOLPDWH 8UEDQ *HRPHWU\ 0DWHULDOV DQG WKH 8+, 8. FOUNDATIONS 8.1 Human Ecosystems Model 8.2 Urban Reconciliation Ecology 8.3 Habitat Templates 8.4 Urban Cliff Hypothesis 8.5 Wall Ecology 9. SUITABLE HABITAT TEMPLATES FOR WINNIPEG 9.1 Cliffs 9.2 Alvar 9.3 Manitoba Sand Dunes 9.4 Mixed Grass Prairie 9.5 Prairie Potholes 10. DESIGN PARAMETERS 10.1 Selecting Realistic Habitat Templates 10.2 Sun and Wind Exposure/ Location 10.3 Container Size/ Soil Requirement 10.4 Winnipeg Winters 10.5 Potential Sites 'HVLJQ 6NHWFK 5RWDWLQJ :DOO 'HVLJQ 6NHWFK *UDYLW\ :DOO 'HVLJQ 6NHWFK 7KH &OLII :DOO 'HVLJQ VNHWFK 7KH 8QGXODWLQJ :DOO 11. DESIGN PROPOSAL 11.1 Location 11.2 Design Structure/Form/Material 11.3 Plant Pallet and Habitat Potential 11.4 Adaptive management 11.5 Winter Garden 12. CONCLUSION FIGURES MAP METADATA WORKS CITED

57 61 61 63 66 71 73 73 74 75 79 83 85 105 105 109 111 115 115 117 117 117 121 123 127 129 131 133 133 138 142 148 148 151 154 160 163

Figure XX: Roadside cli face in Costa Rica.

Figure 2: Garden design at City Place.

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ABSTRACT

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his practicum is a reference for vertical JDUGHQHUV LQ FROG FOLPDWHV :LQQLSHJ 0DQLWRED LV H[SORUHG KRZHYHU ÀQGLQJV PD\ be applied to other cities in similar climates. )LUVW WKH KLVWRU\ RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ LV GLVFXVVHG WKHQ WKH W\SHV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV currently on the market are described. These FDQ EH FODVVLÀHG LQWR WZR FDWHJRULHV VRLO bearing or non-soil bearing. Most designs are modular pre-planted systems that can EH DWWDFKHG WR DQ\ ZDOO DV ORQJ DV LW VDWLVÀHV the structural requirements recommended E\ WKH PDQXIDFWXUHU 7KH EHQHÀWV RI YHUWLFDO gardening have been shown to be rather H[WHQVLYH FRYHULQJ D ZLGH UDQJH RI DUHDV $HVWKHWLF LPSURYHPHQW UHGXFWLRQ RI WKH 8UEDQ +HDW ,VODQG 8+, HIIHFW LPSURYHPHQW RI DLU TXDOLW\ VWRUPZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ QRLVH UHGXFWLRQ QDWLYH KDELWDW LQWHJUDWLRQ reduction of heating and cooling costs for EXLOGLQJV IRRG SURGXFWLRQ PDUNHWLQJ DQG ELRSKLOLD DUH DOO EHQHÀWV H[SORUHG LQ GHWDLO 'LIÀFXOWLHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ DUH GLVFXVVHG VSHFLÀFDOO\ WKH lack of knowledge and awareness of vertical

JDUGHQV ODFN RI HPSLULFDO HYLGHQFH RU PLVVLQJ GHWDLOV LQ H[LVWLQJ UHVHDUFK RYHUDOO FRVW DQG ODFN RI ÀQDQFLDO LQFHQWLYHV ODFN RI LQGXVWU\ FRGHV DQG YDULRXV DVVRFLDWHG ULVNV Design framework exists within microclimate FRQGLWLRQV XQLTXH WR YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV DV well as neighbourhood and regional (micro) climates. Theories relating to the study of green walls covered include the human HFRV\VWHP PRGHO XUEDQ UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ HFRORJ\ KDELWDW WHPSODWLQJ WKH XUEDQ FOLII K\SRWKHVLV DQG ZDOO HFRORJ\ 6XLWDEOH KDELWDW WHPSODWHV LGHQWLÀHG IRU YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV LQ :LQQLSHJ DUH FOLIIV VDQG GXQHV DOYDUV mixed grass prairie and prairie potholes. Design parameters to be followed for vertical garden design in Winnipeg are to ensure that OLJKWZHLJKW PDWHULDOV DUH XVHG WR SURYLGH insulation to protect plants from sudden WHPSHUDWXUH FKDQJHV WR FKRRVH SODQWV WKDW grow in the region and are adapted to grow LQ DUHDV ZLWK OLPLWHG VRLO LQFUHDVHG ZLQG varying degrees of sunlight (depending on RULHQWDWLRQ DQG LQFUHDVHG SROOXWLRQ DQG VDOW spray depending on location.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T

hank you to everyone who has helped ensure this document made it to reality. To the chair of P\ FRPPLWWHH $QQD 7KXUPD\U IRU SXVKLQJ PH WR FRQVLGHU DOO RSWLRQV DQG IRU OHQGLQJ D FULWLFDO H\H WR P\ GHVLJQ SURFHVV 7R P\ LQWHUQDO DGYLVRU %UHQGD %URZQ ZKRVH FRPSUHKHQVLYH HGLWLQJ and sound advice has made this document much better than I could have ever imagined. To my H[WHUQDO DGYLVRU 0DULD =ELJQLHZLF] ZKR WDXJKW PH DOPRVW HYHU\WKLQJ , NQRZ DERXW QDWLYH SODQW FRPPXQLWLHV DQG ZKR ZDV DOZD\V DYDLODEOH WR HQFRXUDJH PH ZKHQ , QHHGHG LW WKH PRVW 7KDQNV WR P\ PDNHUV %ULJLWWD DQG 0LFKHO :LWKRXW \RX OLIH DV , NQRZ LW ZRXOGQ·W H[LVW 7KDQNV WR P\ IULHQGV ERWK LQ IDFXOW\ DQG RXW ZKR XQGHUVWRRG ZKHQ , ZRXOG GLVDSSHDU IRU PRQWKV DW D WLPH WR ZRUN RQ WKLV SURMHFW DQG ZHUH DOZD\V UHDG\ ZLWK D FROG RQH ZKHQ , QHHGHG WR GURZQ P\ VRUURZV 7R WKRVH LQ IDFXOW\ DQ HVSHFLDOO\ ELJ WKDQN \RX IRU \RXU WKRXJKWIXO FULWLTXHV DQG GLVFXVVLRQ <RX FRQWLQXH WR EH JUHDW VRXUFHV RI LQVSLUDWLRQ -DPHV 6KDZQ /LD DQG &KULV %HFFD $P\ 7RYH DQG )HUQDQGR 7KDQN \RX WR WKH )DFXOW\ 2I $UFKLWHFWXUH IRU JLYLQJ PH WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR WHDFK H[SORUH DQG OHDUQ ZD\ PRUH WKDQ ZKDW ZDV RQ WKH FXUULFXOXP 7KDQN \RX IRU PDNLQJ PH WKLQN DQG DOVR thank you for paying my rent. 7KDQN \RX WR WKRVH ZKR GRQDWHG WKHLU WLPH LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRS\ULJKW UHOHDVHV 6XVDQ DW 7UXH 1RUWK (QWHUWDLQPHQW /WG 3DWW\ DW &HQWUH9HQWXUH DQG *DLO DW 1XPEHU 7HQ $UFKLWHFWXUH 7KDQN \RX WR 3DWULFN %ODQF %UDG %DVV DQG $ODQ 'DUOLQJWRQ ZKRVH ZRUN LQVSLUHG PH WR SXUVXH my interest in vertical gardening. $QG ÀQDOO\ WR HYHU\RQH ZKR KDV WROG PH WKURXJKRXW P\ OLIH WKDW , VKRXOG JLYH XS DQG GR VRPHWKLQJ HOVH WKLV LV IRU \RX 6XFN LW \RX PRQVWHUV

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DEDICATION For vertical garden enthusiasts everywhere.

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PREFACE T

KURXJKRXW P\ JUDGXDWH VWXGLHV , KDYH consistently been interested in how to integrate ecological systems into functioning urban spaces. How can the city of tomorrow WDNH SODQW FRPPXQLWLHV DQG DGDSW WKHP bend them and twist them so that the city can be more responsive and integrated into its regional context? How can leftover urban spaces become indicators of their bioregions? How can we reconnect people to nature without tearing down existing successful infrastructure? These are all questions I have tried to respond to throughout my graduate studies. In each of my projects I have incorporated native vegetation into D IXQFWLRQDO HFRQRPLF PLOLHX ,Q P\ ÀUVW graduate studio with professor Brenda Brown I designed a stormwater retention system that was integrated into a parking lot. In my second graduate studio with professor 5LFKDUG 3HUURQ , ORRNHG DW KRZ HFRORJLFDO and economic infrastructure in the form of an inter-modal port could co-exist within a regionally sensitive planting pallet. In my ÀQDO JUDGXDWH VWXGLR ZLWK SURIHVVRU $ODQ 7DWH P\ GHVLJQ ZDV D VFXOSWXUH SDUN LQ ZKLFK a recreation of a local disappearing plant

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community was the second main attraction DIWHU WKH DUW RI FRXUVH /RRNLQJ EDFN LW QRZ only seems natural that this theme would follow me into my practicum. I began this project hoping to learn and gather as much knowledge as possible on the subject RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ )URP WKH Ă€UVW PRPHQW , VDZ 3DWULFN %ODQF¡V QRZ IDPRXV YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ DW WKH 0XVpH 'X 4XD\ %UDQOH\ , ZDV LQWULJXHG , FDQ¡W TXLWH H[SODLQ WKH DWWUDFWLRQ WKDW , Ă€UVW IHOW WR WKH JDUGHQ 3HUKDSV LW ZDV MXVW WKH IDFW WKDW , KDGQ¡W UHDOO\ VHHQ D YHUWLFDO garden of that kind before. Perhaps it was the lusciousness of the garden. Maybe the variety of textures and colours. Perhaps it ZDV VXEFRQVFLRXV RU LQVWLQFWXDO 0D\EH looking at this garden somehow brought me EDFN WR P\ FKLOGKRRG ZKHQ , XVHG WR SOD\ RQ WKH ULYHUEDQN EHKLQG P\ KRXVH EXLOGLQJ mud houses for my Lego people and bending grasses and willow branches for roofs. Maybe looking at it triggered a physiological release of melatonin. Perhaps in my subconscious I was reminded of the pre-settlement ancestral ZD\ RI OLIH ZKHQ D OXVFLRXV JUHHQ ODQGVFDSH ZRXOG KDYH PHDQW WKDW IRRG ZDV QHDUE\ WKDW

, FRXOG KLGH HDVLO\ IURP SUHGDWRUV DQG EH sheltered from the elements. Maybe I simply WKRXJKW LW ZDV VRPHWKLQJ ÂśFRRO¡ WKDW , KDGQ¡W seen before. Or maybe the true attraction was that I recognized that this project was an example of the integration of the so-called “natural worldâ€? with architecture. When I started my undergraduate degree I was most interested in the intersection between landscape and architecture. This beautiful plant community growing up the side of a building seemed to be a very poetic DQG SRZHUIXO ZD\ WR FRPELQH WKH WZR Ă€HOGV It captured my imagination and I started to daydream about the possibilities it held. Since entering the Department of Landscape $UFKLWHFWXUH DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 0DQLWRED I have been consistently intrigued by how landscapes can enrich cities. During my XQGHUJUDG SURMHFWV ZHUH XQGHUWDNHQ DW DQ DUFKLWHFWXUDO VFDOH DQG LQ JUDGXDWH VFKRRO , made the leap to a larger scale. I wanted to make large scale regionally sensitive designs; EH LW LQ D )RUPDQLDQ SDWFK FRUULGRU VHQVH RU enriching cities via landscape design to make them more beautiful.

This beauty is created seemingly effortlessly in vertical gardens. Panel style vertical gardens thus far have not been developed to survive outside in cold weather climates. The coldest panel style outdoor vertical garden is in USDA zone 6B (PNC Bank *UHHQ :DOO 3LWWVEXUJK 7KLV LV D ODUJH VHFWRU of the market that is missing out on these incredible vertical landscapes. I feel that vertical gardening for cold weather climates is VRPHWKLQJ WKDW QHHGV WR EH H[SORUHG IXUWKHU so this practicum is a journey of speculation on vertical garden design in Winnipeg. 8OWLPDWHO\ , KRSH WR SURYLGH UHIHUHQFH IRU future vertical garden enthusiasts in cold climates who will continue to explore this WRSLF LQ UHVHDUFK DQG FRQVWUXFWLRQ

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TOP PANEL: DRAINAGE HOLES ON BOTTOM ONLY. PRE-FAB STAINLESS STEEL VERTICAL GARDEN PANEL PROTECTIVE SCREEN GROWING MEDIUM

EXISTING BRICK WALL GALVANIZED STEEL CONNECTION SYSTEM

HEX BOLT

EXPASION BOLT

DRIP IRRIGATION PRE-FABRICATED GALVANIZED STEEL BRACKETS, WELDED TO PANELS

MIDDLE AND BOTTOM PANEL: DRAINAGE HOLES ON BOTH TOP AND BOTTOM.

DRAINAGE CHANNEL WELDED TO BOTTOM PANEL. STEEL SYSTEM, XISTING BEFORE 5 L-6

VERTICAL GARDEN SECTION Scale: 1:10

GALVANIZED STEEL ATTACHMENT SYSTEM, BOLTED TO EXISTING WALL TO BE RE-STRIKED BEFORE ATTACHING. HEX BOLTS

3 L-6

VERTICAL GARDEN ATTACHMENT SYSTEM (TO WALL) Scale: 1:20

100 100

TWENTY FIVE (25) PLANTS PER PANEL; ONE OF EACH SPECIES, PLUS TWO OF ANY SPECIES CHOSEN AT RANDOM.

500

1532

DRIP IRRIGATION LINE, 30 MM DIA.

BOTTOM ROW OF WALL COMPOSED OF PANELS WITH CATCH TRAY.

500 5500 4 L-6

VERTICAL GARDEN PLANTING AND IRRIGATION Scale: 1:20

)LJXUHV Design drawings for modular hydroponic vertical garden, made for LA Studio 7.

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EXPERIMENTS REVISITED A

few vertical gardens were designed and built before starting this practicum. My Ă€UVW YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ V\VWHP GHVLJQHG LQ P\ Ă€QDO JUDGXDWH VWXGLR LQ LV D PRGXODU hydroponic garden which I enlisted Shape Industries to manufacture. For the reading FRXUVH LQ , PDGH P\ RZQ ',< VW\OH (Do-It-Yourself) vertical gardens made from recycled drawers. Both projects taught me a lot about designing and building vertical JDUGHQV VR , ZLOO GLVFXVV WKH RXWFRPHV KHUH The module made for my last studio was a large square metal element that slid into a frame that held it to the wall. It was to be a hydroponic garden in a park I designed for WKH VWXGLR LQ 9LFWRULD %& 7KH HQG UHVXOW ZDV EXON\ FXPEHUVRPH DQG YHU\ KHDY\ $W WKDW VWDJH LQ P\ UHVHDUFK , GLGQ¡W IXOO\ XQGHUVWDQG WKH V\VWHP , ZDV GHVLJQLQJ VR PLVWDNHV ZHUH made. I now know it could have been much PRUH QDUURZ DQG PXFK OLJKWHU JLYHQ WKDW it was a felt hydroponic system and was located in Victoria - a much warmer climate than Winnipeg. During the manufacturing SURFHVV , KDG D VHULHV RI GLVFXVVLRQV ZLWK the manufacturers. They made various

recommendations about the back portion of the element where it was to connect to the framing support structure. We worked WRJHWKHU WR VLPSOLI\ WKH GHVLJQ KRZHYHU looking back now I can see that we could have easily eliminated much more material DQG VLPSOLĂ€HG WKH GHVLJQ HYHQ PRUH My next vertical garden build resulted from a self-directed reading course intended as the base of knowledge for this practicum. The reading course provided me the platform and inspiration that I needed to build a FRXSOH RI P\ RZQ DJDLQ RYHUO\ FRPSOH[ DQG FXPEHUVRPH YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ V\VWHPV which all failed in one way or another. Some used a combination of rockwool and soil which was intended to lighten their weight (in that aspect they were successful) but the rockwool dried out too quickly. Rockwool is HVVHQWLDOO\ D VSRQJH DQG LV XVXDOO\ XVHG RQO\ in hydroponic applications where a constant VWUHDP RI ZDWHU Ă RZV WKURXJK LW :KHQ WKH rockwool became dry (always much faster WKDQ WKH VRLO LW VRDNHG XS DOO UHPDLQLQJ PRLVWXUH GU\LQJ RXW WKH HQWLUH V\VWHP

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Figures 5, 6, 7, 8: DIY vertical garden experiments with recycled drawers, and various growth media.

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(YHQ ZLWK WKH XVH RI WKH URFNZRRO WKH planters were heavy and cumbersome; they KDG WRR PXFK VRLO DQG QRW HQRXJK VWUXFWXUDO integrity. I used recycled wooden drawers IURP D FKHVW RI GUDZHUV EXW WKH\ GLGQ¡W KROG together longer than two growing seasons. With only a couple of nails and staples KROGLQJ WKHP WRJHWKHU WKH FRPELQHG ZHLJKW of the moistened soil and plants was too much to remain intact beyond a couple seasons. The irrigation design I built made sense to me RQ SDSHU EXW LQ UHDOLW\ LW GLGQ¡W ZRUN WKH ZD\ , KDG SODQQHG SDUWLDOO\ EHFDXVH WKH WXELQJ , had bought was too rigid to bend and curve the way I had planned. Perforated plastic tubes were intended to zig zag through the JURZLQJ PHGLXP EXW LQVWHDG VSLUDOHG LQ D way that made the whole system redundant. The idea was that a bottle would be attached WR WKH RSHQLQJ RI WKH WXEH ZKLFK RQFH Ă€OOHG ZLWK ZDWHU ZRXOG WULFNOH WKURXJK WKH ZKROH garden. Due to a combination of the hoses being twisted in the wrong direction (in a way WKDW JUDYLW\ ZRXOG QRW IDFLOLWDWH WKH Ă RZ RI water) and the size of the perforations being WRR ODUJH WKH LUULJDWLRQ V\VWHP IDLOHG TXLWH FDWDVWURSKLFDOO\ 7KH JDUGHQV LQ WKH HQG KDG to be watered through the front holes that the plants grew through.

orientation was carefully considered for each type of plant. I quickly realised after completing the course that there was a lot more information DYDLODEOH WKDQ ZKDW , KDG FROOHFWHG ZLWK QHZ SURMHFWV UHVHDUFK DQG JXLGHV SRSSLQJ XS UHJXODUO\ 7KH ÀQDO RXWSXW IRU WKH UHDGLQJ course remains as a very good introduction WR WKH ZRUOG RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ DQG WKH beginning of my own personal speculation of vertical gardens in Winnipeg. I have VLQFH XSORDGHG LW WR WKH LQWHUQHW VHH KWWS issuu.com/tamara.urben-imbeault/vertical_ garden_sept_25_d). I often receive notices that someone has added the document to their personal digital collection. I can only hope people are referencing it and learning from it as much as I did. These experiments were a good preliminary IRUD\ LQWR WKH ZRUOG RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ but now I realise many improvements are QHFHVVDU\ IRU WKHP WR ZRUN SURSHUO\ DQG WR survive more than a few growing seasons. The practicum work expands on what was learned LQ WKHVH H[SHULPHQWV JRRG EDG DQG XJO\

5HJXODU VWRUH ERXJKW SRWWLQJ VRLO ZDV XVHG LQ UDWKHU ODUJH DPRXQWV DQG ZDWHULQJ ZDV SOHQWLIXO VR WKH SODQWV VWUDZEHUULHV QDVWXUWLXPV DQG FKLYHV GLG QRW GLH ,Q WKLV FDVH WKH IDFW WKDW WKH SODQWV OLYHG LV QRW D good indicator of the success of the design. The environment created for the plants was YHU\ VLPLODU WR D VWDQGDUG SRWWHG SODQW EXW LQ D YHUWLFDO RULHQWDWLRQ 6RLO ZDV SOHQWLIXO ZDWHU ZDV SURYLGHG ZKHQ QHHGHG DQG VRODU

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1. INTRODUCTION This practicum is a speculative work of vertical garden design in a northern city. There are many different types of vertical JDUGHQV UDQJLQJ IURP YLQHV WR HVSDOLHUHG WUHHV WR FRPSOH[ K\GURSRQLF RU VRLO EHDULQJ walls. Vertical gardens are an excellent way to JURZ SODQWV LQ SODFHV WKDW KDYH OLPLWHG Ă RRU DUHDV VXFK DV KLJK GHQVLW\ FLW\ FHQWUHV RU apartment blocks. A vertical garden requires D UHODWLYHO\ VPDOO IRRWSULQW WR JURZ DQG FDQ be installed on underutilised walls. Vertical JDUGHQV KDYH PDQ\ DVVRFLDWHG EHQHĂ€WV LQFOXGLQJ DHVWKHWLF LPSURYHPHQW UHGXFWLRQ RI WKH 8UEDQ +HDW ,VODQG 8+, LPSURYHPHQW RI DLU TXDOLW\ VWRUPZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ QRLVH UHGXFWLRQ QDWLYH KDELWDW LQWHJUDWLRQ reduction of heating and cooling costs for EXLOGLQJV IRRG SURGXFWLRQ DQG ELRSKLOLD $OWKRXJK WKHVH EHQHĂ€WV DUH H[WHQVLYH WKHUH are still many uncertainties associated with YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV PRVW UHĂ HFW WKH QHHG IRU IXUWKHU VFLHQWLĂ€F VWXG\ LQ GLIIHUHQW FOLPDWHV 6RPH RI WKH GLIĂ€FXOWLHV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ include the lack of knowledge and awareness of designers contractors and the general SXEOLF ODFN RI HPSLULFDO HYLGHQFH RYHUDOO FRVW ODFN RI LQFHQWLYHV ODFN RI LQGXVWU\

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standards and codes and various other associated risks. Most of these factors will be minimised as vertical gardening gains in popularity however for the time being these hurdles remain. Vertical gardens are subjected to a complex DVVHPEODJH RI UHJLRQDO FOLPDWLF LQĂ XHQFHV neighbourhood microclimates and the microclimates of walls themselves. Vertical gardens are high stress environments for SODQWV ZLWK OLPLWHG VRLO LQFUHDVHG VRODU H[SRVXUH DQG LQFUHDVHG ZLQG (DFK RI WKHVH WKLQJV FDQ OHDG WR GHDG SODQWV ZKLFK can be unsightly and costly to replace. Understanding reconciliation ecology and habitat templating can help designers design PRUH VLWH VHQVLWLYH YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV DQG hopefully minimize plant death. Vertical gardens can enrich the landscape PDWUL[ RI GRZQWRZQ :LQQLSHJ DQG FUHDWH regional habitat links through the city without compromising societal uses. By using the human ecosystems model and urban reconciliation ecology as design framework we can draw inspiration from these principles

and use them as precedents. Planting species from Manitoban plant communities will enrich the regional habitat for species of DQLPDOV DQG YDULRXV LQYHUWHEUDWHV LQFOXGLQJ EXWWHUĂ LHV ELUGV DQG EHHV 8VLQJ WKH KDELWDW WHPSODWLQJ DSSURDFK SODQWV were selected for their hardiness and tolerance of similar conditions to those existing on a wall. It was important to include native plants from disappearing or rare plant communities LQ 0DQLWRED WR PDLQWDLQ UHJLRQDO FRQQHFWLRQV This document is a preliminary speculation RQ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ LQ :LQQLSHJ 0DQLWRED ,W LV QRW DQ DXWKRULWDWLYH JXLGH EXW UDWKHU D brief introduction to elements concerning the GHVLJQ DQG LQĂ XHQFHV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ ,W is a beginning foray into the world of vertical gardening in northern cities. It is hoped that this document will inspire others to continue research and vertical garden related design. It LV LQWHQGHG WR EH D OHDUQLQJ WRRO DQG D VRXUFH of further information that vertical gardening enthusiasts can consult if they desire detailed instruction of elements to be considered.

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2. A SHORT HISTORY OF VERTICAL GARDENING Vertical gardens have been planted for WKRXVDQGV RI \HDUV 2ULJLQDOO\ YHUWLFDO gardens were mostly composed of vine species and were grown to produce food such as grapes. They were planted in cities as far back as the 10th Century B.C.E.

Figure 2.00: Grape Vines provide shade and fruits on a Greek restaurant patio on Ellice Avenue in Winnipeg.

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Common species of vines were often planted RQ FLYLF EXLOGLQJV DQG LQ VRPH FDVHV UHPDLQ there still. Vertical garden design and popularity have evolved considerably since WKH ¡V DQG FRQWLQXHG UHĂ€QHPHQW DQG LQQRYDWLRQ FRQWLQXHV 7RGD\ WKH PRVW SRSXODU (but not most common) vertical gardens are K\GURSRQLF KRVWLQJ YDULRXV NLQGV RI SODQWV (not necessarily vines) designed for both indoor and outdoor installations. 7KH *UHHQ 5RRIV )RU +HDOWK\ &LWLHV¡ (GRHC) Green Walls 101 Participant’s Manual (2010) gives a very brief overview of the KLVWRU\ RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ UHSUHVHQWHG YLVXDOO\ LQ Ă€JXUH 7KH Ă€UVW GRFXPHQWHG vertical gardens were planted throughout the Mediterranean from the 10th to 6th FHQWXULHV % & ( *UDSHYLQHV Vitis spp.) were commonplace in residential architecture. In 3RPSHLL VKRSNHHSHUV SODQWHG YLQHV RQ WKHLU XSVWDLUV EDOFRQLHV 3HFN &DOODJKDQ %DVV DQG .XKQ S &OLPELQJ URVHV Rosa spp.) DOVR ODWHU DOVR EHFDPH SRSXODU DQG ZHUH RIWHQ used to denote the entrance to a secret garden *5+& *UDSHV KDG DQ LPSRUWDQW SODFH LQ VRFLHW\ GHPRQVWUDWHG E\ UHPDLQLQJ

Figure 2.02: Vinalia, the Roman wine harvest festival was celebrated when grapes were harvested in ancient Greece.

mosaics of the Roman Festival of Vine Harvest. An example of one of these mosaics FDQ EH VHHQ LQ Ă€JXUH The best known example of a vertical garden was located in modern day Iraq in 600 B.C.E. and is commonly referred to as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Though researchers DUH QRW VXUH ZKDW WKH JDUGHQV ORRNHG OLNH WKH\ KRVWHG D YDULHW\ RI IUXLW EHDULQJ SODQWV LQFOXGLQJ JUDSHYLQHV 3%6 Peck et al. (1999) present a timeline of vertical gardens in different parts of the world before WKH ¡V LQ WKHLU DUWLFOH Greenbacks from Green Roofs. They explain that vertical gardening started in different parts of the world at GLIIHUHQW WLPHV 5HQDLVVDQFH HUD *HQRD SUH &ROXPELDQ 0H[LFR WK &HQWXU\ ,QGLD WK DQG WK &HQWXU\ 6SDLQ WK &HQWXU\ 5XVVLD and 18th Century France (p. 11). Though there were vertical gardens growing DURXQG WKH ZRUOG DOUHDG\ WKHLU ZLGHVSUHDG distribution in North America and Britain

can be mostly attributed to the Garden City 0RYHPHQW LQ WKH ODWH ¡V 9LQHV ZHUH Ă€UVW planted in North America during the Arts and &UDIWV 0RYHPHQW ZKLFK VSDQQHG WKH ODWH ¡V WR HDUO\ ¡V 'XQQHW DQG .LQJVEXU\ S 'XQQHW DQG .LQJVEXU\ (2004) explain that the popularity of façade JUHHQLQJ KDV GHFOLQHG VLQFH WKH ¡V DQG the development of new technologies is part of a revival movement (p. 129). In the ¡V WHUUDFHG JUHHQ URRI WHFKQRORJLHV ZHUH GHYHORSHG LQ PDQ\ FRXQWULHV SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ 6ZLW]HUODQG DQG *HUPDQ\ 3HFN HW DO S DQG UHVHDUFK LQ WKRVH FRXQWULHV KDV continued throughout the last 50 years. ,Q WKH ¡V *HUPDQ FRPPXQLWLHV EHJDQ implementing bylaws that mandated the use of vertical gardens for new developments. For example in Kassel LQ D FDPSDLJQ ZDV ODXQFKHG WKDW encouraged citizens to grow climbing plants IRU WKHLU SV\FKRORJLFDO DQG SK\VLFDO EHQHĂ€WV 3HFN HW DO S 0XQLFK %HUOLQ and Frankfurt have similar campaigns (p. 32). Germany has since commissioned a FRPSUHKHQVLYH JXLGH WR YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ as a part of their Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau )// JXLGHOLQH ZKLFK URXJKO\ WUDQVODWHV to “The Society of Landscape Development and Implementation.â€? It outlines codes and methods of application and maintenance of landscape elements such as green roofs. The YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ VHFWLRQ LV VROG VHSDUDWHO\ and is known as Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau Richtlimie fĂźr die Planning, AusfĂźhrung und PĂ ege von FassadenbegrĂźnungen (2000). The vertical garden guide gives an overview of climbing plants suited to the German climate.

15

Vines

Soil-bearing Systems

Living Wall BioďŹ lters (Hydroponic) Hydroponic Felt Systems

Time

Espalier

Abundance Figure 2.03: Recent resurges in the popularity of vertical gardening have spurred many new innovations in the ďŹ eld.

16

&XUUHQWO\ LW LV RQO\ DYDLODEOH LQ *HUPDQ LW LV unknown if translations are planned. 'U 0DQIUHG .|KOHU D SURIHVVRU RI Landscape Ecology at Hochschule Neubrandenburg University of Applied 6FLHQFHV LQ 1HXEUDQGHQEXUJ *HUPDQ\ holds the authoritative voice in vertical garden research and has been involved in committees and research studies both in Europe and in North America since the late ¡V 6LQFH KLV GRFWRUDO WKHVLV HQWLWOHG Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Funktion von FassadenbegrĂźnungen (roughly translated is Experimental Investigations of the Role of Green Facades) he has continued to publish VFLHQWLĂ€F VWXGLHV +LV UHVHDUFK IRFXV LV WKH measurable effects of green walls on buildings and thermal impact on urban environments as well as decreasing costs associated with the heating and cooling of buildings. $QRWKHU LQĂ XHQWLDO SHUVRQ LQ WKH ZRUOG RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ WRGD\ EHJDQ KLV Ă€UVW YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ H[SHULPHQWV LQ WKH ¡V French botanist Patrick Blanc was inspired by trips to Malaysia where he studied cliff faces and rocky outcrops. Upon returning KRPH WR 3DULV KH K\SRWKHVL]HG WKDW KH FRXOG recreate the luscious cliff faces he had seen in a controlled hydroponic garden in his house %ODQF S +LV EHJLQQLQJV ZHUH YHU\ PRGHVW D VPDOO FORVHG ORRS V\VWHP LQ ZKLFK he experimented with a hydroponic wall LUULJDWHG ZLWK ZDWHU SXPSHG IURP D Ă€VK WDQN GLUHFWO\ EHORZ WKH ZDOO 7KH Ă€VK SURYLGHG WKH SODQWV ZLWK YLWDO QXWULHQWV DQG LQ WXUQ WKH SODQWV Ă€OWHUHG RXW FKHPLFDO HOHPHQWV KDUPIXO WR WKH Ă€VK S $IWHU PDQ\ \HDUV of experimenting with materials and species RI SODQWV DQG Ă€VK %ODQF Ă€OHG IRU WKH Ă€UVW

patent of his mur vegetal in 1988. In the late ¡V DQG HDUO\ ¡V %ODQF¡V ZRUN VWDUWHG WR JDLQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO UHFRJQLWLRQ GXH WR WKH success of his vertical gardens at Chaumont6XU /RLUH LQ 3HUVKLQJ +DOO +RWHO LQ and the MusĂŠe Du Quay Branley in 2005 (see Ă€JXUH 7KH \HDU ZDV D JRRG RQH IRU Blanc. In addition to the opening of the MusĂŠe %UDQOH\ KLV mur vegetal was named # 31 of Time Magazine¡V 0 Most InĂ uential Inventions of the Year 7KLV SURSHOOHG KLP WR VWDUGRP DQG JDYH him the opportunity to create many other projects on EXLOGLQJ IDFDGHV ZRUOGZLGH %ODQF Q G D ,Q WKH ¡V WKHQ VWXGHQW $ODQ 'DUOLQJWRQ of the University of Guelph-Humber began experimenting with a similar system to that of the mur vegetal EXW XVHG WR Ă€OWHU LQGRRU DLU 7KH ZRUN EHJDQ DV D SURMHFW IRU 1$6$¡V Advanced Life Support Program where the goal was to “develop technologies that ZLOO VLJQLĂ€FDQWO\ UHGXFH WKH UHVXSSO\ RI FRQVXPDEOHV DQG LQFUHDVH VHOI VXIĂ€FLHQF\Âľ 1$6$ 7KHLU H[SHULPHQWDWLRQ VWDUWHG in an academic setting and gradually evolved into a professional company called NedlawTM. 7KHLU V\VWHPV DUH K\GURSRQLF DQG XVH VLPLODU plants to the mur vegetal (tropical species) and are commonly referred to as “living wall ELRĂ€OWHUVÂľ 7KH\ DUH DYDLODEOH FRPPHUFLDOO\ DFURVV &DQDGD ZLWK WKH FRPSDQ\¡V PDLQ RIĂ€FHV ORFDWHG LQ %UHVODX 2QWDULR The evolution of vertical gardening has continued through the early part of the 21st century. Due to recent development in JURZLQJ WHFKQRORJLHV D YDULHW\ RI YHUWLFDO garden design companies have started around WKH ZRUOG ,Q 7RN\R LPSOHPHQWHG D JUHHQ ZDOO DQG URRI RUGLQDQFH *5+& 2010) which stimulated incarnations of

17

Figure 2.04: Vertical garden by Patrick Blanc, Paris.

18

VLPLODU OHJLVODWLRQ LQ 9LFWRULD 6\GQH\ DQG 0HOERXUQH $XVWUDOLD 6HDWWOH :DVKLQJWRQ DQG 3RUWODQG 2UHJRQ $Q RUGLQDQFH RU ODZ is an authoritative decree from a municipal JRYHUQPHQW XVXDOO\ PDQGDWHG E\ WKH city government. Various studies continue RQ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ WRGD\ DQG QHZ developments and legislation are being slowly implemented. There has also been a surge in WKH SRSXODULW\ RI UHVLGHQWLDO JUHHQ ZDOOV ZLWK many people building their own hydroponic or soil based systems.

Conclusion Vertical gardening has come a long way since WKH 5RPDQV Ă€UVW FXOWLYDWHG JUDSHYLQHV LQ WKH 10th century B.C.E. From widespread use of ivy and other climbing plants in Europe DQG 1RUWK $PHULFD WR KLJKO\ FRPSOH[ K\GURSRQLF V\VWHPV Ă€UVW GHYHORSHG LQ WKH ¡V YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ FRQWLQXHV WR evolve with new technologies still being researched and developed globally. The latest innovation available on the market in Canada LV WKH OLYLQJ ZDOO ELRĂ€OWHU ZKLFK KDV JDLQHG momentum in the 2000s and 2010s. The future RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ LV XQFHUWDLQ KRZHYHU ZLWK OHJLVODWLRQ DQG PRUH UREXVW LQFHQWLYHV the potential for further innovation is great.

19

Clockwise from the top right: Figure 3.01: Vines growing at the University of Manitoba. Figure 3.02: Versa GreenÂŽ retaining wall system. Figure 3.04: Soil based panel system in Victoria. Figure 3.05 Felt hydroponic garden in Toronto. Figure 3.06: Felt bioďŹ lter in Toronto.

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3. TYPES OF VERTICAL GARDENS Vertical gardens are referred to by a variety RI QDPHV ´JUHHQ ZDOOVÂľ ´OLYLQJ ZDOOV Âľ and “plant wallsâ€? are the most common. Some people see each of these names as a GLIIHUHQW HQWLW\ EXW WKH\ ZLOO EH XVHG KHUHLQ interchangeably. The concept of a green ZDOO LV VLPSOH EXW WKH H[HFXWLRQ LV FRPSOH[ 9HUWLFDO JDUGHQV FDQ EH FODVVLĂ€HG LQWR WZR GLVWLQFW FDWHJRULHV VRLO EHDULQJ DQG VRLO IUHH systems. The following is a list of the most FRPPRQ W\SHV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV - Vines or climbing plants (soil based) are typically planted in planters on grade and trained to grow along trellises up to 10m KLJK WKRXJK WKH\ ZLOO RFFDVLRQDOO\ JURZ XS WR P KLJK RU KLJKHU LI HOHYDWHG FRQWDLQHUV DUH HPSOR\HG /RK 6WDY S

- Retaining wall planters (soil based) are a type of retaining wall that is made from modular units (often pre-cast concrete) which has an open volume within each unit WR FRQWDLQ VRLO DQG SODQWV *5+& - Panel systems (soil based) are an assemblage of pre-planted soil-bearing panels that are transported to the site and inserted into structural and mechanical watering systems LQ VLWX /RK DQG 6WDY S - Felt systems (soil free) are made of a thin layer of felt attached to a structural system. 3UH JURZQ SODQWV DUH ZDVKHG VLWH DQG ÀWWHG into slits between layers of felt. Panels and felt layers are kept continually moist by a circulating mixture of water and plant QXWULHQWV D PHWKRG NQRZQ DV K\GURSRQLF JURZLQJ /RK DQG 6WDY S

Growth Media in Vertical Gardens Soil Vines and Climbers Retaining Wall Planters

Soil Free (Hydroponic) Panel Systems Felt Systems BioďŹ lters

Figure 3.07: Types of vertical gardens vary mostly due to the kind of media they grow in.

21

Figures 3.08 and 3.09: Vines at the University of Toronto.

22

- LiYing wall bioÀlters (soil free) are essentially the same as felt systems described DERYH EXW LQWHQGHG IRU LQWHULRU DLU ÀOWHULQJ applications. These can be integrated into HVAC systems of a buildings (which pulls air through the roots of the plants).

p.14). Plants must be carefully selected due to variables in microclimate and hardiness. The following spreads provide further details of each type of vertical garden.

3.1 Soil Bearing Systems Each of these different types of vertical JDUGHQV FDQ EH LQVWDOOHG LQVLGH RU RXWVLGH depending on the climate and types of SODQWV VSHFLĂ€HG LQ WKH GHVLJQ )RU RXWGRRU JUHHQ ZDOOV VRLO EHDULQJ V\VWHPV DUH RIWHQ less expensive and more resilient to colder temperatures than felt systems. This means that in colder places outdoor gardens will XVXDOO\ EH VRLO V\VWHPV ZKLOH IHOW V\VWHPV DUH usually reserved for more temperate climates. Vines can be found from cold to tropical climates due to their diversity.

Vines and Climbing Plants There are two categories of climbing plants; self-clinging and support climbers. Selfclinging climbers can attach themselves to a surface by either clinging rootlets or creepers. Support climbers require external structures. Some have tendrils that wrap around the VWUXFWXUHV ZKLOH RWKHUV WZLVW WKHLU PDLQ stem around it. Scramblers need a trellis to JURZ RQ EXW WKH\ GR QRW ZUDS DURXQG LW 7KH PRVW FRPPRQ YLQH VSHFLHV LQ 0DQLWRED 9LUJLQLD &UHHSHU LV D VSHFLHV ZLWK WHQGULOV which allows it to grow on a large variety of surfaces. It will even grow on/ over a window LI OHIW XQWULPPHG ZLQGLQJ LWV WHQGULOV DURXQG anything it can get a grip on.

Larger scale outdoor systems require FRQVXOWDWLRQ ZLWK ODQGVFDSH GHVLJQ HQJLQHHULQJ ERWDQ\ DQG KRUWLFXOWXUH SURIHVVLRQDOV IRU WKH V\VWHP GHVLJQ LWVHOI DV well as for installation and plant selection. It is necessary to ensure that the load/shear capacity of the chosen wall can handle the added load of the garden (State of Victoria through the Department of (QYLURQPHQW DQG 3ULPDU\ ,QGXVWULHV

The most commonly used vine structures are modular trellis panels- such as GreenscreenÂŽand wire/rope and cable net systems- such as Carl StahlÂŽ and JakobÂŽ V\VWHPV *5+&

Self-clinging Climbers

Support Climbers

Tendrils Clinging Rootlets

Creepers

Figure 3.10: Self-Clinging Climbers

Shown with JakobÂŽ Green Wall System

Twiners

Shown with GreenscreenÂŽ trellis Figure 3.11: Support Climbers

Scramblers Shown with wooden trellis

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Clockwise from the right: Figure 3.12 ARTLab steel trellis, 3.13 Vines squeeze between a building and a sidewalk in Costa Rica, 3.14: Close up of Virginia creeper growing on the ARTLab trellis, 3.15: Dead vines still cling to a brutalist structure at the University of Toronto, 3.16: Close up of dierent vines growing on a brick masonry wall at the University of Toronto.

24

2010). The selection of each of these systems must be based on the type of vine that will be SODQWHG WKHUH DV YLQHV ZLWK GLIIHULQJ JURZWK habits will require different support. Figures 3.10 and 3.11 show vine characteristics and the corresponding support system required. Self clinging climbers do not necessarily require a trellis if the wall they are growing on is impervious to rootlets. Other climbers that require support may need both horizontal and vertical support (scramblers and twiners) while others may require either one or the other (plants with tendrils).

Careful plant selection is critical to establish a thick and luscious vine wall. Vine species must be selected for the regional climate DQG ZDOO PLFURFOLPDWH /LJKW UHTXLUHPHQWV VL]H ZHLJKW JURZWK SDWWHUQ DQG UDWH VHDVRQDO LQWHUHVW PD[LPXP KHLJKW DQG VRLO compatibility should be considered. Epiphytic SODQWV FDQ HDVLO\ JURZ LQ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV as they do not require soil to grow. Some of WKHVH SODQWV DUH SDUDVLWLF ZKLOH RWKHUV DUH VHOI VXIĂ€FLHQW 7KHVH DUH PRVW FRPPRQ LQ locations where annual temperatures do not dip below 10°C.

The distance at which the trellis is placed from the wall varies based on the type of plant to be grown. A good rule of thumb suggested by The GRHC (2010) is that the distance from the wall should be at least 1â€? (2.5cm) wider than the diameter of the thickest stem (p. 45). &OHPDWLV D WKLQ VWHPPHG SODQW IRU H[DPSOH would require approximately 4â€? (10cm) EHWZHHQ WKH WUHOOLV DQG WKH ZDOO DQG :LVWHULD (a woody plant) may require up to 8â€? (20cm). The distance at the University of Manitoba VKRZQ LQ Ă€JXUH ZDV OLNHO\ EDVHG RQ WKH DHVWKHWLF SUHIHUHQFH IURP WKH GHVLJQHU DV WKH vines would probably only require a 2â€? (5.1 cm) distance from the wall. It is important to note that a mature vine (if desired to grow to its maximum height) will require as much URRW VSDFH DV D PDWXUH WUHH DQG D SODQWHU EHG ZLWK D ZLGWK RI ¡ P DQG D GHSWK RI 18-24â€? (45-60 cm) deep is recommended (p. 48). In the case of the University of Manitoba because of the proximity of the sidewalk to WKH IDFDGH DERXW D ¡ FP GLVWDQFH WKH trellis may have been pushed further away GXH WR DHVWKHWLFV EXW DOVR DOORZV WKH URRWV more protected growing space.

0DLQWHQDQFH LV RIWHQ RYHUORRNHG EXW LV RQH of the most important aspects to maintaining D ODQGVFDSH LQ JHQHUDO DQG LV HVSHFLDOO\ important with a green wall. Beyond the PRQWK HVWDEOLVKPHQW SHULRG VRPH trellis systems need to be adjusted over time to maintain tension as vines grow. Vines will need to be trimmed along windows RU VLJQLÀFDQW DUFKLWHFWXUDO IHDWXUHV DQG be monitored over time to ensure they are growing as planned (and not into the EXLOGLQJ IRU H[DPSOH Many building facades around the world are covered with vines. This type of vertical gardening is often seen on residential buildings and older civic or institutional buildings. The University of Toronto campus is a good example of this phenomenon. Various buildings of different ages are FRYHUHG ZLWK (QJOLVK ,Y\ Hedera helix; 9LUJLQLD &UHHSHU Parthenocissus quinquefolia; DQG *UDSHYLQHV VHH ÀJXUHV DQG It is unknown whether these were planted VSHFLÀFDOO\ IRU WKH NQRZQ EHQHÀWV RI YHUWLFDO gardening (to be explored in the next FKDSWHU RU IRU VWULFWO\ DHVWKHWLF UHDVRQV 7KH

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Above: Figure 3.17 Espaliered tree.

Below: Figures 3.18 and 3.19: Two examples of soil bearing panel gardens. Figure 3.18 is a DIY style garden made from recycled materials. Figure 3.19 is a commercially available system that can be bought pre-planted or plant-free.

26

University of Manitoba has a few buildings FRYHUHG LQ LY\ DV ZHOO WKRXJK 9LUJLQLD creeper is the only species used outside of a few feature Clematis spp. that grow on the Agriculture building. The decreased diversity FRPSDUHG WR WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 7RURQWR LV likely due to climatic restrictions and related to the desired amount of wall coverage. There are other vines that would grow on WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 0DQLWRED FDPSXV EXW most of them would not grow as vigorously as the Virginia Creeper. The University of 0DQLWRED¡V $57/DE LV WKH PRVW XQXVXDO YLQH RULHQWHG GHVLJQ RQ FDPSXV VHH Ă€JXUHV 3.12 and 3.16). It is comprised of a speciallydesigned trellis system that allows the vines to grow approximately one foot away from the building facade. This allows for maximum WKHUPDO DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO SURWHFWLRQ EHQHĂ€W IRU WKH EXLOGLQJ ZKLOH VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ ensuring that it remains undisturbed by the plants sometimes destructive tendrils. Espalier Trained Trees Espalier is a growth-training method developed as far back as 2500 B.C.E. and is mostly used on fruit bearing trees (commonly apple and pear). Espaliered trees are trained WR JURZ LQ VSHFLĂ€F JHRPHWULF SDWWHUQV RU shapes. Often this is done through the use of a support or trellis system that will hold the tree as it grows into the desired position. There DUH GR]HQV RI SDWWHUQV RI HVSDOLHU UDQJLQJ from diamonds and candelabras to less formal arrangements. Figure 3.17 shows an espalier in progress. Note the sticks at the top of the WUHH JXLGLQJ LW WR JURZ LQ D VWUDLJKW OLQH

Retaining Wall Planters Retaining wall planters are exactly what the name implies. They are generally made from modular concrete units that include DQ DUHD IRU D SODQW WR EH SODQWHG VHH Ă€JXUH 3.02). There are various designs available on WKH PDUNHW VXFK DV WKH 9HUVD *UHHQÂŽ XQLW GeowebŠ ZDOO DQG WKH 6PDUW6ORSH UHWDLQLQJ wall. These products combine the function of a retaining wall with the beauty of vegetation. Panel Systems Both professionally designed and off the shelf soil bearing panel systems are available. Soil bearing designs generally offer more versatility and a higher biodiversity than do vines alone. These walls can be installed LQVLGH RU RXW DQG FDQ KRVW D YDULHW\ RI different plants. Some systems (such as KDQJLQJ SODQWHUV DQG WKH :RRO\ 3RFNHWTM) DUH DYDLODEOH LQ KDUGZDUH VWRUHV RWKHUV DUH custom designed through distributors. Panel systems are also common in DIY communities of homeowners and urban dwellers with limited space. Homeowners like them because of the compact nature of WKH V\VWHP DQG WKH VLPSOLFLW\ RI WKH GHVLJQ Widespread availability of systems and tutorials have made vertical gardening an accessible and easy alternative to traditional horizontal gardening. To see my own H[SHULPHQWV ZLWK ',< YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV VHH “Experiments Revisitedâ€? on page 8.

27

Figure 3.20 Green Over Grey’s green wall system installed in a cafe in Toronto.

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3.2 Soil-Free Systems Hydroponic Felt Systems The most common indoor type of green wall is the felt-based hydroponic system (see Figure 3.20). This type is likely most popular because of the various companies with trademarked designs that they will install and sometimes maintain for a fee. These systems are usually comprised of polypropylene RU VWDLQOHVV VWHHO FRQWDLQHUV JHRWH[WLOHV LUULJDWLRQ V\VWHPV JURZLQJ PHGLXP DQG YHJHWDWLRQ <DQJ ,QVWDOODWLRQ RI green walls of this type is always a custom design and frequently requires a larger budget compared to soil bearing systems. An irrigation supply with minimum water pressure of 44-55 lbs/sq. in. is also required *5+& S Irrigation is one of the most complicated parts of a hydroponic wall. Water must FLUFXODWH FRQWLQXDOO\ DQG QXWULHQWV PXVW be added. Some designs have closed loop systems in which potable water is added and UH FLUFXODWHG XS WR WLPHV ZKLOH RWKHUV use rainwater or water from a grey-water recycling system. Irrigation lines are usually drip systems or channels running above each SODQWHU ZLWK H[FHVV ZDWHU GUDLQLQJ WKURXJK WKH ORZHU SDQHOV 7KHUH GRHVQ¡W VHHP WR EH a better or worse option between drip or FKDQQHO LUULJDWLRQ WHFKQLTXHV DOWKRXJK ERWK need to be inspected regularly to ensure they are not blocked. Usually irrigation will include a catchment tray at the bottom of the wall (see Figure 3.21) to gather extra water that is not absorbed by the vertical garden.

Regular monitoring is imperative to avoid QXWULHQW ORDGLQJ DQG FRQWDPLQDWLRQ E\ pathogens (especially in indoor applications). Interruption in the irrigation supply is one of the most detrimental things that can happen to a hydroponic garden. The irony here is that hydroponic vertical gardens are suspected by some professionals to fail because of the FRQVWDQW Ă RZ RI ZDWHU 7KLV FDQ LQKLELW WKH SODQW URRWV¡ DEVRUSWLRQ RI DLU ZKLFK LV necessary to their survival. Another problem with hydroponic systems is that watering is time-sensitive. With an incorrectly planned ZDWHULQJ VFKHGXOH RYHU ZDWHULQJ FDQ HDVLO\ RFFXU OHDGLQJ WR URW DQG WKH HYHQWXDO GLVLQWHJUDWLRQ RI WKH JURZLQJ PHGLXP ZKHWKHU Ă€EURXV PDWV IHOW OLNH RU FRFR SHDW EORFNV 7R HQVXUH DGHTXDWH GUDLQDJH YHUWLFDO gardens need either a gutter or tank system DW WKH ERWWRP RI WKH ZDOO WR FROOHFW DQG usually re-circulate) the water that has already SDVVHG WKURXJK WKH ZDOO ,I ZDWHU HIĂ€FLHQF\ is not important and water is not being reFLUFXODWHG LW VKRXOG EH SLSHG RXW HLWKHU WR D landscaped swale or stormwater sewer. $FFRUGLQJ WR *HRUJH ,UZLQ IRXQGHU RI *UHHQ /LYLQJ 7HFKQRORJLHV */7 OLJKWLQJ of indoor walls is extremely important to ensure longevity. When natural sunlight LV QRW DYDLODEOH ,UZLQ UHFRPPHQGV full-spectrum lighting. Blue-light or red-light FDQ EH XVHG GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH SODQWV XVHG )RU ZRRG\ SODQWV FRROHU OLJKW VSHFWUXPV DUH preferred which will encourage leafy growth. )RU Ă RZHULQJ SODQWV ZDUPHU OLJKW VSHFWUXPV KHOS WR SURPRWH Ă RZHULQJ )ORZHULQJ FDQ DOVR be controlled by the number of hours of light WKH SODQWV UHFHLYH GDLO\ ,Q JHQHUDO OLJKW OHYHOV VKRXOG QRW GURS EHORZ IRRW FDQGOHV otherwise plants will not thrive (2014).

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LiYing Wall BioÀlters

Figure 3.21: Felt Growing medium with water collection tray at bottom of hydroponic garden, Toronto.

Plants in hydroponic walls must also be FKRVHQ IRU WKHLU OLJKW UHTXLUHPHQWV VL]H ZHLJKW JURZWK SDWWHUQ DQG UDWH DV ZHOO as seasonal interest. The main difference between hydroponic walls (and panel systems in general) and vines is that the plants are started in greenhouses 12-18 months prior to LQVWDOODWLRQ WR HQVXUH D GHVLUDEOH DHVWKHWLF LPPHGLDWHO\ DIWHU LQVWDOODWLRQ *5+& S 59). These plants must be grown horizontally WR JXDUDQWHH WKDW WKH\ DUH Ă€UPO\ URRWHG before they are turned vertically. In many K\GURSRQLF ZDOOV DOO VRLO LV ULQVHG DZD\ IURP plants on site before they are slid into pockets in the growing medium. A leading Canadian manufacturer of hydroponic vertical gardens is Green Over GreyTM RXW RI 9DQFRXYHU *UHHQ RYHU *UH\ 2009). Their system is comprised of a series of layers of felt that sandwich plant roots. 7KH GHVLJQ LV YHU\ VLPLODU WR 3DWULFN %ODQF¡V mur vegetal. Other Canadian manufacturers include Elevated Landscape Technologies (/7 */7 * 6N\ 3ODQW 6\VWHPV ,QF 7RXUQHVRO 6LWHZRUNV DQG -RH =D]]HUD

30

NedlawTM¡V OLYLQJ ZDOO ELRĂ€OWHUV DUH VLPLODU WR RWKHU LQGRRU K\GURSRQLF JDUGHQV ZLWK RQH H[FHSWLRQ WKH\ DUH HQJLQHHUHG WR SXOO DLU WKURXJK SODQW URRWV WR Ă€OWHU LW $FFRUGLQJ WR NedlawTM WKHLU ELRĂ€OWHUV FDQ Ă€OWHU RXW XS WR 85% of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) commonly found in the air inside buildings. 7KHLU ELRĂ€OWHUV FDQ EH VWDQG DORQH V\VWHPV RU FDQ EH LQWHJUDWHG LQWR D EXLOGLQJ¡V +9$& system. Figure 3.22 is an example of a living ZDOO ELRĂ€OWHU WKDW KDV EHHQ LQWHJUDWHG LQWR WKH air system of Sun Life Financial in Toronto. $ODQ 'DUOLQJWRQ WKH FUHDWRU RI WKH OLYLQJ ZDOO ELRĂ€OWHU Ă€UVW FDPH XS ZLWK WKH LGHD while studying at the University of Guelph -Humber in Toronto. He worked with Diamond Schmitt Architects to design and EXLOG WKH Ă€UVW SURWRW\SH ZKLFK ZDV SDUW RI UHVHDUFK FRPPLVVLRQHG E\ 1$6$¡V Advanced Life Support Program. The green wall is now over 10 years old and continues to be an integral part of research involving VOC reduction and plants at the university. In FRQWUDVW WR RWKHU Ă€OWHULQJ V\VWHPV WKH ZDOO UHGXFHV OHYHOV RI WROXHQH GXVW DQG DLUERUQH fungi without producing toxic byproducts. By circulating air through the root area of WKH JDUGHQ URW LV SUHYHQWHG DQG SODQW URRWV are able to breathe as they normally would. 7KLV DVSHFW DORQH LV SUREDEO\ D VLJQLĂ€FDQW contributing factor to the relatively low plant mortality rate that NedlawTM claims. 3ODQWV XVHG LQ WKH OLYLQJ ZDOO ELRĂ€OWUDWLRQ process are common houseplants in North $PHULFD VXFK DV )LJ Ficus benjamina; Tree 3KLORGHQGURQ Philodendron selluom; Umbrella 3ODQW ShefĂ era arboricola 5XEEHU 3ODQW Ficus

approximately 10% of their plants annually. Compared to other hydroponic walls that can VRPHWLPHV KDYH D PRUWDOLW\ UDWH RI RYHU this estimate seems quite low. I imagine this relates to the fact that air is pulled through the URRWV ZKLOH LW LV EHLQJ LUULJDWHG VR ODFN RI URRW aeration is eliminated.

Conclusion

Figure 3.22: Living Wall BioďŹ lter at Sun Life Financial in Toronto.

elastica; Dracaena VSS DQG $OJHULDQ ,Y\ Hedera algeriensis. /LYLQJ ZDOO ELRĂ€OWHU V\VWHPV KDYH WR be carefully designed together with the EXLOGLQJ¡V +9$& V\VWHP EHFDXVH RI LQFUHDVHV in humidity within the building due to WKH ELRĂ€OWHU LWVHOI KRZHYHU WKHLU EHQHĂ€WV (explained in detail in the next chapter) make them leading products in indoor vertical garden design. Soil-free systems FRPSOHWHO\ HOLPLQDWH VRLO GZHOOLQJ SHVWV reducing the overall number of pests that the wall is susceptible to. Water and nutrients DUH FRQWUROOHG WKURXJK DXWRPDWLF WLPHUV VR the only weekly maintenance necessary is to ensure irrigation systems are functioning normally. Plants can still fall victim to diseases like powdery mildew and aphids for H[DPSOH 2Q DYHUDJH 1HGODZTM systems lose

Outdoor soil bearing gardens are more FRPPRQ LQ FROGHU FOLPDWHV ZKLOH LQ ZDUPHU climates hydroponic gardens are common. Vertical gardens can range from vines growing on a trellis to complex manufactured systems that can host a variety of other plant types. Retaining wall planters offer a nice way to improve the aesthetics of a retaining ZDOO 6RLO EDVHG SODQWHUV DQG K\GURSRQLF planters are often planted in advance and installed after the plants have established. /LYLQJ ZDOO ELRÀOWHUV HVVHQWLDOO\ K\GURSRQLF V\VWHPV DOORZ DLU WR EH ÀOWHUHG E\ WKH JDUGHQ LWVHOI DQG FDQ EH LQWHJUDWHG LQWR EXLOGLQJ air systems. The most appropriate choice of vertical garden system for different sites will depend on a variety of factors including but QRW OLPLWHG WR FRVW FOLPDWH DQG DHVWKHWLFV

31

Above: Figures 4.01 & 4.02: Plants commonly used for indoor vertical gardens. Richardson Building Green Wall. Left: Figures 4.03 & 4.04: Details of growing media and plants in bioďŹ lters.

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4. BENEFITS OF VERTICAL GARDENING Living Walls are quickly gaining in popularity worldwide as their ecological EHQHÀWV EHFRPH EHWWHU NQRZQ &HQWUH IRU 6XEWURSLFDO 'HVLJQ Q G S 7KH EHQHÀWV of vertical gardening are predicted to be similar to those of green roofs due to the similarities in vegetative cover and substrate WKLFNQHVV DGGHG LQVXODWLYH YDOXH .|KOHU .|KOHU DQG 6FKPLGW .|KOHU HW DO 'U <DHO 6WDY LQ KHU GRFWRUDO WKHVLV at the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering at Queensland University of 7HFKQRORJ\ H[SODLQV WKDW WKH\ DUH VLPLODU LQ WHUPV RI WKHUPDO DQG K\GURORJLFDO EHQHÀWV SURWHFWLRQ RI WKH EXLOGLQJ HQYHORSH SROOXWLRQ FRQWURO SRWHQWLDO IRU IRRG SURGXFWLRQ DQG ZLOGOLIH KDELWDW DQG SRWHQWLDO WR LPSURYH WKH well-being of people who see the gardens UHJXODUO\ 6WDY S WDEOH 'U %UDG Bass and Dr. Bas Baskaran explain in their report for the National Research Council of Canada that vertical gardens and green roofs could also reduce smog in larger cities (Bass DQG %DVNDUDQ S 7KH\ FRQFOXGH that greening walls is a sensible strategy (Bass DQG %DVNDUDQ S %HQHÀWV H[SORUHG LQ WKLV FKDSWHU DUH DHVWKHWLF LPSURYHPHQW

UHGXFWLRQ RI WKH 8UEDQ +HDW ,VODQG 8+, reduction of heating and cooling costs IRU EXLOGLQJV SROOXWLRQ DQG GXVW FRQWURO VWRUPZDWHU UHWHQWLRQ QRLVH UHGXFWLRQ KDELWDW LQWHJUDWLRQ IRRG SURGXFWLRQ DQG ELRSKLOLD 7KHVH QXPHURXV EHQHÀWV KDYH SRVLWLYH ZLGH reaching effects on both human beings and the surrounding landscape.

4.1 Aesthetic Improvement The poetic nature of growing plants on the side of a building is something I have thought about regularly during this practicum. I DP QRW DQ HVSHFLDOO\ SRHWLF SHUVRQ EXW , remember towards the beginning of this SURMHFW , PHW ZLWK SURIHVVRU 0DUN :HVW IRUPHUO\ RI WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 0DQLWRED WR discuss some of my ideas. He saw the poetry and beauty of my project instantly and VKDUHG KLV YLHZ RI LW ZLWK PH 6LQFH WKHQ the image he painted for me remains vivid in my mind… I am walking on a quiet street GRZQWRZQ PD\EH LW·V D 6XQGD\ WKHUH DUHQ·W PDQ\ RWKHU SHRSOH DURXQG 7KH VWUHHW LV TXLHW and all I can hear are the sounds of my own VWHSV DQG P\ EUHDWKV LQ DQG RXW RQ D ZDUP

33

Figure 4.05: NedlawTM Biowall, Sun Life Financial, Toronto.

34

summer day. I turn a corner and suddenly I KHDU UXVWOLQJ RI ZLQG WKURXJK OHDYHV PDNLQJ GHOLFDWH ZKRRVKLQJ DQG Ă XWWHULQJ VRXQGV WKDW LQ WKH VLOHQFH RI WKDW VWUHHW Ă€OOV P\ HDUV ZLWK LQWULJXH DQG GHOLJKW /RRNLQJ XS , VHH D OXVFLRXV JDUGHQ Ă€OOHG ZLWK GLIIHUHQW NLQGV RI SODQWV RQ WKH VLGH RI D EXLOGLQJ VZD\LQJ LQ WKH ZLQG ,Q WKH JDUGHQ , VHH RU PD\EH MXVW hear- a few small birds chirping and some EHHV EX]]LQJ FRQWHQWO\ IURP Ă RZHU WR Ă RZHU collecting nectar and spreading pollen. It is as though suddenly my concrete world has EHHQ LQIXVHG ZLWK FRORXU DQG ZLWK OLIH DQG , marvel at the beauty that is before me‌ An H[SHULHQFH VR UDUH LQ WRGD\¡V FLWLHV Growing living material on a potentially monotonous facade brings visual interest. Depending on the types of plants used and WKH ORFDO FOLPDWH VHDVRQDO Ă XFWXDWLRQV ZLOO provide added visual stimulation. Various VWXGLHV GHPRQVWUDWH WKH EHQHĂ€WV RI XUEDQ JUHHQLQJ 8OULFK 6PDUGRQ /\QFK DQG 5LYNLQ 7KD\HU DQG $WZRRG 9HJHWDWLRQ LQ WKH urban fabric affects us in a variety of ways; IURP XSSLQJ UHDO HVWDWH YDOXHV WR UHGXFLQJ feelings of fear and increasing positive HPRWLRQV WR GHFUHDVLQJ KHDOLQJ WLPHV 8OULFK S 7KH LPSDFWV RI YHJHWDWLRQ RQ the human psyche are far reaching. A 1982 study by Getz et al. sampled 250 people in the city of Detroit and determined that the preference for natural views remains FRQVLVWHQW DFURVV VRFLDO FODVVHV ZLWK LQQHU city residents preferring a woodland scene over a downtown commercial scene. The aesthetic preference of people for vegetation LV FOHDU 7KLV SUHIHUHQFH DV 1DVVDXHU explains in Messy Ecosystems, Orderly Frames is that to people who have not been taught to

LGHQWLI\ SUH VHWWOHPHQW ODQGVFDSHV ODQGVFDSH appreciation is only possible when human LQWHUYHQWLRQ LV REYLRXV , Ă€QG HYHQ P\ RZQ personal preference of nature following this theory. My favourite landscapes are city parks- both ordered and more “naturalâ€? GHVLJQ DHVWKHWLFV EXW HDFK KLJKO\ FRQWUROOHG in their own way. Having grown up in a FLW\ DQG YLVLWHG WKH FRXQWU\ UHJXODUO\ , appreciate both the unregulated ecosystem DQG WKH KLJKO\ PDQLFXUHG RQH EXW , IHHO PRUH comfortable at home in the highly regulated FLW\ QDWXUH WKH RQH ZLWK WKH RUGHUO\ IUDPH Vertical gardens are small gardens contained ZLWKLQ YHU\ VSHFLĂ€F IUDPHV 7KH\ FRQWDLQ living plants- sometimes chaotic and sometimes messy- squished into highly controlled and manicured frames. I believe in WKLV VHQVH WKDW SHRSOH KDYH DQ LQQDWH SRVLWLYH appreciation for vertical gardens.

4.2 Reduction of the Urban Heat Island Eect 7KH PRVW ZLGHO\ VWXGLHG EHQHĂ€W RI YHUWLFDO gardens is the mitigation of the Urban Heat Island effect or UHI. The concept of UHI was originally discovered by Luke Howard (1818) in London; related studies have since been conducted around the world. The UHI can be ORRVHO\ GHĂ€QHG DV DQ LQFUHDVH LQ WHPSHUDWXUH in an urban environment relative to cooler VXUURXQGLQJ UXUDO DUHDV (UHOO 3HDUOPXWWHU :LOOLDPVRQ 7KHVH HIIHFWV FDQ EH PLWLJDWHG E\ YHJHWDWLRQ DV VKRZQ LQ Ă€JXUHV 4.06 and 4.07. Cities are generally 2°C (3.6°F) ZDUPHU WKDQ UXUDO DUHDV DQG KLJK GHQVLW\ residential areas between 5°C - 7°C (9°F ƒ) ZDUPHU RQ DYHUDJH %RQDQ There are three different kinds of UHI that

35

Without extensive green skins

With extensive green skins

Figures 4.06 & 4.07: With a widespread application of green skins in the form of green walls and roofs, temperature variations (the UHI) of cities will uctuate less, resulting in happier residents.

LQĂ XHQFH WHPSHUDWXUHV LQ WKH FLW\ $ 6XUIDFH +HDW ,VODQG 6+, LV GHĂ€QHG DV instances when the temperature urban surfaces is higher than surrounding rural surfaces. - The Canopy-Layer Heat Island (CLHI) is the warmth observed in the air at the mean height of surrounding buildings. - The Boundary-Layer Heat Island (BLHI) is the tail of warmer air that extends GRZQZLQG RI WKH FLW\ (UHOO HW DO S These effects usually occur in direct relation XUEDQ JHRPHWU\ QXPEHU RI LPSHUYLRXV VXUIDFHV JHRJUDSKLF ORFDWLRQ ZHDWKHU ODFN RI YHJHWDWLRQ KLJK SUHVHQFH RI PDWHULDOV ZLWK ORZ DOEHGRV DQG KXPDQ UHODWHG UHOHDVHG KHDW (UHOO HW DO (DFK RI WKHVH IDFWRUV contribute to an overall effect that can be measured and predicted. This temperature increase not only causes thermal discomfort but also increases smog and thereby respiratory problems and heat stress (Bass and %DVNDUDQ S 7KLV UHVHDUFK LQGLFDWHV that by designing our cities as we have for WKH ODVW KXQGUHG \HDUV ZH KDYH PDGH FLWLHV a much harsher environment both mentally DQG SK\VLFDOO\ WKDQ WKH\ QHHG WR EH ,Q WKH &DQDGLDQ FRQWH[W 'U %UDG %DVV DQG 0RQLFD

36

Kuhn (Architect) write in their co-authored report Greenbacks from Green Roofs: Forging a New Industry in Canada WKDW UH UDGLDWHG KHDW DQG ZDVWH KHDW IURP LQGXVWU\ YHKLFOHV DQG mechanical equipment are the most prevalent LQĂ XHQFHV UDLVLQJ XUEDQ WHPSHUDWXUHV XS WR ƒ& ƒ) DW QLJKW 3HFN HW DO S By re-integrating greenery into the urban and architectural fabric we can begin to reduce temperatures by increasing shade from plants DQG EHQHĂ€WLQJ IURP WKH HYDSRWUDQVSLUDWLRQDO process that the plants undertake (Alexandri DQG -RQHV S 2Q PDWHULDOV OLNH concrete or asphalt solar exposure re-radiates DV KHDW EXW RQO\ RI WKH VXQ¡V UD\V DUH UHĂ HFWHG IURP WKH OHDI RI D SODQW 3HFN HW DO S 2Q D KRW VXPPHU GD\ DEVRUSWLRQ of heat and light by plants can regulate KXPLGLW\ DQG WHPSHUDWXUH Ă X[HV ZKLOH UHGXFLQJ WKH VXQ¡V LQFLGHQW HQHUJ\ DEVRUSWLRQ of hard materials by up to 90% (p. 21). 1\XN +LHQ :RQJ SURIHVVRU DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6LQJDSRUH WRJHWKHU ZLWK 7DQ 7DQ &KLDQJ DQG :RQJ KDYH SXEOLVKHG one of the most thorough research papers available in English of the thermal impact

of vertical gardens. The paper outlines results obtained for eight different vertical garden panels that were installed in HortPark in Singapore in 2008 (p. 663). The DUWLFOH DFNQRZOHGJHV WKH GLIĂ€FXOWLHV ZLWK quantifying the cooling potentials of gardens by stating that interactions between leaf JHRPHWU\ DUHD FRORXU DQG PLFUR FOLPDWLF parameters like solar radiation all affect the differences recorded both during the day and at night (p. 668). They note that changes in foliage density correspond to changes in surface temperatures and conclude that plants with large and dense leaf structures are preferred for vertical greening (p. 670). Examples of other climbing plants with these FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DUH %RVWRQ ,Y\ Parthenocissus tricuspidata Clematis VSS Vitis VSS DQG RWKHU Parthenocissus VSS .|KOHU Findings of facades monitored by Wong et DO ZHUH SXEOLVKHG EXW LQIRUPDWLRQ on the types of plants was not provided. 7KH ZDOOV VKRZHG VLJQLĂ€FDQW KHDW UHGXFWLRQ S KRZHYHU ZLWK D ZDUP DQG KXPLG FOLPDWH 6LQJDSRUH LV SHUIHFWO\ SRLVHG WR EHQHĂ€W IURP JUHHQ ZDOOV $OH[DQGUL DQG Jones (2008) performed simulations of UHI cooling associated with green roofs and walls in urban canyons in cities around the world and note that green walls will provide greater EHQHĂ€WV WR FLWLHV ZLWK KRW DQG GU\ DV ZHOO DV hot and humid climates. They will provide the OHDVW EHQHĂ€W IRU FLWLHV LQ FROG FOLPDWHV WKRXJK there still remains a measurable difference of less than 1°C (1°F) between facades with green walls compared to those without (p. ,Q WKH KXPLG FOLPDWH RI +RQJ .RQJ a maximum temperature decrease of 8.4°C ƒ) KDV EHHQ UHFRUGHG S ,Q &DQDGD vines have been shown to lower temperatures

as effectively as trees grown in front of VRXWK RU ZHVW ZDOOV 3HFN HW DO S Studies in Britain have shown that reducing wind exposure by planting a deciduous tree perimeter can provide a 25% reduction in energy (heating and cooling) costs annually. Peck et al. expect vertical gardens to provide similar savings in the winter months in cold FLWLHV OLNH :LQQLSHJ¡V LI FRQLIHURXV SODQWV DUH used (p. 20). The greater neighbourhood UHI ZLOO PLQLPL]H Ă XFWXDWLRQ IURP GD\WLPH WR QLJKWWLPH WHPSHUDWXUHV SURWHFWLQJ WKH SODQWV from early frosts or sudden temperature drops. Studies comparing cooling effects of vertical gardens on surrounding areas (Wong et DO %DVV DQG %DVNDUDQ 3HFN HW DO 6FKXPDQQ +XP DQG /DL $OH[DQGUL DQG -RQHV &HQWUH IRU 6XEWURSLFDO 'HVLJQ Q G -DDIDU 6DLG 5DVLGL n.d.) are based on comparisons between surface measurements of the gardens versus the facades they cover. Though they all FRQFOXGH WKDW JUHHQ ZDOOV FDQ ORZHU WKH 8+, exactly how much it will be lowered still remains largely theoretical. The calculations are based on the difference between a vegetated surface and a non-vegetated VXUIDFH EXW GXH WR Ă XFWXDWLRQV LQ FOLPDWH SODQW PDWHULDO DQG VXUIDFH FRYHUDJH WKH results vary from one study to another. This LV QRW WKH IDXOW RI WKH UHVHDUFKHUV QRU WKH DXWKRUV SXEOLVKLQJ WKHLU Ă€QGLQJV EXW UDWKHU simply due to the fact that there are so many IDFWRUV WKDW LQĂ XHQFH WKH UHVXOWV WKDW LW LV YHU\ GLIĂ€FXOW WR UHFUHDWH WKH VDPH UHVXOWV in different locations. Wong et al. (2010) FRPSDUHG FRROLQJ HIIHFWV LQ 7RURQWR -DSDQ and Africa and Singapore and concluded WKDW ´WHPSHUDWXUH Ă XFWXDWLRQV DW WKH ZDOO surface can be reduced from between 10 °C

37

and 60 °C [18-108°F] to between 5°C and ƒ& > ƒ)@ Âľ S 7KLV PHDQV WKDW RYHUDOO JOREDOO\ WKHUH ZLOO EH D GHFUHDVH LQ surface temperatures once they are covered ZLWK SODQWV EXW WKH H[DFW Ă€JXUH IRU D VSHFLĂ€F location will need to be studied individually. The potential of vertical gardens to mitigate the UHI is expected to be similar to that RI JUHHQ URRIV &ODUH 0LĂ LQ ZURWH LQ an online article for the American Institute of Architecture that if just 6% of Toronto URRIWRSV ZHUH JUHHQHG WKDW WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ reduction in the UHI would be between 2-4°F a ƒ& 6LQFH WKDW DUWLFOH ZDV SXEOLVKHG LQ WKH FLW\ RI 7RURQWR EHFDPH WKH Ă€UVW city in North America to legislate green roof requirements on new developments (City RI 7RURQWR ,W LV VWLOO WRR HDUO\ WR VWXG\ data from Toronto as the number of green URRIV PXVW EH YHU\ KLJK WR VKRZ D GHĂ€QLWLYH cooling trend. Larger scale cooling trends for neighbourhoods will be found only after multiple green walls have been installed (Peck HW DO S DQG DUH H[SHFWHG WR RFFXU over an unknown span of time dependent on the quantity and size of green roofs installed. Impacts may be negligible today will continue to grow over time because of this legislation.

4.3 Reduction of Heating and Cooling Costs in Buildings 'U 0DQIUHG .|KOHU *HUPDQ UHVHDUFKHU GHWHUPLQHG WKDW WKH YHUWLFDO gardens he studied provided up to 3°C (5.5°F) RI LQVXODWLRQ LQ WKH ZLQWHU DQG ƒ& ƒ) RI shade-induced cooling during the summer in %HUOLQ .|KOHU 7DEOH 3HFN HW DO ZULWH WKDW ´D LQ FP OD\HU RI VWDQGLQJ DLU WUDSSHG EHWZHHQ DQ LQVXODWHG ZDOO

38

DQG D LQ FP EODQNHW RI SODQWV FDQ increase the R value (unit thermal resistance) RI WKDW ZDOO E\ DV PXFK DV Âľ S Protecting building facades from temperature Ă XFWXDWLRQV PHDQ WKDW EXLOGLQJ RSHUDWLRQ costs can be lower. Bass and Baskaran (2003) found that green walls used for shading can reduce energy used for cooling by 23% and energy used for air circulation by 20% (p. 90). Green walls can reduce the temperature immediately outside a building by 5.5°C ƒ) ZKLFK ZRXOG FRUUHVSRQGLQJO\ UHGXFH the need for air-conditioning by 50-70% (Peck HW DO S ,Q PRVW RI WKHVH FDVHV the calculated savings are inferred from data gathered from a single vertical garden wall during the summer. Studies on savings associated with entire buildings covered in YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV ZHUH QRW IRXQG QHLWKHU ZHUH studies showing temperature variations in negative winter temperatures. This means WKDW RQFH DJDLQ WKRXJK DOO VWXGLHV FRQĂ€UP SRVLWLYH HIIHFWV :RQJ HW DO %DVV DQG %DVNDUDQ 3HFN HW DO WKHUH PD\ be a change in the predicted outcome of a building completely covered in vertical JDUGHQV YHUVXV WKH LPSOLHG RXWFRPH IURP D VLQJOH ZDOO RU SRUWLRQ RI D ZDOO 6HDVRQDO YDULDWLRQV ZLOO DOVR LQĂ XHQFH RXWFRPHV One element commonly mentioned in Canadian studies is how the vegetated facade affects wind. By adding vegetation to a facade and including an airspace between the plants DQG WKH EXLOGLQJ ERWK ZLQG DQG KHDW DUH SUHYHQWHG IURP UHDFKLQJ WKH IDFDGH ZKLFK LQFUHDVHV WKH EXLOGLQJ¡V WKHUPDO UHVLVWDQFH Wind by itself can decrease the energy HIĂ€FLHQF\ RI D EXLOGLQJ E\ XS WR VR E\ adding a thick layer of vegetation this loss can EH OHVVHQHG 3HFN HW DO S *UHHQ

ZDOOV UHGXFH ZLQG VSHHGV RU FRQYHFWLYH KHDW WUDQVIHU DORQJ D ZDOO ZKLFK ZLOO FDXVH WKH heat resistance of the buildings boundary layer to rise from 0.04 to a maximum of 0.17 m2 . : GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH GHQVLW\ RI WKH IROLDJH 2RVWHUOHH S Another aspect of the cooling effect missing in the research is the difference in cooling between different vertical garden systems. In the only explicitly comparative study Oosterlee (2013) found that “the R value of the Greenwave system based on soil varies between 0.1 and 0.2 m2 . : GHSHQGLQJ on the wetness of the growing medium. For the WonderwallÂŽ V\VWHP EDVHG RQ IDEULF WKLV ranges between 0.2 and 0.3 m2 K W-1. The insulating capacity of the LivePanelÂŽ system (which uses rock wool) was found to be more VLJQLĂ€FDQW DW ² P2 K W-1â€? (p. 6). For FRPSDULVRQ WKH 5 YDOXH RI FRQFUHWH LV P2 K W-1 and standard 2â€? air spaces in walls are 0.15 m2 . : UHVSHFWLYHO\ <RXFHI ,ERV )HXLOOHW %DOFRQ &DQGDX DQG )LOORX[ S Many studies involve large leafed species of YLQHV EXW UHODWLYHO\ IHZ VWXGLHV KDYH EHHQ conducted comparing systems with different types of vegetation (for example a grass wall versus a succulent wall). Peck et al. note that grass surfaces will not heat up past 25°C ƒ) S KRZHYHU VLPLODU GDWD IRU VXFFXOHQWV FRQLIHUV RU RWKHU KHUEDFHRXV covers are not mentioned. Similar studies carried out in Singapore by Wong et al. (2010) demonstrate a difference in temperature RQ YDULRXV JDUGHQV KRZHYHU H[DFW VSHFLHV mixes and direct temperature readings are not reported; all presented is the temperature Ă XFWXDWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKDW UHFRUGHG RQ WKH wall and the overall reading of the city. The

fact that these gardens are located within a SDUN OLNHO\ LQĂ XHQFHG WKH RXWFRPH DV ZHOO as plants already present in the park have a cooling effect. It is unclear whether or not this effect was recorded or accounted for. The reduction of wind and heating/cooling FRVWV FLWHG LQ VRPH VWXGLHV LV VLJQLĂ€FDQW KRZHYHU WR DFKLHYH WKHVH EHQHĂ€WV ORVVHV ZLOO EH IRXQG HOVHZKHUH LQ WKH JDUGHQ :LQG IRU H[DPSOH SRVHV D ELJ WKUHDW WR YHJHWDWLRQ DV it can rapidly dessicate growth media which FRXOG HLWKHU NLOO SODQWV RU GUDPDWLFDOO\ increase the amount of irrigation needed. %HQHĂ€WV JDLQHG WKURXJK ZLQG EORFNDJH DUH countered by increases in cost elsewhere.

4.4 Winter Impact On Building Performance Coniferous species are recommended for cold FOLPDWHV ZKHUH ZLQWHU KHDW ORVV LV DQ LVVXH since deciduous species lose their leaves and therefore their thermal impact in the winter 3HFN HW DO S 7KH GHVLUHG RXWFRPH LQ FROG SODFHV LV WR IDFLOLWDWH VRODU JDLQ VR the loss of foliage during the winter could be more of an advantage than a disadvantage if the wall is carefully designed to allow solar JDLQ 7KLV WKHRU\ LV FRQĂ€UPHG E\ D VWXG\ E\ - $ 2RVWHUOHH LQ 'HQPDUN ´WKH results show that applying foliage led to a GHFUHDVH LQ DQQXDO FRROLQJ ORDG EXW WKLV ZDV balanced by an increase in annual heating ORDG ,Q HYHU\ H[DPLQHG VLWXDWLRQ WKH DQQXDO energy consumption decreased by a mere Âľ S 7KLV LQGLFDWHV WKDW LQ RUGHU IRU a system to be economically viable in cold FOLPDWHV LQFOXGLQJ &DQDGD LW ZRXOG EH PRVW appropriate to develop a system that allows for passive solar radiation to be absorbed

39

Carbon Sequestration Dust and Pollution Particles

Figure 4.08: Dust and pollution accumulate on the leaves of plants in urban environments. Carbon is also sequestered through the photosynthetic process.

GXULQJ WKH ZLQWHU EXW VWRSSHG GXULQJ WKH VXPPHU 8OWLPDWHO\ PRUH DGDSWLYH thoughtful testing of new designs must be done in urban Canadian contexts.

4.5 Pollution and Dust Control Vertical gardens have been shown to reduce SROOXWLRQ DQG GXVW LQ FLWLHV 7KRHQQHVVHQ .|KOHU 6LPLODUO\ WR VWXGLHV RQ WHPSHUDWXUH YDULDWLRQV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV disparate results are found. Details such DV SODQW W\SH OHDI VL]H DQG ZDOO FRYHUDJH all have a noticeable impact on pollution absorption and dust capture. The accumulation of dust and dirt particles RQ OHDYHV DV VHHQ LQ ÀJXUH LQFUHDVHV DLU TXDOLW\ 7KLV FDQ EHQHÀW SHRSOH ZLWK DVWKPD DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO DOOHUJLHV DQG KDV EHHQ shown to reduce smog and other forms of SROOXWLRQ 3HFN HW DO S 5HVXOWV published by M. Thoennessen (2002) indicate

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YDULRXV FKHPLFDO HOHPHQWV DOXPLQXP FDGPLXP FREDOW FKURPLXP FRSSHU LURQ QLFNHO OHDG EHFRPH WUDSSHG RQ OHDYHV RI Boston Ivy in city centres. It is not mentioned whether any residue is left after rain washes DZD\ WKH HOHPHQWV RU ZKHWKHU OHDI WH[WXUH plays a role in dust capture. It is suspected that hairy versus non hairy leaves would capture differing amounts of dust because of differences in surface area. The amount of dust and heavy metals on leaves increases SURSRUWLRQDWHO\ WR OHDI PDVV .|KOHU S $FFRUGLQJ WR .|KOHU WKH DUHD best suited to capture dust and pollutants is from 2 - 7.5 m in elevation (p. 430). Dust and SDUWLFOHV ZLOO EH ZDVKHG DZD\ E\ UDLQ DQG end up in a water processing plant. Because of the increase in dust and pollution at these HOHYDWLRQV LW LV UHFRPPHQGHG WKDW IRRG EH grown outside of this zone. Though there are not many studies on pollution deposition in outdoor vertical

Without Green Skins

With Green Skins

Figure 4.09 & 4.10: Stormwater runo can be minimized with the use of widespread vegetative skins on buildings.

JDUGHQV LW LV YHU\ GLIĂ€FXOW WR GRFXPHQW it has been proven that indoor biowalls FDQ VXFFHVVIXOO\ DEVRUE DQG Ă€OWHU LQGRRU DLU FRQWDPLQDQWV VXFK DV 92&V &22 DQG RWKHU KDUPIXO JDVHV +XP $QG /DL p. i-ii). NedlawTM describes sick building syndrome as the phenomena of people getting sick because of an estimated 200 different chemicals present in indoor air (NedlawTM 7KHVH FKHPLFDOV NQRZQ DV 92&V originate from chemicals emitted by furniture DQG EXLOGLQJ PDWHULDOV VXFK DV Ă RRULQJ SDLQW IDEULFV SO\ZRRG FDUSHWLQJ HWF PDQ\ of which have been found to be carcinogenic (2011). Oxygen and CO2 released into the air by plants during the photosynthetic process increase indoor air quality. Research from Hum and Lai (2007) is more FULWLFDO RI WKH ELRZDOO¡V DELOLW\ WR Ă€OWHU RXW FRQWDPLQDQWV :KLOH WKH\ FRQĂ€UP WKDW walls can successfully remove VOCs even DW ORZ FRQFHQWUDWLRQV WKH\ QRWH WKDW WKH wall they studied did not reduce CO2 levels VLJQLĂ€FDQWO\ S L LL 7KH\ K\SRWKHVL]H WKDW this may be due to the fact that plants produce and emit differing amounts of CO2 and VOCs themselves and thus may not produce a consistent difference in chemical counts in spaces with or without biowalls. It seems that positive results come from the evaluation of VSHFLĂ€F FKHPLFDOV EXW +XP DQG /DL

DUH ORRNLQJ DW WKH RYHUDOO UHVXOW ZKLFK may not be as positive as other studies and promotional materials suggest.

4.6 Mitigation of Stormwater Runo Vertical gardens can be irrigated with stormwater runoff from rooftops or other VXUIDFHV WR DEVRUE DQG GHOD\ SHDN Ă RZV DV VKRZQ LQ Ă€JXUHV %HFDXVH RI JUHHQ ZDOOV¡ OLPLWHG IRRWSULQW RQ JUDGH the majority of direct absorption will occur when rain is falling horizontally - during a PDMRU VWRUP HYHQW ZKHUH ZLQG EORZV UDLQ WRZDUGV WKH ZDOO 3HFN HW DO S Relying on the wall to absorb water in this ZD\ LV XQSUHGLFWDEOH VR ZKHQ VWRUPZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ LV GHVLUHG LW LV UHFRPPHQGHG IRU ZDWHU WR EH FROOHFWHG DQG VWRUHG RQ VLWH and released through controlled irrigation. The biggest drawback to this technique is that other surrounding structures must EH GHVLJQHG WR GUDLQ LQWR D KROGLQJ WDQN ZKHWKHU GLUHFWO\ YLD HQJLQHHUHG VORSHV RU indirectly through pipes. Usually this is not D GLIĂ€FXOW UHWURĂ€W ,I D UDLQZDWHU KDUYHVWLQJ V\VWHP DOUHDG\ H[LVWV RQ VLWH DGDSWLQJ LW WR integrate a green wall would be fairly easy.

41

Without Green Skins

With Green Skins

Figure 4.11 & 4.12: Vegetation can help to reduce noise reverberation.

4.7 Noise reduction and refraction Vertical greenery has been noted to have a KLJKHU QRLVH DEVRUSWLRQ FRHIĂ€FLHQW FRPSDUHG WR FRPPRQ EXLOGLQJ PDWHULDOV :RQJ Q G S 8QOLNH PRVW EXLOGLQJ PDWHULDOV WKH DEVRUSWLRQ FRHIĂ€FLHQW LQFUHDVHV GHSHQGLQJ on the type of vegetation (p. 1). Throughout P\ HGXFDWLRQ , KDYH QRWHG WKDW WKH LPSDFW RI vegetation on sound attenuation is sometimes questioned by designers in terms of its HIĂ€FLHQF\ GXULQJ WKH ZLQWHU 6XUH WKH VRXQG refraction capacity of vegetation could be OHVV WKDQ DQ DFRXVWLF SDQHO IRU H[DPSOH EXW it can still produce a noticeable effect in a EXV\ FLW\ LI ZLGHO\ DSSOLHG DQG LI FRQLIHURXV plants are included in the design. Figures 4.11 and 4.12 are a visualisation of the noise absorption from vertical gardens. Gernot 0LQNH LQ KLV ERRN Haeuser mit Gruenem Pelz (Roughly translated to House with Green

42

Hair) wrote that tests show that a 5� (12 cm) layer of growth substrate can reduce sound by 40 dB and 8� (20 cm) of substrate by 46 dB (p. 15). Some reductions have shown WR EH DV KLJK DV G% +RRNHU S )RU UHIHUHQFH G% LV HTXLYDOHQW WR D VORZ à RZLQJ VWUHDP $FFRUGLQJ WR WKHVH VWXGLHV true noise reduction occurs when sound is DEVRUEHG E\ VXEVWUDWHV QRW QHFHVVDULO\ E\ WKH plants themselves. Though it should be noted that the sound refraction properties of plants KDYH SURYHQ WR EH EHQHÀFLDO HQRXJK IRU WKH Frankfurt Airport in Germany to install green roofs on their buildings as part of their efforts WR EXIIHU QRLVH JHQHUDWHG IURP DLU WUDIÀF &HQWUH IRU 6XEWURSLFDO 'HVLJQ Q G S 7KLV EHQHÀW ZLOO JHQHUDOO\ GHFUHDVH GXULQJ WKH ZLQWHU XQOHVV FRQLIHURXV SODQWV DUH XVHG

of reach) these gardens can offer a simple way to integrate vegetative communities back into the city without using space on grade 3HFN HW DO S 'YRUDN DQG 9ROGHU (2010) explain that living roofs may be used WR VXSSRUW VSHFLHV RI LQVHFWV DQLPDOV DQG plants that have been lost from their natural grassland habitats within agricultural areas in North America (p.206). As there are many parallels between green roofs and vertical gardens it can be assumed that the same inferences can be made for vertical gardens.

Figure 4.13: Integrating native vegetation into urban centres will help bring nature into cities.

4.8 Integration of Native Habitats in Cities 9HUWLFDO JDUGHQV FUHDWH KDELWDWV IRU SODQWV LQYHUWHEUDWHV ELUGV DQG VPDOO PDPPDOV 3HFN HW DO GHĂ€QH D KDELWDW DV ´VSHFLĂ€F VXUURXQGLQJV ZLWKLQ ZKLFK DQ RUJDQLVP VSHFLHV RU FRPPXQLW\ OLYHV Âľ S 'XH to the density of the built environment and DJULFXOWXUDO H[SDQVHV YHJHWDWLYH KDELWDW for animals has been severely disturbed (p. 39). Dr. Dickson Despommier (2010) writes in his book The Vertical Farm that through DJULFXOWXUDO IDUPLQJ ZH KDYH IUDJPHQWHG PRVW RI WKH ZRUOG¡V ELRPHV ´UHDUUDQJLQJ the lives of countless assemblages of plants and animals and causing the extinction of PDQ\ RWKHUV Âľ S 'XH WR WKH DPRXQW RI SRWHQWLDOO\ QDWLYH RU QLFKH Ă€OOLQJ YHJHWDWLRQ XVHG LQ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ DQG SRWHQWLDO isolation from direct human disturbance (out

Vertical gardens can provide a link between URRIWRS KDELWDWV DQG KDELWDWV RQ JUDGH DV VKRZQ LQ ÀJXUH 9HUWLFDO JDUGHQV WRJHWKHU ZLWK JUHHQ URRIV FDQ FUHDWH KDELWDW for species that are either endangered or threatened. Francis and Lormier (2009) note that invertebrate diversity can be particularly high on green roofs; rooftop communities PD\ LQFOXGH LQVHFWV VXFK DV VSLGHUV EHHWOHV ZDVSV DQWV DQG EHHV DQG WKH\ REVHUYH WKDW some species with very specialized niches are sometimes present. These are often the same species expected to be found on green walls.

4.9 Food Production Vertical gardens can grow food. Since food deserts are increasingly plaguing 1RUWK $PHULFDQV LW LV LPSRUWDQW WKDW ZH VWDUW WR JURZ RXU RZQ IRRG DQG GHSHQG less on supermarkets for our sustenance. Despommier (2010) explains that many of the ecosystem disruptions seen in the 21st century are due to agricultural runoff (p. 28). He proposes that urban farming be done vertically rather than horizontally to prevent such disruptions. He introduces many intriguing and thoughtful proposals

43

throughout the book. His vision of vertical gardens are isolated from the urban HQYLURQPHQW LQ KHUPHWLFDOO\ VHDOHG WRZHUV where crops grow one on top of the other. His proposals for wide scale applications KDYH SRWHQWLDO )RU VPDOOHU VFDOH DSSOLFDWLRQV growing vegetables on a wall would give recreational farmers more possibilities to grow their own food at home- especially those living in apartments or places without access to horizontal gardens. Plants grown recreationally on city walls will experience EXLOGXS RI GXVW DQG PHWDOV VR LW LV LPSRUWDQW that urban farmers remain conscious RI SRWHQWLDO FRQWDPLQDWLRQ DQG WDNH precautionary measures. It is also necessary to plan to be able to reach all of the plants both IRU KDUYHVWLQJ DQG IRU JHQHUDO PDLQWHQDQFH so often personal vertical farms are small. $FFRUGLQJ WR 'HVSRPPLHU WKH utilization of vertical gardens and rooftop gardens for large scale food production in urban centres could produce enough food to IHHG WKH FLWL]HQV RI WKH DUHD DV ZHOO DV FUHDWH many local jobs. An article in the Toronto Star describes a single Concord grapevine growing on the façade of a small south-facing house in Cabbagetown that has produced 3 bushels of JUDSHV HDFK \HDU IRU \HDUV LQ D URZ 6PLWK 1997). The grapevine was only 5 years old at the time of the story and was initially installed primarily to shade the house from the summer sun (1997). Though this is a very VPDOO H[DPSOH WKH SRLQW LV FOHDU WKH JUDSH SURGXFWLRQ FRPSDUHG WR WKH à RRU DUHD WKH plants occupy is very high. Peck et al. (1999) list espalier trained fruit trees and climbing YHJHWDEOHV OLNH VTXDVK EHDQV DQG WRPDWRHV as particularly suited to verticality. Other YHJHWDEOHV VXFK DV OHWWXFH VSLQDFK RWKHU

44

leafy greens are also noted to be well suited to verticality (p. 38) due to their smaller root systems which grow easily in containers.

4.10 Biophilia 7KHUH DUH PDQ\ SV\FKRORJLFDO EHQHĂ€WV associated with exposure to nature in the IRUP RI OLYLQJ SODQWV 7KLV FRQFHSW FDOOHG ELRSKLOLD ZDV Ă€UVW H[WHQVLYHO\ GHYHORSHG E\ Edward O. Wilson in his book of the same title (1984). Roger S. Ulrich and R. Parsons in a paper called InĂ uences of passive experiences with plants on individual well-being and health ZULWH WKDW D VWXG\ FRQGXFWHG LQ WKH 1HWKHUODQGV RI RYHU SHRSOH IRXQG a direct correlation between the amount of green elements in living environments and higher levels of perceived physical and mental health. This is echoed in many of the books and papers read for this practicum 3HFN HW DO 'HVSRPPLHU %HDWOH\ .HOOHUW /RXY DQG 8OULFK DQG 3DUVRQV 7KH OHYHO RI KHDOWK has been directly correlated to the level of greenness in frequently visited areas; “10% more greenspace in the living environment leads to a decrease in the number of symptoms that is comparable with a decrease LQ DJH E\ \HDUV Âľ 'H9ULHV HW DO S Such studies have led to more plants installed LQ RIĂ€FHV WR LQFUHDVH SURGXFWLYLW\ DQG employee satisfaction (Centre for Subtropical 'HVLJQ Q G S 0LĂ LQ H[SODLQV that as building technology improved in the WK FHQWXU\ FUHDWLQJ PRUH XQLIRUP VSDFHV many buildings lost their connections to the environment. People are now beginning to question the desirability of that uniformity (2007).

Vertical gardens are an effective way to integrate natural views into our urban OLYHV ERWK LQGRRUV DQG RXW 7KH &HQWUH IRU 6XEWURSLFDO 'HVLJQ Q G D JURXS RI GHVLJQ UHVHDUFKHUV RI UHVLOLHQW FLWLHV LQ WKH WURSLFV note that vertical gardens can increase ZRUNSODFH SHUIRUPDQFH HPSOR\HH UHWHQWLRQ and productivity due to the same effects noted in Ulrich and Parsons (1992) (Centre IRU 6XEWURSLFDO 'HVLJQ Q G S 7LPRWK\ Beatley (2011) writes in Biophilic Cities that “helping a city become more biophilic will UHO\ KHDYLO\ RQ HQYLURQPHQWDO HGXFDWLRQ and creative ways will be needed to build commitment of urban populations to nature and to foster a strong urban environmental HWKLF Âľ S 9HUWLFDO JDUGHQV FDQ LQFUHDVH appreciation of citizens of plant communities and natural events by including informative plaques with each green wall project.

4.11 Marketing Green walls can be a highly visible way for businesses to improve their image or create LQWULJXLQJ DGYHUWLVHPHQWV *UHHQ EXLOGLQJV products and services now have a competitive edge on the market and are perceived as H[FHHGLQJ EXLOGLQJ VWDQGDUGV *5+& S 21). Green walls are frequently used in advertising and company signage in order to associate the company with this perception of excellence. Some ads are temporary and others permanent. The Coca-Cola Company and World Wildlife Fund billboard advertisement from 2011 is a striking example of a temporary vertical garden. Made from recycled Coca-Cola glass bottles each housing a single Fukien tea SODQW WKH DG UHDGV ´WKLV ELOOERDUG DEVRUEV DLU SROOXWDQWV¾ 3DODFH *UHHQ )RUXP

Similar campaigns have also emerged from $GLGDV +3 DQG 0F'RQDOG¡V Green walls can be used as permanent signage for companies. PNC Bank in 3LWWVEXUJK IRU H[DPSOH KDV D YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ PHDVXULQJ VT IW P2) in which their name and logo are spelled out of different coloured plants. Similar designs can be seen LQ PDQ\ EXLOGLQJV WRGD\ RIWHQ ZLWK VLJQDJH à RDWLQJ RYHU WRS RI D JUHHQ ZDOO

Conclusion A vertical garden has the potential to greatly LQĂ XHQFH LWV VXUURXQGLQJV EHQHĂ€WLQJ WKH EXLOGLQJ LW LV JURZLQJ RQ WKH QHLJKERXUKRRG LW LV ORFDWHG ZLWKLQ DQG WKH SHRSOH WKDW are in the area. The biggest advantages to YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ DUH DHVWKHWLF LPSURYHPHQW UHGXFWLRQ LQ WKH 8+, LPSURYHPHQW RI DLU TXDOLW\ VWRUPZDWHU DEVRUSWLRQ QRLVH UHGXFWLRQ QDWLYH KDELWDW LQWHJUDWLRQ UHGXFWLRQ LQ KHDWLQJ DQG FRROLQJ FRVWV IRRG production and biophilia. It is important to XQGHUVWDQG WKDW WKHVH EHQHĂ€WV DUH JHQHUDOO\ WUXH IRU DOO W\SHV RI YHJHWDWLRQ QRW MXVW IRU YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV VR LQ VRPH FDVHV LI WKHUH is enough available ground space) it may be more viable to plant a horizontal garden at grade for a fraction of the cost of a green wall. Vertical gardens are recommended for sites WKDW KDYH OLPLWHG Ă RRU VSDFH RU WKRVH ]RQHG for medium-high to high density building. Urban centres are therefore prime candidates. Vertical gardens can be built in suburbs and UXUDO FRPPXQLWLHV DV ZHOO EXW VLWHV ZLOO EHQHĂ€W PRVW IURP JUHHQ ZDOOV DUH KLJK GHQVLW\ areas in urban locations.

45

Initially it was my assumption that all of the EHQHÀWV OLVWHG DERYH MXVWLÀHG WKH SRWHQWLDOO\ RXWUDJHRXV FRVW RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV EXW an article I read toward the end of my UHVHDUFK RQ EHQHÀWV TXLFNO\ SXW WKH VR FDOOHG ´EHQHÀWVµ LQ SHUVSHFWLYH 7KH DUWLFOH ZDV 3HFN HW DO ·V Greenbacks from Green Roofs. 7KH UHSRUW FRPSDUHG WKH EHQHÀWV RI YHUWLFDO gardening to street trees and trees that grow in front of buildings. The conclusion posited was that though green walls have many DVVRFLDWHG EHQHÀWV SODQWLQJ D WUHH LV QRW RQO\ FKHDSHU EXW WUHHV DUH DOVR PRUH HIÀFLHQW DW SROOXWLRQ XSWDNH UHGXFLQJ WKH 8+, DQG reducing heating and cooling costs of the building they front (p. 20). This information had a very negative effect on my outlook for P\ SUDFWLFXP IRU D ORQJ WLPH DQG QHDUO\ EURNH P\ RSWLPLVWLF JUHHQ ZDOO ORYLQJ KHDUW until I realised there were still other factors that trees alone were not as good at such as FUHDWLQJ GLYHUVH KDELWDW QLFKHV LQFUHDVHG facade coverage and increased plant diversity. ,Q WHUPV RI DHVWKHWLFV D VLQJOH WUHH ZRXOG KDYH GLIÀFXOWLHV FRPSHWLQJ ZLWK WKH YDULHW\ RI FRORXU WH[WXUH VKDSH DQG VL]H RI D JUHHQ ZDOO

46

Figure 4.14: People admiring a living wall bioďŹ lter in the Richardson Building, Toronto.

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Figure 5.01: Failing green wall, Vancouver.

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5. DIFFICULTIES ASSOCIATED WITH VERTICAL GARDENING T

KHUH DUH VWLOO PDQ\ GLIÀFXOWLHV WKDW SODJXH WKH JUHHQ ZDOO LQGXVWU\ 0RVW GUDZEDFNV IURP D &DQDGLDQ SHUVSHFWLYH DUH GXH WR WKH lack of information and research in Canada. Canada has produced some of the leading UHVHDUFK LQ WKH ÀHOG LQ 1RUWK $PHULFD EXW it is still severely limited. The primary base RI LQIRUPDWLRQ H[LVWV KRZHYHU LPSRUWDQW aspects of the research is often not mentioned. Aspects such as where the garden was installed (climate - both neighbourhood and UHJLRQ ZKHWKHU LW ZDV LQ VXQ RU VKDGH ZKDW SODQWV ZHUH XVHG DQG ZKDW PDWHULDOV ZHUH used are often not mentioned in detail. Other GLIÀFXOWLHV LQFOXGH FRVW DQG ODFN RI LQGXVWU\ FRGHV DQG VWDQGDUGV $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKHUH DUH various associated risks such as water-related damage and plant survival that impede vertical gardens from becoming widespread. 0RUH SXEOLVKHG WHVWV LQ GLIIHUHQW FOLPDWHV with different plant species- annual and SHUHQQLDO QDWLYH DQG QRQ QDWLYH RQ GLIIHUHQW IDFDGHV PDGH IURP GLIIHUHQW PDWHULDOV ORFDWHG RQ GLIIHUHQW DVSHFWV LQ GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI XUEDQ FDQ\RQV ZLWK GLIIHULQJ DPRXQWV RI ZLQG H[SRVXUH ZRXOG KHOS 7KHVH DUH VRPH RI WKH JUHDWHVW LQà XHQFHV DQG FRPSRVLWLRQDO

HOHPHQWV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ GHVLJQ DQG \HW WKHVH DUH WKH DVSHFWV KDYHQ¡W DOO EHHQ WHVWHG in detail yet. Wong (n.d.) notes that building professionals and occupants generally agree RQ PRVW RI WKH EHQHĂ€WV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ S KRZHYHU WKH\ GLVDJUHH DV WR ZKHWKHU or not vertical gardens can enhance the lifespan of a building facade and improve rainwater retention (p. 3). He cites high initial DQG PDLQWHQDQFH FRVWV ODFN RI WHFKQLFDO information regarding local plants and maintenance schedules as deterrents (p. 3). The cost of a vertical garden will usually be WKH PRVW OLPLWLQJ IDFWRU EXW RWKHU LQĂ XHQFHV VXFK DV ODFN RI DZDUHQHVV RI EHQHĂ€WV DQG performance and lack of grants and subsidies for design/installation/maintenance are additional hurdles that vertical garden enthusiasts face (p. 3). There is often KHVLWDWLRQ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH XQNQRZQ DQG green wall installation is no exception.

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5.1 Lack of Knowledge and Awareness The drawback that has the biggest impact on the vertical garden industry is an overall lack of knowledge and awareness of the public DQG RI SURIHVVLRQDOV 8UEHQ ,PEHDXOW $XJXVW $OWKRXJK ODFN RI DZDUHQHVV LV D KXJH SUREOHP LW LV TXLFNO\ OHVVHQLQJ WKDQNV LQ SDUW WR WKH ZRUN RI 3DWULFN %ODQF EXW DOVR due to the rising number of vertical gardens installed by businesses and governments around the world. Various related businesses KDYH VSUXQJ XS UHFHQWO\ VHOOLQJ WKHLU RZQ relatively inexpensive vertical gardening systems. Larger businesses like Home Depot have also begun offering tutorials on how the average homeowner can build a vertical JDUGHQ IURP ELJ EXGJHW WR H[WUHPHO\ small budget applications. Awareness of vertical gardens in the DIY and homeowner FRPPXQLWLHV LV QRZ IDLUO\ FRPPRQ however many professionals in the design and gardening world do not have enough information to properly convince their clients that a vertical garden is a sound investment. ,Q WKLV VHQVH WKLV ODFN RI DZDUHQHVV RQ WKH part of professionals has the biggest impact on commercial vertical gardening projects. Wong (n.d.) found that both landscape architects and suppliers feel that vertical gardening LV VWLOO LQ LWV LQIDQF\ DQG WKDW LW LV D ELJ FKDOOHQJH WR EXLOG DUFKLWHFWV DQG GHYHORSHUV¡ FRQĂ€GHQFH LQ YHUWLFDO JUHHQHU\ S +H believes that there needs to be more sharing RI WHFKQLFDO LQIRUPDWLRQ EHWZHHQ FRQWUDFWRUV professionals and maintenance crews (p. 3). $GPLWWHGO\ WKH ULJKW FOLHQW DQG WKH ULJKW VLWH DUH QHFHVVDU\ IRU D JUHHQ ZDOO WR EH LQVWDOOHG however there are enough commercially available systems (with warranties) that green walls could be considered more often.

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2YHU WKH ODVW IHZ \HDUV , KDYH QRWLFHG SHRSOH¡V DZDUHQHVV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV KDV increased. I have witnessed this in my own OLIH DQG RQOLQH :KHQ , XVHG WR WHOO SHRSOH I was looking into vertical gardens they would ask me what they were and then the conversation would end. Now when I tell SHRSOH DERXW P\ SUDFWLFXP WKH\ JHW H[FLWHG and tell me about how they want to make RQH LQ WKHLU EDFN\DUG RU KRZ WKH\ VDZ RQH LQ 3DULV D IHZ \HDUV DJR RU KRZ WKHLU IULHQG KDV RQH DQG WKH\ DEVROXWHO\ ORYH LW RU KRZ WKH\ put one into their last design studio project. 1R PDWWHU WKH VWRU\ WKH\ WHOO HYHU\RQH VHHPV to have a very positive response to the topic. , KDYH ZLWQHVVHG WKLV VDPH HYROXWLRQ RQOLQH as for the last three years I have been running a blog called Aw Yeah Vertical Gardens! (see KWWS DZ\HDKYHUWLFDOJDUGHQV WXPEOU FRP which is mostly content reposted from other EORJJHUV RU IURP RWKHU RQOLQH VRXUFHV , KDYH seen the number of followers jump from 159 UHJLVWHUHG IROORZHUV WR RYHU UHJLVWHUHG followers in a little over two years (the current FRXQW DV RI $XJXVW LV

5.2 Lack of Empirical Evidence A second drawback is a lack of empirical HYLGHQFH RQ WKH EHQHĂ€WV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ Wong et al. (2010) explain how many of the VLJQLĂ€FDQW DUWLFOHV RQ XUEDQ JUHHQHU\ IRFXV on green roofs. These usually include a small VHFWLRQ DW WKH HQG DERXW YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ that in essence states that vertical gardens are expected share all of the same advantages as green roofs (p. 664). Though this makes VHQVH JUHHQ URRIV DQG YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV DUH REYLRXVO\ TXLWH GLIIHUHQW DQG WR SURSHUO\ FRQYLQFH SHRSOH RI WKHLU SRVLWLYH LPSDFWV more dedicated research is needed. As noted

SUHYLRXVO\ HYHQ VWXGLHV WKDW IRFXV GLUHFWO\ on vertical gardening often do not include all pertinent information such as climate QRUPDOV XUEDQ ORFDWLRQ LQà XHQFH 8+, IDFWRU GHQVLW\ DQG W\SH RI YHJHWDWLRQ RU WKH depth of substrate used. Results that include some of that information are so varied in WKHLU UHVXOWV WKDW LW LV GLIÀFXOW WR VD\ ZKDW WKH effect will be on any given project. Because the vertical garden industry is currently XQUHJXODWHG GLIIHUHQW FRPSDQLHV DQG GHVLJQ WHDPV GHYHORS XQLTXH V\VWHPV ZKLFK WKH\ WUDGHPDUN DQG GR QRW QHFHVVDULO\ VKDUH ZLWK the public or other green wall enthusiasts. :LWKRXW VROLG ÀJXUHV LW LV GLIÀFXOW WR implement new technologies. It would be extremely valuable to have a software into which you could input vegetative types; ZDOO W\SHV VRLO EHDULQJ RU K\GURSRQLF GDWD VRLO GHSWK FOLPDWH GDWD PLFURFOLPDWH GDWD VXFK DV DVSHFW VRODU RULHQWDWLRQ ZLQG VSHHGV DQG GLUHFWLRQ DQG WKH UHODWLYH OHYHO RI KXPLGLW\ DQG KDYH WKH VRIWZDUH FDOFXODWH D predicted impact or energy savings based on the type of architecture and type of heating and cooling systems in place. This sort of simulation software could be useful on both the architectural scale in terms of individual EXLOGLQJ HQHUJ\ VDYLQJV DQG RQ ODUJHU VFDOH concerning impact on the UHI.

5.3 Lack of Incentives A third drawback to vertical gardening in Canada is the lack of incentives and ordinances. Many programs in Europe and a few in the United States have now been HVWDEOLVKHG KRZHYHU &DQDGD KDV \HW WR HVWDEOLVK DQ\ ,Q 3HFN HW DO ZURWH WKDW funding to design/build/maintain vertical

JDUGHQV ZDV GLIĂ€FXOW WR DFFHVV GXH WR D general lack of knowledge in the marketplace (p. 47). While some funding has now been PDGH DYDLODEOH IRU JUHHQ UHVHDUFK LQ JHQHUDO there are few funds dedicated solely to vertical gardens. Peck et al. (1999) describe green roof programs that have been successful LQ (XURSH DQG UHFRPPHQG WKDW &DQDGD ´(VWDEOLVK D Ă€QDQFLDO LQFHQWLYH SURJUDP of grants or indirect subsidies to encourage implementation by reducing payback periods and associated economic uncertainties. Government investment will make up for the market IDLOXUH WR DFNQRZOHGJH WKH VLJQLĂ€FDQW VRFLDO DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO EHQHĂ€WV DLU TXDOLW\ DPHQLW\ VSDFH FOLPDWH FKDQJH ELRGLYHUVLW\ ZDWHU TXDOLW\ HWF 0DNH LW PDQGDWRU\ WKURXJK OHJLVODWLRQ planning instruments or amendments WR WKH EXLOGLQJ FRGH WR Ă€W QHZ EXLOGLQJV with green roofs and vertical gardens. This would create a strong market for green roof and vertical garden WHFKQRORJLHV DV ZDV WKH FDVH LQ *HUPDQ\ Âľ S German municipal governments established incentives for developers to build green technologies at various times throughout WKH WK FHQWXU\ WKRXJK PRVW FHQWHUHG RQ green roofs. It is generally acknowledged that green walls and roofs share many of the VDPH EHQHĂ€WV RIWHQ JUHHQ ZDOO OHJLVODWLRQ ZLOO fall under the same guideline as green roof legislation. The Seattle Green Factor is a prime example of this sort of umbrella legislation. A general LEED-like guide to landscaping LQ WKH FLW\ 7KH Seattle Green Factor assigns a predetermined number of points to a project IRU VSHFLĂ€F GHVLJQV $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH &LW\ RI 6HDWWOH SRLQWV DUH VFRUHG IRU

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every sq. ft. of vertical garden or green roof with over 4� of substrate. Green roofs with ¾ ¾ VXEVWUDWH IRU H[DPSOH VFRUH RQO\ points per sq. ft. (Score Sheet). The City of Seattle remains one of just a handful of cities with legislation directly related to vertical gardening. North American cities with VSHFLÀF JUHHQ ZDOO RUGLQDQFHV DUH FXUUHQWO\ OLPLWHG WR 6HDWWOH +RXVWRQ DQG 2UODQGR ,Q 7RURQWR WRRN ÀUVW VWHSV WRZDUG green wall bylaws by mandating green roofs for buildings with roofs larger than 200 sq. m. Toronto also has an Eco-Roof ,QFHQWLYH 3URJUDP ZKLFK JLYHV PRQH\ EDFN WR WKRVH ZKR LQYHVW D PLQLPXP DPRXQW but do not qualify for the green roof bylaw. 7KRXJK OHJDOO\ DQG GHVLJQ ZLVH JUHHQ URRIV DQG YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV DUH QRW WKH VDPH DV mentioned before they are often thrown into the same general category so it would be EHQHÀFLDO IRU RUGLQDQFHV WR LQFOXGH YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV 6LQFH D YDULHW\ RI FLWLHV KDYH voted to implement green roof legislation LQFOXGLQJ 9DQFRXYHU &KLFDJR 0LOZDXNHH 3RUWODQG DQG 1HZ <RUN 3ODQW &RQQHFWLRQ 2014). Each of these cities have different RUGLQDQFHV VRPH RI ZKLFK DUH FDVK UHEDWHV tax credits or point systems.

5.4 Cost 7KHUH DUH IHZ JUDQWV RU LQFHQWLYHV DYDLODEOH VSHFLĂ€FDOO\ IRU JUHHQ ZDOOV VR WKH IRXUWK drawback of vertical gardening is associated ZLWK WKH FRVW LQFXUUHG IRU PDWHULDOV installation and maintenance. Francis and Lormier (2009) note that living walls are JHQHUDOO\ TXLWH H[SHQVLYH FLWLQJ Ă€JXUHV RI between â€œÂŁ260 [$465 CAD] or $390 [$696 CAD] per m2Âľ 7KHVH LQLWLDO FRVWV FRPELQHG

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with the fact that green walls can require VLJQLĂ€FDQW PDLQWHQDQFH SURJUDPV FDQ DGG up very quickly (p. 5). A Canadian example is the initial prototype of the NedlawTM system. Vice Provost at Guelph University Michael Nightingale explained in an article for Business Edge Magazine that he encountered a lot of skepticism when trying to sell the idea to his colleagues at the University of Guelph 6WDXIIHU 3DUW RI WKH UHVLVWDQFH KH QRWHG ZDV GXH WR WKH FRVW IRU WKH GHVLJQ LQVWDOODWLRQ IROORZHG E\ DQ DQQXDO FRVW RI IRU PDLQWHQDQFH 6WDXIIHU 6LQFH WKHQ 'U 'DUOLQJWRQ WRRN KLV ZRUN LQWR WKH FRPPHUFLDO ZRUOG DVVRFLDWHG FRVWV KDYH GHFUHDVHG VLJQLĂ€FDQWO\ ´6LQFH KH LQVWDOOHG WKH *XHOSK +XPEHU ZDOO Darlington has managed to reduce the costs of D ELRĂ€OWHU E\ $ VTXDUH PHWUH QRZ FRVWV DQG FDQ >Ă€OWHU WKH DLU LQ@ P2 RI Ă RRU VSDFH Âľ 6WDXIIHU ,W VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW WKLV FRVW LV IRU D ELRZDOO VR FRVWV IRU hydroponic gardens will be lower. Peck et al. (1999) also raise a very pertinent point about gardens being much easier to sell to clients when they can be integrated into the original building design (p. 45). Perhaps the sticker price of the garden is easier to justify when building an entire building from scratch.

5.5 Lack of Industry Standards and Codes Code books and industry standards are important guides for designers and contractors. They are in place primarily to ensure safety requirements and standard construction methods appropriate to the given locale. Because vertical gardens have \HW WR EH LQWHJUDWHG LQWR PRVW FRGHERRNV many designers feel uncomfortable specifying

WKHP LQ WKHLU SURMHFWV DV WKH\ ZLOO RIWHQ KDYH to design their own system and methods of construction. There are many technical aspects to green wall design and construction that require knowledge of a wide array RI DVSHFWV VXFK DV VWUXFWXUDO HQJLQHHULQJ KRUWLFXOWXUH ELRORJLFDO VFLHQFH HFRORJ\ DQG architecture. Weight is one concern. One cubic foot of wet soil can weigh up to 100 lbs or NJ SHU FXELF PHWUH 3HFN HW DO p. 16). This means a lot of added weight on D ZDOO WKDW ZLWKRXW SURSHU UHLQIRUFHPHQW could easily bring a wall crumbling down. Bass and Baskaran (2001) also note that additional consideration must be made for plants located above 8 stories high due to increased wind (p. 4). This consideration LV QRW VSHFLĂ€HG LQ DQ\ FRGH ERRNV VR WKH DYHUDJH GHVLJQHU PLJKW QRW EH DZDUH RI LW RU KRZ WR GHVLJQ IRU LW *LYHQ VRLO ZHLJKW DV well as the delicate balance of other elements VXFK DV LUULJDWLRQ VWUXFWXUDO PHPEUDQHV general materials- both living and nonlivingtogether with external elements such as sun H[SRVXUH ZLQG GHVLFFDWLRQ DQG GLVWXUEDQFH designing a successful vertical garden is quite GLIĂ€FXOW %DFN LQ %DVV DQG %DVNDUDQ wrote that there are no current widely accepted standards for green walls (p. 80). 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ \HDUV ODWHU WKLV LV VWLOO WKH case. There are more companies that will GHVLJQ DQG LQVWDOO JUHHQ ZDOOV EXW WKHUH DUH also many failed green walls out there. If there were codes and regulations for vertical JDUGHQV PDQ\ FRQFHUQV IURP ERWK GHVLJQHUV and clients would be minimized.

5.6 High Visibility of Failed Vertical Gardens $V ZLWK DOO OLYLQJ ODQGVFDSHV IDLOHG YHUWLFDO gardens can be caused by a number of GLIIHUHQW IDFWRUV WKRXJK LQDGHTXDWH maintenance is often partisan. Other factors VXFK DV IDLOXUH RI WKH LUULJDWLRQ V\VWHP ODFN RI IHUWLOLVHU RU LPSURSHU DSSOLFDWLRQ RI IHUWLOLVHU ODFN RI SURSHU OLJKWLQJ FRQGLWLRQV FKRLFH RI XQVXLWDEOH SODQWV KLJK GHJUHH RI GLVWXUEDQFH and human error can all be contributing factors. Failed green walls dissuade clients and designers alike from installing or designing their own. :KHQ D JDUGHQ IDLOV WKH ZKROH LQGXVWU\ VXIIHUV :KHQ D IDLOLQJ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ LV VHHQ there are often no investigations into why or KRZ WKH V\VWHP IDLOHG EXW MXVW WKH NQRZOHGJH that it failed. Failed vertical gardens can sometimes be traced back to something as simple as a maintenance worker forgetting to turn a valve back on when they left for WKH ORQJ ZHHNHQG EXW WKLV LV QRW VRPHWKLQJ often considered by someone observing a failed garden. The perception is that the garden as a whole has failed by design. As awareness increases and codes and standards DUH HVWDEOLVKHG KRSHIXOO\ WKH VXFFHVV UDWH RI vertical gardens will also increase.

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5.7 Associated Risks and Unknown Factors Canadians have been slow to adopt green ZDOO WHFKQRORJ\ VR WKHUH DUH VWLOO PDQ\ risks associated with construction. These uncertainties include whether or not the V\VWHPV ZLOO ZRUN DV GHVLJQHG ZKHWKHU WKH SODQWV ZLOO VXUYLYH LI LUULJDWLRQ ZLOO IXQFWLRQ as intended (be frequent or infrequent enough to thoroughly water but not oversaturate) KRZ WKH SURMHFW ZLOO ZHDWKHU RYHU WKH \HDUV as well as unknown factors that may only become known after installation. What kind of maintenance does it need? Will it leak? What kind of damage will be incurred on the building if something goes wrong? Will it survive in a cold climate? What is the hardiness of the system? Will it survive if it LV LQ D KLJK WUDIĂ€F DUHD EH LW HLWKHU YHKLFXODU or human touch? These are all questions whose answers come from different sources. Different systems will be appropriate in different climates and spaces. Perhaps a VLJQLĂ€FDQW OLPLWDWLRQ WR WKH ZLGHVSUHDG application of green walls is that none of this information has been properly categorized or even organised into one single cohesive document. The document that comes the closest is the Growing Green Guide of Victoria and Melbourne Australia. It provides a clear outline of all of the basics of green wall and roof design in two major Australian cities. The Growing Green Guide together with a translation of the German FLL and Peck et DO ¡V Greenbacks from Green Roofs would form a comprehensive guide that would be a major asset to the industry if available globally.

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Another reason why people are nervous to install these systems could have to do with mostly unknown reactions of plants to being on the sides of skyscrapers. Tim DeChant (2013) wrote a particularly interesting rant for ArchDaily discussing the boundary layer of plants in relation to their comfort living on a skyscraper. He describes in detail the environment that plants are up against; ´/LIH VXFNV XS WKHUH )RU \RX IRU PH IRU WUHHV DQG MXVW DERXW HYHU\WKLQJ HOVH H[FHSW SHUHJULQH IDOFRQV ,W¡V KRW FROG ZLQG\ WKH UDLQ ODVKHV DW \RX DQG WKH VQRZ DQG VOHHW SHOW you at high velocity. [..] Wind is perhaps the most formidable force trees face at that elevation. Wind also interrupts the thin layer of air EHWZHHQ D OHDI DQG WKH DWPRVSKHUH known as the boundary layer. For SODQWV WKH ERXQGDU\ OD\HU VHUYHV WR FRQWURO HYDSRWUDQVSLUDWLRQ RU WKH loss of gas and water through the tiny SRUHV RQ D OHDI¡V XQGHUVLGH NQRZQ DV VWRPDWD ,Q FDOP FRQGLWLRQV D comfortably thick boundary layer can exist on a perfectly smooth leaf. But plants that live in hot or windy places often have adaptations to deal ZLWK WKH KDUVK FRQGLWLRQV LQFOXGLQJ tiny hairs on their leaves that expand HDFK OHDI¡V VXUIDFH DUHD DQG WKXV LWV ERXQGDU\ OD\HU 6WLOO SODQWV LQ WKHVH HQYLURQPHQWV DUHQ¡W XVXDOO\ WDOO DQG JUDFHIXO ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV QRW the tall trees we see in architectural GUDZLQJV ¾ 'H&KDQW Though this article is obviously written by someone who is extremely frustrated with WKH DUFKLWHFWXUDO FRPPXQLW\¡V ZLOOLQJQHVV to plaster trees on any available surface in

WKH QDPH RI DHVWKHWLFV WKH DXWKRU UDLVHV D very good point. The boundary layer is not a concept that landscape architects generally have to consider when designing most of our gardens. On the side of a building there DUH IDFWRUV WKDW QRUPDOO\ GRQ¡W UHDOO\ H[LVW RQ grade. The boundary layer is such a factor; Planting at elevated altitudes could wreak KDYRF RQ WKH VSHFLHV WKHUH DQG SRWHQWLDOO\ cause the vertical garden to fail. There are a variety of projects in various states of construction throughout the world that are planned to have small plants and trees at high elevations. The most famous is probably the Bosque Verticale in Milan by Stefano Boeri 6WXGLR ZKLFK KDV QRZ Ă€QLVKHG FRQVWUXFWLRQ The Central Towers SURMHFW LQ 6\GQH\ $XVWUDOLD by Jean Nouvel and Patrick Blanc has vertical JDUGHQV SODQQHG IRU WKH ZKROH IDFDGH ZKLFK LV ¡ P WDOO :KLOH , GRQ¡W GRXEW WKH DSWLWXGH RI HLWKHU %ODQF 1RXYHO RU %RHUL , am nervous to see how their vertical gardens turn out. I want to see if the plants survive RYHU WLPH -XGJLQJ E\ WKH UHQGHULQJV WKHUH GRHVQ¡W DSSHDU WR EH DGGLWLRQDO FRQVLGHUDWLRQ IRU WKH JDUGHQV DW KLJKHU HOHYDWLRQV 7KHVH KRZHYHU DUH GUDZLQJV SURGXFHG IRU SXEOLFLW\ intended in all likelihood to sell to the client DQG WKH SXEOLF VR LW ZLOO EH LQWHUHVWLQJ WR VHH the construction drawings once (if) they are released. Climate will play a big roll in the success of these gardens.

Conclusion Most of the drawbacks associated with vertical gardening centre around an incomplete knowledge base. This is due to a lack of general awareness on the part RI GHVLJQHUV DQG WKH SXEOLF EXW DOVR GXH to important information being left out of many research papers. There is also a lack of VLJQLĂ€FDQW FRQFOXVLYH VWXGLHV RQ WKH HFRQRPLF EHQHĂ€WV RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV ODFN RI LQFHQWLYHV the cost of products and of installation are very high; and lack of a standard guide to construction or code for vertical gardens. The ultimate goal of my writing this practicum is to provide a reference detailing knowledge currently available on the topic. In this VHFWLRQ WKH IRFXV KDV EHHQ LGHQWLI\LQJ WKLQJV WKDW DUH KLQGUDQFHV WR YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ so that enthusiasts can tackle these issues through further research and promotion. For a complete list of topics recommended IRU IXUWKHU LQYHVWLJDWLRQ VHH WKH HQG RI WKH closing chapter on pages 152-153.

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Increased Wind Increased Solar Exposure

Maximum dust deposition zone: 2 - 7.5m.

Increased Moisture

Increased Disturbance from people, animals, and cars.

Figure 6.01: Wall microclimates vary tremendously in levels of disturbance, moisture and solar exposure. The top of the wall will generally have more disturbance from wind, and be exposed to more sun, whereas the bottom of the wall will have more disturbance from people, animals and cars, and be exposed to less sun. Because of these factors and due to gravity, moisture levels at the bottom of the wall are usually the highest, while the top of the wall is relatively dry.

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6. MICROCLIMATE OF A VERTICAL GARDEN TKRXJK HDFK JDUGHQ LV GLIIHUHQW WKH following aspects tend to be true for most JUHHQ ZDOOV *UHHQ ZDOOV FDQ EH LQĂ XHQFHG E\ a variety of different climatic scenarios. These scenarios will vary from wall to wall depending RQ WKH VXUURXQGLQJ PDFURFOLPDWH PLFURFOLPDWH of the neighbourhood and microclimate of the ZDOO DQG WKH LQĂ XHQFH RI VXUURXQGLQJ SODQWV 8UEHQ ,PEHDXOW $XJXVW Usually gardens will be drier and have more sun exposure at the top of the wall. $W WKH ERWWRP PRUH VKDGH DQG PRLVWXUH LV commonly found. Increased disturbance from people and animals will be exerted on areas of the garden that are within reach of the average person. The most dust and pollution capture will occur from 2-7.5 m in elevation .|KOHU S VR LW LV DGYLVDEOH WR plant species with large leaves in this zone. Plants and adjacent buildings have a great LQĂ XHQFH RQ WKH ZLQG SDWWHUQV WHPSHUDWXUHV drying and shading of a wall. Trees and shrubs in a green wall will provide plants EHORZ WKHP ZLWK PRUH VKDGH ZKLOH ZDOOV without trees and shrubs may have more

consistent exposure. Variances in wall PLFURFOLPDWHV FDQ EH FRQWUROOHG RU PRGLĂ€HG WKURXJK PDWHULDO WH[WXUH DUFKLWHFWXUDO VKDSH (protrusions and depressions) and changing surrounding wind patterns by installing QDWXUDO RU DUWLĂ€FLDO VKHOWHU EHOWV $OWHULQJ the microclimate of a wall is a very complex XQGHUWDNLQJ DQG ZLOO QHHG WR EH VWXGLHG DQG designed case by case. The microclimate of an interconnected vertical garden (one with connected rather than isolated planters) is generally a gradient of temperature and moisture. It ranges from KRW DQG GU\ DW WKH WRS WR VOLJKWO\ FRROHU DQG more moist at the bottom (Urben-Imbeault $XJXVW $W WKH WRS RI WKH ZDOO WKHUH LV often increased solar exposure (depending on the SUHYDOHQFH RI VKDGRZV FDVW E\ DGMDFHQW EXLOGLQJV and increased wind. These two factors typically UHVXOW LQ GHFUHDVHG PRLVWXUH $XJXVW More shade is often prevalent towards the bottom of the wall (due again to neighbouring EXLOGLQJV DV ZHOO DV ORZHU ZLQG VSHHGV which result in increased moisture and KXPLGLW\ 8UEHQ ,PEHDXOW $XJXVW

57

Figure 6.02: Located directly beside the Granville bridge freeway in Vancouver, this garden is perfectly located to capture unwanted dust from the freeway.

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Water within the vertical garden will accumulate at the bottom of the wall and contribute to higher PRLVWXUH OHYHOV $XJXVW 7KH ÀUVW VWRUH\ RI D IDFDGH ZLOO DOVR IDFH LQFUHDVHG GLVWXUEDQFH IURP SHRSOH DQLPDOV DQG SDVVLQJ FDUV 8UEHQ ,PEHDXOW $XJXVW ,I JDUGHQV DUH ZLWKLQ UHDFK RI SHRSOH often they stand a chance at being vandalised or harmed. Passing cars will contribute to higher salt levels in the garden during VSULQJ PHOW PDNLQJ LW QHFHVVDU\ WR LQFUHDVH irrigation to remove pollution and salts IURP WKH JDUGHQ $IWHU VSULQJ PHOW LW ZLOO EH necessary to fertilise the garden. %HWZHHQ P LQ HOHYDWLRQ WKH PRVW GXVW ZLOO EH FDSWXUHG RQ OHDYHV .|KOHU S GHPRQVWUDWHG LQ ÀJXUH ,I GXVW GHSRVLWLRQ LV D SULRULW\ SODQW VSHFLHV ZLWK ODUJH OHDYHV VKRXOG EH FKRVHQ DV WKH DPRXQW of dust accrued is directly relative to the size of the leaf itself (p. 430). A good example is VKRZQ LQ ÀJXUH ZKLFK VKRZV D JUHHQ wall in Vancouver located beside a freeway. This wall is composed of large-leaved vines which are best suited to capture dust.

GLYHUVLW\ 7KLV LV GXH WR LQVRODWLRQ UHFHLYHG which is enough to allow plants requiring PRUH OLJKW WR JURZ EXW QRW HQRXJK IRU UDSLG dessication. It could also be due to the heat of the sun being absorbed and stored in the cliff IDFH H[WHQGLQJ WKH JURZLQJ VHDVRQ IRU SODQWV there. It is for this reason that walls chosen for vertical garden speculation in Winnipeg were predominantly western facing facades.

Conclusion Every niche of a green wall is the result of the LQĂ XHQFH RI PXOWLSOH HQYLURQPHQWDO IDFWRUV and therefore all of the information given here should be used as a guide only. Green ZDOOV WHQG WR EH GU\ DQG VXQQ\ DW WKH WRS DQG moist and shaded at the bottom. Wind varies E\ KHLJKW QHDUE\ VWUXFWXUHV DQG UHJLRQ but generally tends to increase in frequency and velocity at higher elevations. Dust and pollution are mostly trapped between P LQ KHLJKW .|KOHU S 7KH RULHQWDWLRQ RI WKH ZDOO DQG LWV ORFDWLRQ ZLWKLQ a given region will impact all of these aspects.

The orientation of the wall will affect all of the GHWDLOV OLVWHG DERYH 6RXWK IDFLQJ ZDOOV IRU H[DPSOH ZLOO KHDW XS PRUH GXULQJ WKH GD\ (solar gain) and will tend to be drier than a 1RUWK IDFLQJ ZDOO ZKLFK ZRXOGQ¡W EH H[SRVHG directly to the sun and thus would retain moisture. If the wall is within a particularly ZLQG\ ]RQH KRZHYHU LW PD\ ORVH PRLVWXUH During the habitat template studies of various cliffs in the Ottawa and Manitoba regions (see FKDSWHU VHFWLRQ LW ZDV QRWHG WKDW FOLIIV facing West had the highest plant species

59

YK NT

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AB

NL MB

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QC ONT NB Winnipeg

Figure 7.01 Location of Winnipeg, Manitoba.

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7. REGIONAL AND NEIGHBOURHOOD CLIMATES IN WINNIPEG WLQQLSHJ 0DQLWRED KDV EHHQ FKRVHQ DV WKH ORFDWLRQ RI VWXG\ :LQQLSHJ¡V GRZQWRZQ KDV been studied on a macro-scale and microVFDOH )LUVW D EULHI LQWURGXFWLRQ RI ZKDW WKLV FLW\ PHDQV WR PH ZLOO EH JLYHQ DQG IROORZLQJ WKDW DQ H[SODQDWLRQ RI ZKDW WKH $JULFXOWXUH DQG $JUL )RRG &DQDGD FODVVLĂ€FDWLRQ RI =RQH 2B means in terms of seasonal temperature KLJKV ORZV DYHUDJHV SUHFLSLWDWLRQ KXPLGLW\ DQG VXQ DQG ZLQG H[SRVXUH 7KH microclimate (focusing on sun and wind) in the downtown core will then be examined LQ IXUWKHU GHWDLO 7KH LQĂ XHQFH RI WKH 8+, ZLQG SDWWHUQ LQWHUDFWLRQV ZLWK VN\VFUDSHUV VWRUPZDWHU GUDLQDJH EXLOGLQJ DOEHGR DQG other human-related factors will be examined.

7.1 The Place and its Inuence: Winnipeg, One Great City! ,Q WKH VXPPHU RI ZKLOH , ZDV VWD\LQJ LQ &RVWD 5LFD , WRRN D WULS WR 1LFDUDJXD where I was warned by many people that it was “hotter than hell.â€? All of the people who ZDUQHG PH ZHUH 7LFRV &RVWD 5LFDQV VR , H[SHFWHG D EOLVWHULQJ ƒ& DQG IXOO VXQ QR ZLQG IXOO KXPLGLW\ DQG QR UHOLHI LQ VLJKW

, ZDV VXUSULVHG KRZHYHU WR Ă€QG RXW ZKHQ , DUULYHG WKDW LW ZDV RQO\ LQ WKH PLG ¡V and a cooling rain fell every afternoon like clockwork. This kind of weather was not new RU HYHQ XQFRPPRQ WR PH ,Q IDFW LW UHJXODUO\ gets to 30°C and over in Winnipeg in the VXPPHU ZKLFK , H[SODLQHG WR P\ 7LFR IULHQGV ´%XW GRHVQ¡W LW JR GRZQ WR ƒ& WKHUH"Âľ WKH\ ZRXOG DVN ´<HV LW GRHV %XW LW DOVR JRHV XS WR ƒ& LQ WKH VXPPHUWLPH DQG LW LV YHU\ KXPLG DQG WKH DLU GRHVQ¡W PRYH DW DOO ,W¡V OLNH OLYLQJ LQ D JLDQW ERZO RI VWHDP Âľ , WROG WKHP 7KH\ ZHUH Ă RRUHG )RU VRPH , HYHQ KDG WR explain it multiple times before they really got LW ,Q &RVWD 5LFD WKH WHPSHUDWXUH LV DOZD\V ƒ& GXULQJ WKH GD\ DQG DERXW ƒ& DW QLJKW Ă XFWXDWLQJ RQO\ DFFRUGLQJ WR HOHYDWLRQ ,W rains everyday at about 2pm during the rainy season. It has the most predictable weather ,¡YH HYHU H[SHULHQFHG ZKLFK LV , VXVSHFW why it was so hard for them to understand our extreme climate. When you come from a place where it is always the same temperature \HDU URXQG LW LV YHU\ KDUG WR XQGHUVWDQG VXFK GUDVWLF Ă XFWXDWLRQV , OHDUQHG WKURXJK WKRVH conversations that what distinguishes our climate from so many others is not solely how

61

47°C MAX

Number of sunny days per year:

315

(July 2007)

Snow

113.7 cm

Rain

3°C

418.9 mm

Annual Average

N Average Relative Humidity

82.4 % (6am)

Average wind speed May - Oct

W

E

61.1 % (3pm) S

Number of frost free days:

121

May 23 - Sept 22

79 km/h gusting to 114.8 km/h Summer: North-West and South

MIN

-57°C

(February 18. 1966)

Figure 7.02: Winnipeg’s regional climate: Cold Continental. Numbers shown are maximums and minimums collected throughout the last 100 years.

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FROG RU KRW LW JHWV EXW WKDW ZH H[SHULHQFH ERWK H[WUHPHV DQG RIWHQ ZLWKLQ D VKRUW SHULRG I grew up in Winnipeg. From Charleswood to 6W %RQLIDFH WKH :HVW (QG DQG WKH GRZQWRZQ DUHD , KDYH PRYHG DURXQG WKH FLW\ D IDLU bit in my nearly 30 years here. It is a very interesting place. When people ask me about LW , RIWHQ WHOO WKHP DQ DQHFGRWDO VWRU\ DERXW KRZ LW IHHOV WR EH D :LQQLSHJJHU ´<RX NQRZ that couch that you bought for cheap from a IULHQG" $W Ă€UVW LW¡V QRW YHU\ FRPIRUWDEOH DW DOO but then a nice personal sized groove starts to IRUP DQG VXFNV \RX LQ 7KHQ RQH GD\ \RX WU\ WR JHW XS DQG UHDOLVH \RX FDQ¡W 7KDW¡V ZKDW living in Winnipeg is like.â€? I love to hate this WRZQ EXW , DOVR ORYH WR ORYH LW

7.2 Zone 2B Winnipeg is located at the geographic ORFDWLRQ RI ƒ ¡ Âľ 1 ƒ ¡ Âľ : at an elevation of 238.7m above sea level (Government of Canada). It is located in a SUHKLVWRULF ODNH EHG NQRZQ DV /DNH $JDVVL] 'XH WR /DNH $JDVVL] WKH FHQWUH RI &DQDGD LV D FRQWLQXRXV ODUJH Ă DW PXGG\ UHJLRQ Winnipeg is located almost directly in the centre of the North American continent and ZDV IRXQGHG Ă€UVW DV D WUDGLQJ SRVW DQG WKHQ later as a train cargo port. It is currently the WK ODUJHVW FLW\ LQ &DQDGD ZLWK D SRSXODWLRQ RI LQ WKH FHQVXV ZLWK DQ DYHUDJH GHQVLW\ RI SHRSOH VTXDUH NLORPHWUH occupying a total land area of 343.6 square kilometres (Government of Canada). ,Q LWV LQIDQF\ WKH FLW\ RI :LQQLSHJ ZDV SRLVHG to be the largest Canadian metropolis. Rail lines and roads all lead to Winnipeg at the WLPH EHFDXVH RI LWV FRQYHQLHQW ORFDWLRQ LQ

the middle of the continent. It boomed in the HDUO\ SDUW RI WKH FHQWXU\ EXW WKH RSHQLQJ RI WKH 3DQDPD &DQDO EHJDQ LWV VORZ GHFOLQH which continued through the 20th century /HYLQH 7KH DGYHQW RI WKH DXWRPRELOH gave rise to the trucking industry and with DGYDQFHV LQ DHURQDXWLFV :LQQLSHJ EHFDPH DQ XQQHFHVVDU\ VWRS RQ WKH ZD\ ZHVW DV VKLSV FRXOG QRZ SDVV WKURXJK 3DQDPD FRPSOHWHO\ DYRLGLQJ FHQWUDO 1RUWK $PHULFD /HYLQH 7KHVH HFRQRPLF IDFWRUV DORQJ ZLWK sprawling suburbs and other typical North $PHULFDQ SODQQLQJ LVVXHV KDYH JLYHQ ULVH WR D FLW\ WKDW LV QRZ LQ PDQ\ ZD\V D PHUH shadow of its former self. Winnipeg is located in the Agriculture and $JUL )RRG &DQDGD¡V ]RQH E ZKLFK PHDQV WKDW WKH ZHDWKHU LQ :LQQLSHJ à XFWXDWHV from an average of -20°C during the winter months to 25°C during the summer months 7KH :HDWKHU 1HWZRUN KRZHYHU WKRVH temperatures do not take into account WKH ZLQWHU ZLQGFKLOO QRU WKH VXPPHU KXPLGH[ ZKLFK PDNHV WKHVH WHPSHUDWXUHV IHHO D ORW PRUH H[WUHPH :LWK WKH KXPLGH[ temperatures have reached up to 47.3°C (in July 2007) and down to -57.1°C with the windchill (in February 1996) (Government of Canada). This 90°C difference is bigger than what Winnipeggers usually see in a year. There was a variance of between 70°C to 80°C from summer to winter between 1981 to 2010 documented by the Government of Canada. The average annual precipitation Winnipeg UHFHLYHV LV PP PP RI ZKLFK LV UDLQ WKH UHPDLQLQJ PP LV VQRZ Precipitation levels are highest during the PRQWKV RI -XQH DQG -XO\ ZLWK DYHUDJHV RI 90mm and 79.5mm respectfully (Government

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Figure 7.04: Screen shot showing boundary layer of downtown Winnipeg.

of Canada). Winter months generally have the OHDVW SUHFLSLWDWLRQ ZLWK )HEUXDU\ UHFHLYLQJ the least at 13.8mm for the entire month (Government of Canada). The average humidity level ranges from 34% WR EXW UDUHO\ JRHV EHORZ RU DERYH 97% (Weather Spark). April 20th generally has the lowest humidity with an average of 34%. Generally August 28th has the highest level of humidity at 87% (Weather Spark). Most days in Winnipeg are fairly windy. 6SHHGV RI NP K DUH FRPPRQ ZLWK JXVWV of up to 114.8 km/h (Government of Canada). Figure 7.04 shows a digital simulation of the average boundary layer of the downtown on a moderately windy day. The important aspect to note is that wind force and speed are DOWHUHG VLJQLĂ€FDQWO\ E\ EXLOW IRUP Sun exposure in Winnipeg is generally KLJK ZLWK WKH GDUNHVW PRQWKV FRQFHQWUDWHG during the winter (Government of Canada). ,Q D VLQJOH \HDU :LQQLSHJ ZLOO H[SHULHQFH

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measurable sun exposure an average of 315 days out of 365. Bright sunshine is only recorded about 51% of the time (Government of Canada). Average shadow casting of downtown shown in Figure 7.05. %HFDXVH RI DOO RI WKHVH IDFWRUV WKH JURZLQJ VHDVRQ LQ :LQQLSHJ LV YHU\ VKRUW *HQHUDOO\ WKH ODVW IURVW RFFXUV DURXQG 0D\ UG DQG WKH ÀUVW IURVW RI ZLQWHU DURXQG 6HSWHPEHU QG (Government of Canada). The natural growing VHDVRQ LV MXVW RYHU IRXU PRQWKV ORQJ ZKLFK severely limits the number of plants that can grow.

7.3 Neighbourhood Microclimate; Urban Geometry, Materials and the UHI The UHI is a phenomena found in many cities DURXQG WKH ZRUOG DV ZHOO DV LQ GRZQWRZQ Winnipeg. In recent years the UHI has become D FRQFHUQ WR HQYLURQPHQWDOLVWV DV LW FDQ EH D VLJQLĂ€FDQW IDFWRU LQ FOLPDWH FKDQJH DQG JOREDO ZDUPLQJ )RU ODQGVFDSH DUFKLWHFWV WKH 8+, LV RI SDUWLFXODU FRQFHUQ LQ WHUPV RI WKH OHYHO RI KXPDQ FRPIRUW LQ FLWLHV SODQW

Figure 7.05: Shade analysis of downtown Winnipeg. Combined shadows for an entire day are shown.

KDUGLQHVV ZKDW FDQ EH JURZQ LQ FLWLHV DQG our desires to positively impact the world - to decrease the UHI through design. Urban geometry can affect the UHI in a YDULHW\ RI ZD\V 7KH GHQVLW\ RI EXLOGLQJV DQG their placement relative to one another is one RI WKH ODUJHVW DQG EHVW XQGHUVWRRG LQĂ XHQFHV of the UHI. Urban canyons (or streets lined with tall buildings on both sides) can be contributors because they can lower the UHĂ HFWLYLW\ DQG DEVRUSWLRQ RI VRODU UDGLDWLRQ These factors combined with materials having ORZ DOEHGRV ORZHU ZLQG VSHHGV DLU Ă RZ at ground level and restricted sky views (inhibition of emission of longwave radiation back to the sky) can drastically increase the amount of heat stored in an urban area (Erell HW DO S 7KH XUEDQ JHRPHWU\ LQ :LQQLSHJ GRHV QRW KDYH DV PDQ\ GHHS cavernous urban canyons as cities with higher

densities and more towers (like Toronto or 9DQFRXYHU KRZHYHU WKH HIIHFW LV VWLOO SUHVHQW It may be more easily felt in areas like back alleys. Because of the geometry of Winnipeg VWUHHWV OLJKW LV VWLOO DEOH WR SHUPHDWH PRVW RI WKH GRZQWRZQ GHPRQVWUDWHG LQ ÀJXUH Impervious surfaces contribute to UHI based on how well or poorly they drain. After a rain HYHQW LI ZDWHU LV GUDLQHG TXLFNO\ HYDSRUDWLRQ is limited. Evaporation and high humidity levels can contribute to the lessening of the 8+, &OHDU GD\V KDYH D KLJKHU LQVWDQFH RI 8+, RQ FORXG\ GD\V LW LV ORZHU (UHOO HW DO S Perhaps one of the most anecdotally well NQRZQ LQà XHQFHV RI PLWLJDWLQJ WKH 8+, is vegetation. It helps reduce the UHI in a variety of ways; it aids in blocking incoming longwave radiation and outgoing radiation from the ground; it can block solar radiation

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and create cooling shadows; it can decrease wind speed and adds moisture through HYDSRWUDQVSLUDWLRQ DOO RI ZKLFK FDQ UHVXOW LQ D more pleasant-feeling environment for people (UHOO HW DO S

&RRO ,VODQG 7KLV HIIHFW WHQGV WR EH OHVV GUDVWLF and is therefore not observed so directly (Erell HW DO S 7KH 8+, DQG GD\WLPH FRRO LVODQG HIIHFW DUH GLUHFWO\ UHODWHG DQG VKDUH DOO RI WKH LQĂ XHQFHV OLVWHG IRU WKH 8+,

Material albedo is directly related to the amount of solar gain a material accepts. If LW KDV D ORZ DOEHGR LW ZLOO DEVRUE PRUH VRODU UDGLDWLRQ ZKHUHDV LI LW KDV D KLJK DOEHGR PRUH UDGLDWLRQ ZLOO EH UHĂ HFWHG EDFN RXW into the sky. This is why it is desirable to use materials that are lighter in colour- materials ZLWK D KLJK DOEHGR (UHOO HW DO S ,Q RUGHU IRU WKH DOEHGR WR PDNH D GLIIHUHQFH KRZHYHU VXQ PXVW SHUPHDWH WKH XUEDQ condition. The penetration of sunlight to the bottom of urban canyons is often much more OLPLWHG LQ 1RUWKHUQ FLWLHV OLNH :LQQLSHJ because the azimuth of the sun is much ORZHU DQG WKHUHIRUH VXQOLJKW LV PRUH HDVLO\ obstructed by buildings. This phenomenon is lessened in Winnipeg due to the limited height of most buildings.

The UHI and daytime cool island effect can EH PLWLJDWHG WKURXJK FRQWURO RI VRODU JDLQ XVH RI PDWHULDOV ZLWK KLJK DOEHGRV DQG WKURXJK ODQGVFDSLQJ 7KH LQĂ XHQFH RI WKH UHI is felt throughout the city and can vary from neighbourhood to neighbourhood. It is especially important to understand its LQĂ XHQFH ZKHQ FKRRVLQJ SODQWV IRU ODQGVFDSH SURMHFWV VXFK DV YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV DV WKHVH plants will be especially vulnerable to PLFURFOLPDWH LQĂ XHQFHV 7KH\ ZLOO H[SHULHQFH more extreme changes in temperature and solar gain compared to horizontal gardens because they are less directly affected by the (DUWK¡V LQKHUHQW KHDW ,Q DUHDV DIIHFWHG E\ D VLJQLĂ€FDQW 8+, WKH GLIIHUHQFHV ZLOO EH OHVV H[WUHPH 'XULQJ WKH ZLQWHU SODQWV ZLOO DOVR be subjected to rapid desiccation and scouring from high wind speeds.

7KH LQĂ XHQFH RI KXPDQ UHODWHG KHDW DIIHFWV 8+, FRQGLWLRQV ,Q FROGHU FOLPDWHV H[WUD heat may be accidentally lost through leaky EXLOGLQJV 6LPLODUO\ LQ ZDUP FOLPDWHV FRROLQJ may result from cool air escaping from buildings with air conditioning. Fossil fuel emissions and industrial pollutants can also FRQWULEXWH WR ZDUPLQJ (UHOO HW DO S The effects of the UHI are mostly felt at QLJKW ZKHQ WKH KHDW RI WKH GD\ LV UHWDLQHG within each of the boundary layers above (see &KDSWHU VHFWLRQ )RU WKDW UHDVRQ VRPH people refer to the UHI as the Nocturnal Heat Island. There is also a somewhat less studied counterpart to the UHI called the Daytime

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7KH 8+, FDQ EH EHQHĂ€FLDO IRU SODQWV 7KH\ EHQHĂ€W IURP VPDOOHU Ă XFWXDWLRQV LQ temperature during the winter when the UHI is present. Any change of the UHI may ultimately dictate plants used in vertical gardens. Decreased UHI will require hardier plants than seasonal normals dictate now. Gardens planted within close proximity to SDUNV PD\ IRU H[DPSOH H[SHULHQFH H[WUHPH Ă XFWXDWLRQ RI DPELHQW ZHDWKHU FRQGLWLRQV and will require hardier plant varieties.

Conclusion &OLPDWH KDV D RYHUUHDFKLQJ LQà XHQFH RQ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV 5HJLRQDO FOLPDWHV FDQ EH GU\ ZHW KRW FROG RU DQ\ FRPELQDWLRQ WKHUHRI A vertical garden must be designed for the climate it will be located within. If proper SODQQLQJ LV QRW IROORZHG WKHUH ZLOO EH IDLOXUHV HLWKHU ZLWK WKH GHVLJQ RU SODQWV Winnipeg is located in the middle of North America and enjoys a climate that is warm GXULQJ WKH VXPPHU DQG FROG GXULQJ WKH winter. This variance must be planned for in vertical gardens here. The UHI affects downtown Winnipeg due to the prevalence of sun and urban geometry that allows it to permeate down to the streets. Winnipeg UHI LV LQFUHDVHG E\ WKH DEXQGDQFH RI KDUGVFDSLQJ UDSLG GUDLQDJH DIWHU VWRUP HYHQWV DQG ORZ DOEHGR PDWHULDOV DEVRUELQJ WKH VXQ¡V KHDW The UHI helps mitigate temperature à XFWXDWLRQ LQ WKH GRZQWRZQ DQG WKHUHIRUH WKH range of temperatures plants are exposed to is less in areas highly affected by UHI.

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Figure 8.01: Roadside clis in the cloud forest of central Costa Rica.

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8. FOUNDATIONS There are many foundational theories that KDYH EHHQ VLJQLĂ€FDQW WR P\ GHYHORSPHQW as a designer and a student of ecology. The Human Ecosystem Model is in accord with my own personal landscape philosophy. 1RZ WKDW KXPDQV KDYH DUJXDEO\ LQĂ XHQFHG HYHU\ SODFH RQ WKH SODQHW ZH QHHG WR UH evaluate our notions of ecosystems to include RXUVHOYHV EHFDXVH ZH DUH DQG ZLOO UHPDLQ WR EH D PDVVLYH LQĂ XHQFH RQ WKH SODQHW 8UEDQ Reconciliation Ecology told me that there was a way to integrate ecosystems into cities without having to make many adjustments or compromises with existing infrastructure. The Urban Cliff Hypothesis directed me to the study of cliffs as precedents for vertical garden design. Habitat templating gave me the direction I needed to design the plant pallet. With the information gathered about the microclimate of a vertical garden VHH &KDSWHU , IRXQG VXLWDEOH SODQW communities that thrive within similar environmental conditions and stresses. )LQDOO\ ZDOO HFRORJ\ WLHG DOO RI WKHVH WKHRULHV together seamlessly. Each of these theories contributed to my understanding of green walls and the interaction of cities and plants.

+XPDQNLQG¡V TXHVW IRU FRORQL]DWLRQ DQG control over nature has lead to exponential growth of cities throughout the last FHQWXU\ 'U 0DULQD $OEHUWL D SURIHVVRU in the Department of Urban Design and Planning and adjunct professor in Landscape Architecture at the University of Washington writes in the preface to her book Advances in Urban Ecology (2008) that people have transformed landscapes into KXPDQ GRPLQDWHG HQYLURQPHQWV FKDQJLQJ HQHUJ\ Ă RZV QXWULHQW F\FOHV K\GURORJ\ VSHFLHV DQG SODQW FRPPXQLWLHV SUHIDFH [L She notes that the populations of 20 of the ZRUOG¡V ODUJHVW FLWLHV DUH QRZ RYHU PLOOLRQ compared to the populations of just two FLWLHV LQ S 7KLV UDSLG GHQVLĂ€FDWLRQ and large scale development has given rise to a new set of complexities in the urban environment. Increased hardscaping and decreased biotic diversity are drastically modifying microclimates and air quality in our cities (p.4). According to Alberti (2008) we can develop a new understanding of the role of people and cities in the natural world by looking at cities as a hybrid phenomena LQYROYLQJ KXPDQ HFRORJLFDO DQG DUWLĂ€FLDO

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“Nature has all the answers. What is your question?�

- Howard Odum in Despommier 2010

Figure 8.02: Corktown Commons, Toronto. Design by Michael Van Valkenburg Associates.

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SURFHVVHV S 6KH LV QRW VSHFLĂ€FDOO\ UHIHUULQJ WR 8UEDQ 5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ (FRORJ\ EXW WKH FRUH EHOLHI LV WKH VDPH KXPDQ EHLQJV need to start working with Mother Nature to develop a new way of developing urban areas. One of the challenges of integrating presettlement ecosystems into urban sites is that few ecosystems are suitable to the conditions of North American cities today. Theories OLNH 'RXJ /DUVRQ¡V 8UEDQ &OLII +\SRWKHVLV and habitat templates thus become critical to understanding how to integrate new vegetation and habitats into existing FLWLHV 8VLQJ WKHVH WKHRULHV IRU JXLGDQFH , hypothesize the most appropriate naturally occurring ecosystems for urban walls are WKRVH QDWXUDOO\ ORFDWHG RQ FOLIIV LQ DOYDUV (rock outcrops) and in deserts. Patrick Blanc Q G ZULWHV WKDW ´SODQWV FDQ JURZ RQ WUHH trunks and branches (epiphytic habit) as well DV RQ VRLO OHVV KDELWDWV VDQGVWRQH RU JUDQLWLF RXWFURSV OLPHVWRQH FOLIIV FDYHV ZDWHUIDOOV DV well as natural or man-made slopesâ€? (p. 1). Should living roofs and vertical gardens EH HQJLQHHUHG WR UHSOLFDWH ÂśQDWXUDO¡ RU semi-natural habitats or should they be XVHG DV D WRRO WR FUHDWH VSRQWDQHRXV QRYHO ÂśUHFRPELQDQW¡ DVVHPEODJHV +LQFKOLIIH DQG :KDWPRUH " , KDYH FKRVHQ WR IROORZ WKH SULQFLSOH RI )UDQFLV DQG /RUPLHU¡V Urban Reconciliation Ecology as opposed to the traditional preservation or restoration SDUDGLJPV )UDQFLV /RUPLHU S Designing systems for varied and functional assemblages of species to colonise is the best DSSURDFK +REEV HW DO

8.1 Human Ecosystems Model The human ecosystems model is based on a desire to manage ecosystems affected by humans and development in a way that responds to and accounts for human LQWHUIHUHQFH LQ WKH HFRV\VWHP 0DFKOLV )RUFH DQG %XUFK ,W KDV EHFRPH REYLRXV that the ecology in cities is highly altered E\ KXPDQ LQWHUYHQWLRQ DQG WKDW XUEDQ ecosystem models must acknowledge this. Ecologists and natural scientists have realised that leaving humans out of ecosystem models LV DNLQ WR QRW LQFOXGLQJ D SDUWLFXODU DQLPDO SODQW RU LQYHUWHEUDWH $OEHUWL S Since urban ecosystems differ so drastically from other ecosystems in so many ways LVRODWHG SDWFK KDELWDWV SURSHQVLW\ RI QRQ QDWLYH VSHFLHV FRQWUROOHG VXFFHVVLRQDU\ SDWWHUQV YDU\LQJ PLFURFOLPDWHV LQFUHDVHG UXQRII DQG YDULRXV GLIIHUHQFHV LQ VRLOV WKH Human Ecosystems Model determined that WKH\ VKRXOG EH VWXGLHG LQGHSHQGHQWO\ QRW forced to conform to a historic/pre-settlement interpretation of ecological communities (p. 63).

8.2 Urban Reconciliation Ecology Robert Francis and Jamie Lormier of Oxford DQG .LQJ¡V &ROOHJH /RQGRQ UHVSHFWLYHO\ published an article in the Journal of Environment LQ LQ ZKLFK WKH\ GHĂ€QH urban reconciliation ecology as the study of how “the anthropogenic environment PD\ EH PRGLĂ€HG WR HQFRXUDJH QRQ KXPDQ use and biodiversity preservation without FRPSURPLVLQJ VRFLHWDO XWLOL]DWLRQ Âľ S They propose that reconciliation ecology will be especially relevant to cities that have D KLJKO\ PRGLĂ€HG DQG RU FRVPRSROLWDQ biodiversity that is lower than the pre-urban

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ecosystem and that wish to improve these aspects (p. 1). Reconciliation ecology is essentially a design and planning oriented WZLVW RQ WKH HVWDEOLVKHG Ă€HOG RI HFRORJLFDO HQJLQHHULQJ ZKLFK GHDOV ZLWK WKH GHVLJQ monitoring and construction of ecosystems. Urban Reconciliation Ecology intrigues me most in that it would allow for the integration RI ODQGVFDSH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH LQ FLWLHV ZLWKRXW compromising existing land uses. This means EXVLQHVVHV FDQ FRQWLQXH WR JURZ DQG SURĂ€W while a layer of ecological infrastructure is added to/in/around them. Two relatively low impact kinds of this type of design are green roofs and vertical gardens (in terms of their disturbance to existing buildings or VSDFHV (DFK H[LVW ZLWKLQ KRUL]RQWDO YHUWLFDO and frequently unnoticed spaces in the urban matrix. Both walls and roofs are typically considered containing elements (shelter) and ideally provide an aesthetic amenity to the DUHD RU WKH VWUHHW WKH\ RFFXS\ %H\RQG WKDW roofs and walls are considered as boundaries and billboards. Vertical gardens and green roofs are a responsible way to integrate plants into otherwise mostly plant-free areas LQ FLWLHV 7KH\ FDQ EH V\PELRWLF UHVLGLQJ RQ RU RQ WRS RI D EXLOGLQJ XVLQJ VRPH RI the amenities of the building such as added KHDW ZDWHU DQG VKHOWHU IURP ZLQG EXW also providing the building with an added FRROLQJ OD\HU GXVW DQG SROOXWLRQ FRQWURO DQG stormwater absorption. Francis and Lormier (2011) mention a couple other leading scholars on the topic; “[Jeremy] Lundholm and [Paul] Richardson (in press) have recently argued for greater consideration RI DUWLĂ€FLDO XUEDQ KDELWDWV VXFK DV ZDOOV DQG SDYHPHQW DV ÂśDQDORJXH¡ KDELWDWV WKDW FDQ

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support species from comparable natural habitats (in this case rock pavements and cliffs)â€? (p. 1). Lundholm and Richardson are re-interpreting the urban landscape in terms of similar naturally occurring ecosystems RQ WKH SODQHW RU ´KDELWDW WHPSODWHV Âľ Some urban habitat templates found in the QDWXUDOO\ RFFXUULQJ ZRUOG DUH FOLII IDFHV alvars and desert-like areas (see chapter 9). The most limiting factors in these ecosystems DUH VRLO GHSWK SRWHQWLDO IRU GURXJKW DQG RU Ă RRG FRQGLWLRQV KLJK VRODU H[SRVXUH and high solar radiation absorption (thus KLJK VXUIDFH WHPSHUDWXUHV DQG OLPLWHG SURSDJXOH GLVSHUVDO DOO RI ZKLFK EHDU VWULNLQJ resemblances to urban conditions. Other LQĂ XHQFHV IRXQG LQ FLWLHV WKDW PD\ RU PD\ QRW EH SUHVHQW LQ QDWXUDO FRPPXQLWLHV LQFUHDVHG SROOXWLRQ VDOW GXVW 92&V DFLG UDLQ ZLQG and of course direct human disturbance SLFNLQJ Ă RZHUV GLJJLQJ XS SODQWV DQG our seemingly inherent desire to limit plant growth to designated areas only).

8.3 Habitat Templates Habitat templating is the design tool used to select the plants in the vertical garden design. Habitat templating was originally SURSRVHG E\ 7 5 ( 5LFKDUG 6RXWKZRRG D ]RRORJLVW DQG HQWRPRORJLVW DQG DGYLVHU WR JRYHUQPHQWV RQ WKH VFLHQWLÀF DVSHFWV RI health and environment policies (Prof Sir 5LFKDUG 6RXWKZRRG 2ELWXDU\ +LV WKHRU\ DV GHVFULEHG E\ /XQGKROP LV WKDW LQ RUGHU WR FUHDWH VXFFHVVIXO KDELWDWV we need to study existing habitats (p. 140). 7KH NH\ LV WR ÀQG KDELWDWV WKDW WKULYH ZLWKLQ similar environmental parameters as the site LQ TXHVWLRQ ,Q WKLV SUDFWLFXP WKLV DSSURDFK was used to more closely understand the

dynamics of plant communities on walls (whether manmade or not) to create a successful novel landscape patch that could integrate the city into the regional matrix. )URP WKH SRLQW RI YLHZ RI D SODQW FLWLHV have become similar to deserts. Merriam Webster GHĂ€QHV D GHVHUW DV ´DULG ODQG ZLWK XVXDOO\ VSDUVH YHJHWDWLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ such land having a very warm climate and receiving less than 25 centimetres (10 LQFKHV RI VSRUDGLF UDLQIDOO DQQXDOO\ Âľ EXW IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI WKLV SUDFWLFXP D GHVHUW ZLOO EH GHĂ€QHG DV DQ DUHD WKDW UHFHLYHV YHU\ little precipitation. Though not all of these FRQGLWLRQV DSSO\ WR FLWLHV WKH PRVW FULWLFDO FRQGLWLRQ ODFN RI SUHFLSLWDWLRQ LV DSSOLFDEOH due to the lack of permeable surfaces. Much of the ground cover in cities is concrete or asphalt or occupied by a building - all of ZKLFK KDYH YHU\ KLJK UXQRII FRHIĂ€FLHQWV +LJK UXQRII FRHIĂ€FLHQWV PHDQ WKDW YHU\ OLWWOH stormwater runoff can be absorbed by the ground underneath the concrete. This can OHDG WR GURXJKW OLNH RU GHVHUW OLNH FRQGLWLRQV 7KLV HIIHFW RFFXUV RQ ZDOOV DV ZHOO WKRXJK LW LV PRVWO\ GXH WR WKH OLPLWHG Ă RRU DUHD WKDW the wall occupies. Unless surrounding runoff is designed to drain into the vertical gardens QHDUE\ WKH DPRXQW RI SUHFLSLWDWLRQ DEVRUEHG from the sky will be minimal. On days when ZLQG SXVKHV UDLQ LQ WRZDUGV WKH IDoDGH D vertical garden will receive some natural LUULJDWLRQ EXW VXFK HYHQWV DUH QRW SUHGLFWDEOH nor are they frequent enough to be counted on. Integrating pre-settlement landscapes or native habitats like prairie grasslands into cities will require the re-evaluation what a 21st century urban habitat matrix can be. Communities that thrive in unbuilt areas

adapt and change drastically to thrive in urban environments. A grassland community that grows in an unbuilt area will be different from that same grassland community growing in the city. They will be composed of GLIIHUHQW SODQWV WKDW KDYH VSHFLĂ€F DGDSWDWLRQV necessary for survival in the city such as SROOXWLRQ GURXJKW DQG Ă RRG WROHUDQFHV DQG will occur in different abundances compared to their rural counterparts. Pre-settlement re-creations would likely be more suited to SXEOLF SDUNV IRU H[DPSOH EHFDXVH RI WKH amount of care needed to maintain them in an urban environment. )RU YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV LQ :LQQLSHJ WKH anticipated outcome of this design practicum will be a hybrid of various Manitoba SODQW FRPPXQLWLHV FOLII DOYDU GHVHUW OLNH VDQG GXQHV PL[HG JUDVV SUDLULH DQG SUDLULH SRWKROH GHVLJQHG WR KRVW VSHFLĂ€F LQYHUWHEUDWHV OLNH EXWWHUĂ LHV RU VPDOO ELUGV The mix will use plants from each community that will be the hardiest and most well adapted to the stresses of living on an urban ZDOO H[SORUHG LQ GHWDLO LQ FKDSWHU

8.4 Urban Cli Hypothesis /DUVRQ¡V 8UEDQ &OLII +\SRWKHVLV SURYLGHV many clues as to how skyscrapers and roads can be similar to cliffs and valleys. The number of plants that can survive in cities is OLPLWHG EXW WKH 8UEDQ &OLII +\SRWKHVLV SRVLWV WKDW WKH SODQWV DQG DQLPDOV WKDW ZH QRZ Ă€QG to be nuisances in cities were once endemic to cliffs and caves and have evolved out of prehistoric caves with us. The environments we tend to create are arguably similar to those prehistoric spaces - mostly hardscapes with PLQLPDO SODQWV /DUVRQ 0DWWKHV DQG .HOO\

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“The urban cliff hypothesis makes you respect all the stuff you’ve always hated.”

- Doug Larson in Vowles, 2004

Figure 8.03: Weeds growing in a crack in the pavement.

76

a Figure 8.04: Similar geometry and material composition make a naturally formed canyon similar to an urban streetscape.

2000). According Larson et al. in their 2000 book entitled Cliff Ecology FUHDWXUHV VXFK DV UDWV PLFH SLJHRQV EDWV DQG PDQ\ SODQWV WKDW were once much less common have followed XV WKURXJK WLPH IURP RQH NLQG RI FOLII KDELWDW WR DQRWKHU WKH PRVW UHFHQW PDGH RI FRQFUHWH VWRQH DQG JODVV S )LJXUH depicts this similarity in terms of the overall geometry. If we plan to integrate plant matter LQWR RXU FLW\ HQYLURQPHQWV ZH VKRXOG ORRN WR WKHVH DQFLHQW FRPPXQLWLHV IRU LQVSLUDWLRQ QRW RQO\ LQ WHUPV RI VSHFLHV GLYHUVLW\ EXW DOVR in terms of the structure and overall function of the habitat. Cliffs are the most obvious habitat template for urban canyons. Steep URFN IDFHV RIWHQ DOPRVW SHUIHFWO\ YHUWLFDO occur frequently and are usually composed of rock and sediments that have been formed over time by water and air. Walls are similar WR FOLIIV ERWK LQ WHUPV RI WKHLU VWUXFWXUH RULHQWDWLRQ DQG WKH W\SHV RI SODQWV DQG animals/invertebrates found on them. One of the unfortunate aspects of the Urban &OLII +\SRWKHVLV LQ WHUPV RI LWV LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU GHVLJQ LQ FLWLHV LV WKDW FOLIIV LQ JHQHUDO have not been widely studied. Larson et al. (2000) gathered all the information that was DYDLODEOH DQG DVVHPEOHG LW LQ Cliff Ecology (p. 7KDW ERRN WKHUHIRUH ZLOO EH WKH PDLQ source for information regarding these often

underestimated and misunderstood ecotypes. Manitoba hosts relatively few of the large cliff-type ecologies described in the book. $ VLPLODU PRUH ZLGHO\ VWXGLHG 0DQLWREDQ community is alvar. Manitoba it is home to QHDUO\ DFUHV KD RI DOYDU KDELWDW 1DWXUH &RQVHUYDQF\ &DQDGD DQ HQYLURQPHQW VLPLODU WR FOLIIV H[LVWLQJ RQ WKH horizontal plane rather than vertical. The Nature Conservancy of Canada (NCC) GHĂ€QHV DOYDUV DV FRPPXQLWLHV ZKLFK RFFXU LQ areas with 10 cm or less soil over unbroken OLPHVWRQH ÂśSDYHPHQW¡ WKDW DUH VXVFHSWLEOH WR ERWK Ă RRGLQJ DQG H[WUHPHO\ DULG FRQGLWLRQV (2013). Such communities exist in only a few provinces and states in North America. In Manitoba there are four different types of DOYDU FRPPXQLWLHV VDYDQQDK DOYDU VKUXEODQG DOYDU JUDVVODQG DOYDU DQG ZHWODQG DOYDU (2013). The type of outcrop researched in this SUDFWLFXP LV WKH JUDVVODQG DOYDU HYHQ WKRXJK alvars are known to host a mix of both boreal and prairie plants (2013). The main reason for studying the grassland alvar is that it most closely resembles the desired aesthetic outcome of the vertical garden.

77

Figure 8.05: Plants growing on a wall in Britain.

78

8.5 Wall Ecology :DOO (FRORJ\ LV WKH VWXG\ RI YHJHWDWLRQ¡V FRORQLVDWLRQ RI PDQ PDGH ZDOOV 'DUOLQJWRQ SUHIDFH ,Q 6 6HJDO¡V Ecological Notes on Wall Vegetation catalogued and examined what some urban ecologists had been noticing in Europe for a while - the seemingly spontaneous growth of plants on ancient walls (p. 9). Segal writes in detail DERXW VSHFLĂ€F SODQW VSHFLHV H[DPLQHG DQG situations observed through his study of over ZDOOV LQ YDULRXV SDUWV RI (XURSH S 7KLV VWXG\ UHPDLQV RQH RI WKH PRVW LQĂ XHQWLDO ZULWLQJ RQ WKH WRSLF 6HJDO¡V VWXG\ VLWHV ZHUH mostly ancient brick or stone walls (most FRPPRQO\ FDVWOHV IRUWLĂ€FDWLRQV DQG ULYHU ZDOOV ZKLFK ZHUH SDUWLDOO\ GHFD\HG ODWHU adding cracks in paved roads to the inventory (p. 9). Arnold Darlington notes in his book Wall Ecology (1981) that the reason vegetation is not as commonly found on newer construction LV QRW MXVW EHFDXVH RI WKHLU VKRUWHU OLIHWLPHV but also to the chemical properties of the wall (p. 5). Walls built before the mid-19th century were generally stone or masonry MRLQHG ZLWK D VRIW FDOFDUHRXV PRUWDU D PL[WXUH RI OLPH VDQG ORDP VWUDZ DQG RIWHQ FDWWOH dung with proportions varying depending on local availability (p. 4). Until the discovery RI 3RUWODQG &HPHQW DURXQG PRUWDUV cracked relatively easily and retained more ZDWHU WKDQ WKH\ GR QRZ PDNLQJ WKHP more hospitable environments for plant colonization (p. 4). Brick and concrete PDWHULDOV XVHG QRZ DUH PRVWO\ DONDOLQH with pH values generally between 7 and 9 'DUOLQJWRQ )UDQFLV S )RU FRPSDULVRQ 3RUWODQG &HPHQW KDV D S+ RI EHWZHHQ DQG )UDQFLV S

Figure 8.05 shows a historic wall in Europe WKDW LV ZHOO OLQHG ZLWK SODQWV ZKLOH Ă€JXUHV 8.06 and 8.07 show a much newer example of spontaneous wall colonisation of a fairly new retaining wall in Toronto. Plants growing here are not squeezing their roots into the wall LWVHOI EXW UDWKHU JURZLQJ RXW IURP WKH VRLO behind the wall. Though different than Segal DQG 'DUOLQJWRQ¡V VWXGLHV WKH HQG UHVXOW LV VLPLODU spontaneous colonization of a wall by plants. Lichens and mosses typically aid in the breakdown of wall materials. They hold water ZKLFK KHOSV WR TXLFNO\ EUHDN GRZQ OLPH FUHDWLQJ VXLWDEOH QLFKHV IRU SODQWV 'DUOLQJWRQ S $GGLWLRQDO LQĂ XHQFHV IURP DQLPDO H[FUHPHQW FDQ EH FRUURVLYH RU nutritive (p. 10). Solitary bees are sometimes IRXQG QHVWLQJ LQ PRUWDU ZKLOH DQWV IUHTXHQWO\ RFFXS\ WKH LQVLGH RI D ZDOO DOWHULQJ LWV VKDSH and chemical composition (p. 10). Each of WKHVH LQĂ XHQFHV DLG FRORQL]DWLRQ E\ SODQWV 6HJDO¡V FRORQL]DWLRQV RI ZDOO microenvironments are similar to those LGHQWLĂ€HG LQ FOLII VWXGLHV VHH FKDSWHU VHFWLRQ ZDOO EDVH PLGGOH OHYHO XSSHU OHYHO DQG ZDOO WRS 2I WKHVH WKH EDVH LV JHQHUDOO\ WKH ZHWWHVW DQG ZKHUH many mosses and some liverworts colonize 'DUOLQJWRQ S $V 'DUOLQJWRQ H[SODLQV WKHUH LV IUHTXHQWO\ D OHGJH WKDW separates the upper and middle levels (sometimes made of different materials) that SURYLGHV WKH QLFKH QHFHVVDU\ IRU WKH Ă€UVW growth of vascular plants. Vascular plants retain moisture and with the overshadowing IURP WKH OHGJH XVXDOO\ UHVXOW LQ D PRUH humid upper level than middle. Conditions of the wall top are noted to be potentially quite different from site to site depending

79

Figure 8.06: Colonisation of a steel wall by plants on a southern facing street-side retaining wall, Toronto.

Figure 8.07: Unplanned colonisation of a steel wall by plants on a southern facing street-side retaining wall, Toronto. Note species of yarrow, nightshade and grasses.

80

on human and animal disturbance. On walls ZLWK D SHUIHFW ƒ LQFOLQDWLRQ W\SLFDOO\ IHZ vascular plants are found (p. 5). Southern exposure is much less hospitable WR SODQWV RQ ZDOOV WKDQ RQ FOLIIV 'DUOLQJWRQ S 1RUWKHUQ H[SRVXUHV DUH JHQHUDOO\ more rich (p. 12). Darlington explains that a south wall is exposed to desiccation by direct VXQOLJKW ZKLOH D ZHVW IDFLQJ ZDOO LV H[SRVHG to the prevailing winds. North and east walls are more sheltered from the sun so they retain higher humidity level. They are more suitable to hosting plant life as their temperature variations tend to be less great (p. 12). Lower temperatures are found to be reached more quickly on wall surfaces than other nearby surfaces (p. 13) so often the range of annual temperature differences can be more extreme than on other surfaces. Darlington is very careful to mention that these are generalised REVHUYDWLRQV WKDW DUH VXEMHFW WR PRGLĂ€FDWLRQ by local conditions (p.12). 6LPLODUO\ WR FOLIIV ZDOO GHFRPSRVLWLRQ DQG separation of cleavage and bedding planes are some of the key factors in creating suitable niches for plant growth in walls. Darlington H[SODLQV ´FDYLWLHV IRUP LQ OLPHVWRQHV VFKLVWV VSOLW DORQJ FOHDYDJH SODQHV VDQGVWRQHV FUXPEOH JUDQLWHV EHFRPH Ă€QH JUDYHOÂľ S He observes that the breakdown of lime PRUWDU LV VLPLODU WR OLPHVWRQH ZKLOH FHPHQW mortar and concrete behave more similarly WR JUDQLWH 7KLV EUHDNGRZQ FRPELQHG ZLWK DGGHG DHROLDQ DQG Ă XYLDO SDUWLFXODWHV IURP WKH VXUURXQGLQJ DUHD VWURQJO\ LQĂ XHQFH ZKDW FDQ JURZ RQ WKH ZDOO S

depending on the conditions of the wall. 8QOLNH FOLII VXFFHVVLRQ LW LV ZHOO GRFXPHQWHG likely due to a comparatively accelerated timeline (hundreds of years versus decades). It begins with lichens and bryophytes as pioneering species. They incite erosion and VXEVWUDWH IRUPDWLRQ ZKLFK HYHQWXDOO\ OHDGV the way for the establishment of higher plants 'DUOLQJWRQ S

Conclusion 7KH KXPDQ HFRV\VWHPV PRGHO XUEDQ UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ HFRORJ\ WKH XUEDQ FOLII K\SRWKHVLV KDELWDW WHPSODWHV DQG ZDOO ecology have been paramount to the evolution of this practicum. Acknowledging that change LV LQHYLWDEOH LQ WRGD\¡V KXPDQ LQĂ XHQFHG word according to the principle of the human ecosystems model is merely the beginning. Urban Reconciliation Ecology helps to encourage a fresh way of thinking of human DFWLYLWLHV LQ UHODWLRQ WR QDWXUDO RQHV DQG KRZ WKH WZR FDQ FRH[LVW LQ D PXWXDOO\ EHQHĂ€FLDO way. The Urban Cliff Hypothesis further emphasizes the connections between man PDGH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH DQG QDWXUDO HFRV\VWHPV principally cliffs. Once the city is understood DV WKRXJK LW LV D QDWXUDO FRPPXQLW\ KDELWDW templating can provide further insight into potentials for habitat creation within the city. Wall ecology is the embodiment of all of these theories combined helping to clarify many GLIIHUHQW DVSHFWV RI JURZLQJ SODQWV RQ ZDOOV VXFK DV KRZ WKH\ DUH FRORQL]HG ZK\ DQG E\ ZKRP

The successionary evolution of wall YHJHWDWLRQ KDSSHQV RYHU PDQ\ \HDUV

81

MIXED GRASS PRAIRIE

ALVAR

CLIFF PRAIRIE POTHOLE SAND DUNE Figure 9.01: Habitat template sketches.

82

9. SUITABLE HABITAT TEMPLATES FOR WINNIPEG WKHQ GHVLJQLQJ ODQGVFDSHV LW LV LPSRUWDQW to know the conditions of the site you DUH GHVLJQLQJ IRU VR WKDW \RX FDQ SLFN appropriate materials that will tolerate or thrive in the natural condition of the site. %HFDXVH ZDOOV DUH D GLVWLQFWLYH HQYLURQPHQW it is important to study naturally occurring plant communities in similar situations. This approach is called habitat templating. There DUH ÀYH KDELWDW WHPSODWHV IRU YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV LQ GRZQWRZQ :LQQLSHJ FOLIIV DOYDUV GHVHUW OLNH VDQG GXQHV PL[HG SUDLULHV DQG SUDLULH potholes. These have been selected because RI WKHLU QDWLYH FODVVLÀFDWLRQ DEXQGDQFH LQ 0DQLWRED DQG WKHLU GHÀQLQJ PLFURFOLPDWHV that are similar to those of a vertical garden.

Manitoba

Alvar Mixed Grass Prairie Prairie Pothole

Cli Sand Dunes

Winnipeg

Figure 9.02: Locations of habitat templates.

A successful vertical garden in Winnipeg will be composed of a variety of different plants from each habitat template. This will enrich the surrounding landscape matrix DQG SURYLGH KDELWDW IRU VROLWDU\ EHHV DPRQJ other invertebrates. The following section will explore the habitat templates used in depth. Some local and national case studies will be cited and different aspects learned from each case study will be discussed.

83

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Figure 9.03: Inuences observed on clis include: 1) wind exposure, 2) drainage from surrounding area, 3) disturbance from people, animals, and other natural occurrences 4) nearby waterbodies (increased humidity levels), 5) solar exposure and 6) regional context both in terms of ora and fauna communities and whether located in a city or in a rural area.

84

9.1 Clis Cliffs are a very compelling assemblage RI Ă RUD DQG IDXQD RIWHQ RYHUORRNHG E\ biologists and designers. There are many SDUWV RI WKH ZRUOG WKDW SHRSOH JR WR YLVLW FOLIIV ERWK LQODQG VXFK DV WKRVH LQ 0RKHU ,UHODQG WKH 7UROO :DOO RI 1RUZD\ WKH *UHDW 7UDQJR LQ 3DNLVWDQ DQG FRDVWDO FOLIIV WKH ODUJHVW DQG most famous of which can be found in New =HDODQG 6FRWODQG +DZDLL DQG %DIĂ€Q ,VODQG 6RPH FOLIIV KROG JUHDW FXOWXUDO VLJQLĂ€FDQFH VXFK as the vertical cemetery cliffs in the Philippines. Unless you are a rock climber or a base MXPSHU \RX PD\ RU PD\ QRW KDYH KHDUG RI many of these places. You may even see cliffs UHJXODUO\ LQ \RXU HYHU\GD\ OLIH EXW LI \RX GR QRW FOLPE WKHP DQG VHH WKHP XS FORVH PDQ\ aspects and complexities are hidden from YLHZ 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKH VDPH LV WUXH IRU PDQ\ professionals who study landscapes directly. /DUVRQ HW DO ZULWH WKDW FOLIIV KDYHQ¡W been studied extensively because they are QRW VHHQ DV ÂśSODFHV¡ ZLWK D XQLTXH HFRORJLFDO structure and process (p. 12-13). They are thought of as an accidental scattering of plants and as boundary conditions between different communities (p. 13). This attitude could be GXH FOLII IDFHV EHLQJ GLIĂ€FXOW WR DFFHVV ZLWKRXW rock climbing equipment and experience. Cliffs are some of the most interesting places , KDYH HYHU VWXGLHG DQG DUH KLJKO\ UHOHYDQW to vertical garden design as precedents. I Ă€QG LW DPD]LQJ WKDW VXFK D ZLGH YDULHW\ RI YHJHWDWLRQ FDQ JURZ RQ D FOLII IDFH DQG go virtually unrecognized by most people as unique assemblages. Various types of YHJHWDWLRQ IURP OLFKHQV DQG PRVVHV WR

JUDVVHV DQG VHGJHV WR VKUXEV DQG HYHQ ODUJH WUHHV PXOWLSOH VWRULHV KLJK FDQ JURZ RQ FOLIIV 6RPH RI WKH PRVW LQĂ XHQWLDO HOHPHQWV DUH JHRORJ\ Ă RUD DQG IDXQD DQG FRQWUROOLQJ SURFHVVHV VXFK DV FOLPDWH H[SRVXUH DQG ORQJ periods of time resulting in slow succession. Cliffs provide an excellent view into the complexities associated with growing plants vertically. Plants growing on cliffs require “physiological and morphological DGDSWDWLRQV WR ZDWHU VWUHVV VNHOHWDO VRLOV DQG D SUHGRPLQDQWO\ YHUWLFDO VXEVWUDWH DV ZHOO as an ability to re-establish after disturbance from both exogenous and endogenous SURFHVVHV Âľ &RDWHV DQG .LUNSDWULFN p. 441). Plants that have these adaptations DUH FDOOHG OLWKRSK\WHV *LYHQ WKH UHVWULFWLRQV WKH YDULHW\ RI SODQWV WKDW FDQ JURZ DQG WKH communities that have colonized cliffs are VXUSULVLQJO\ QXPHURXV WKRXJK SODQWV DUH often physically small. Because of increased stress from the limited amount of soil and JURZLQJ VSDFH SODQW JURZWK HVSHFLDOO\ that of trees and shrubs) is usually stunted. Individuals are much smaller than the same VSHFLHV ZRXOG EH DW WKH VDPH DJH JURZLQJ LQ a less stressful environment. Research found WKDW (DVWHUQ :KLWH &HGDUV Thuja occidentalis growing on cliffs in the Niagara region of 2QWDULR ZHUH FHQWXULHV ROG /DUVRQ HW DO S (DVWHUQ :KLWH &HGDU has been found to be the only plant that can grow XQLPSHGHG FRPSOHWHO\ XSVLGH GRZQ ZLWK their canopies below their root systems (p. 218). Cliff dwelling plants in the Niagara region have also been proven among the most ancient communities in the world (p. 281). Cliff microclimates can vary immensely. Sometimes they are protected by adjacent

85

Figure 9.04: Variance in disturbance from rock climbing shown in pink, Lily Pond rock wall.

Figure 9.05: Ground water drips from moss in a crack in the Lily Pond rock wall.

86

cliffs. Sometimes they face south and are baked in the mid-day sun. Sometimes WKH\ IDFH QRUWK ZKHUH WKH\ UHFHLYH RQO\ ambient light. Sometimes they are located in particularly windy areas that can inhibit or DOWHU SODQW JURZWK 7H[WXUH LQ WHUPV RI ERWK architectural and chemical composition of the FOLII LV D PDMRU LQĂ XHQFH RQ WKH FRPPXQLW\ :KHWKHU WKH URFN LV VPRRWK RU URXJK DQG whether or not it gives plants a texture to KROG RQWR KDV D UROH LQ WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI larger plants other than lichens and mosses. /HGJHV RU VKHOYHV IRXQG RQ FOLII IDFHV ZLOO often host a variety of medium to larger herbaceous plants. Cracks with a minimum width of 5mm will often host mature trees or shrubs. Generally plants will only be able to establish in areas which are slightly protected and where nutrients and sediment can DFFXPXODWH VHH Ă€JXUH 8QGHUFXWV DQG DUHDV WKDW KDYH JURXQG ZDWHU Ă RZ RU ZKLFK act as drainage zones for surrounding areas are typically some of the most favourable DUHDV IRU SODQW JURZWK 'LVWXUEDQFH LQĂ XHQFHV YHJHWDWLYH JURZWK DV VHHQ LQ Ă€JXUH RI the Lily Pond rock wall. Disturbance in this FDVH LV LQGLFDWHG E\ D ODFN RI YHJHWDWLRQ (shown in red). This is due to recreational rock climbing. Areas of the Lily Pond rock wall that are left undisturbed host a complex array of vegetation from small perennials to large trees. The effect of disturbance on WKH FOLII LV VLJQLĂ€FDQW VR SULRU DVVXPSWLRQV that vegetative growth is hindered in highly GLVWXUEHG FOLIIV ZDV FRQĂ€UPHG E\ WKLV VWXG\ VHH /LO\ 3RQG 5RFN :DOO 6WXG\ SDJH DV ZHOO DV E\ 5REHUW )UDQFLV¡ article Wall Ecology: A Frontier of Urban Biodiversity and Ecological Engineering.

7KH W\SH RI URFN S+ WH[WXUH DQG FRPSRVLWLRQ are very important to natural cliffs. 'HSHQGLQJ RQ WKH W\SH RI URFN SODQWV ZLOO HLWKHU EH FDOFLIXJHV ÂśOLPH DYRLGHUV¡ RU FDOFLFROHV ÂśOLPH VHHNHUV¡ &DOFLIXJHV JHQHUDOO\ are found in siliceous rock which produces acidic soils. Calcareous rocks produce chalky soils ZLWK QHXWUDO WR KLJK S+ YDOXHV DQG WKXV ZLOO RQO\ KRVW FDOFLFROH SODQWV /DUVRQ HW DO S Cliff communities vary greatly depending on water availability. Water will either come from VXUURXQGLQJ GUDLQDJH IURP JURXQGZDWHU SHUFRODWLQJ WKURXJK WKH URFN LWVHOI RU WKURXJK IDXOWV VHH Ă€JXUH &OLIIV ZLWK ZDWHUIDOOV running down them will often host a higher YDULHW\ RI SODQW VSHFLHV WKDQ RQHV ZLWKRXW due to the addition of moisture loving plants. These plants depend on spray from falling water to survive. Desert species may be found MXVW D IHZ PHWUHV IURP WKH ZDWHUIDOO ZKHUH water is scarce. Many cliff-dwelling plants are unable to compete with other plants in regular WHUUHVWULDO FRQGLWLRQV /DUVRQ HW DO S 7KH Ă€HUFH FRPSHWLWRUV SUHVHQW in horizontal communities often lack the adaptations necessary to survive on a cliff (p. 228). The succession of cliff communities is different than succession of ground-dwelling FRPPXQLWLHV 2Q D FOLII VXFFHVVLRQ ZLOO EHJLQ with lichens which will break down some of the rock and decaying plant matter creating VPDOO SRFNHWV RI QXWULHQWV ZDWHU DQG ORZHU S+ JLYLQJ D SHUIHFW QLFKH IRU PRVVHV ZKLFK then continue the cycle for small vascular SODQWV KHUEV DQG Ă€QDOO\ VKUXEV 9HJHWDWLRQ will diversify and grow larger with additional VRLO DQG GHWULWXV XQWLO WKH ZHLJKW RI WKH vegetation becomes higher than the amount

87

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Limestone with some shaly partings Shale with sandstone lenses Sandstone Placed rocks Ledges Cracks Undercuts Figure 9.06: Composition of a small cliff in Major’s Hill park, Ottawa.

88

Sediment Accumulation Movement of the Sun Trees and shrubs Herbaceous plants Moss Vines and climbers Grasses

Figure 9.07Appearance of the same cli shown in Figure 9.06 without dissection layers.

Figure 9.08: Large roadside cli in Kenora, Ontario.

Figure 9.09: Large roadside cli in Rocklie Park, Ottawa, Ontario.

WKH URRWV FDQ KROG &RDWHV DQG .LUNSDWULFN S 9HJHWDWLRQ FDQ VRPHWLPHV SHHO RII WKH FOLII OLNH D URRW ERXQG PDW S DIWHU ZKLFK WKH VXFFHVVLRQ SURFHVV ZLOO begin once more. Because the accumulation RI VRLO LV QHYHU VXEVWDQWLDO WKH HVVHQWLDO characteristics of the cliff are maintained. 7KXV VXFFHVVLRQ RQ FOLIIV LV ERWK WUXQFDWHG DQG F\FOLF &RDWHV DQG .LUNSDWULFN S

The following spreads show detailed analysis RI VPDOO FOLIIV IRXQG LQ 2QWDULR DQG 0DQLWRED chosen for their accessibility. Species of SODQWV ZHUH LGHQWLĂ€HG DQG HIIRUW ZDV PDGH WR understand the community as a whole at each VLWH 4XDGUDWLF VDPSOLQJ ZDV QRW XQGHUWDNHQ and should be included in future research. 1HLJKERXUKRRG FRQWH[W SUR[LPLW\ WR ZDWHU VXQ H[SRVXUH GLVWXUEDQFH DQG UHJLRQDO climate were studied in each case and can be seen represented graphically in the following.

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C se Stu Ca udy dy:: USDA Zone 5a

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Major’s Hill Park

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Located in a parkland forested city park, Major’s Hill Rockwall 1 benefits from a North aspect and surrounding area drainage water. Directly beside a walking path, it is a high disturbance area that is likely weed controlled. It is very close to a high traffic road as well, so it is likely subjected to salt spray, dust and other urban pollution.

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93

Case Ca se Stu tudy dy:: dy

USDA Zone 5a

This wall is on the edge of Nepean Point Park behind the National Art Gallery in Ottawa. Located approximately 10 feet from a high traffic bridge between Hull and Ottawa, it is exposed to high levels of urban pollution. Its southern orientation combined with the roadside location result in the growth of weedy and very common urban plants such as Canada Thistle, American Elm and Virginia Creeper. Few ledges, many vertical cracks and a mostly smooth texture on the wall result in large numbers of small trees instead of herbaceous plants. Rain water drains from the park above and down the wall on its way to the Ottawa River below.

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National Art Gallery 95

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USDA Zone 5a

96

Located on one of the busiest roads on Hull Island, this rock wall is the most urban case study examined. Buildings tower over the wall. It faces an 8 lane street, flanked on either side by highrise mixed-use developments. The building above/behind this cliff recently underwent improvements during which the wall was covered causing a significant amount of disturbance to the wall. Aside from one large specimen of Siberian Elm, only invasive weeds are present. The cliff faces West, but most of the exposure it receives is from the South, due to shadows of adjacent buildings.

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Case Study:

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Case Study: USDA Zone 2b Located in Whiteshell Provincial Park, the Lily Pond Rockwall is a popular destination for rock climbers. Differences between climbing zones and non-climbing zones are remarkable. Climbing zones have minimal small plants growing on them, while non-climbing areas host a dense Birch and Aspen foresst with a diverse understory. The Sou outh ou th-S Sou outh-East orientat atio at i n gi io g ve v sp pllan antss an abundant level of light. Facing a po pond, dr d ainage and surfacee run nof o f on n this cliff is abundant. Humidity levels are high. Located along a sm mall provincial highway, not many people stop at the cliff other than rock climbers so the cliff is classified into 2 zones of disturban: high in the rock climbing zones, and low in non-climbing zones.

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Figure 9.16: Pika, Ochotona princeps

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Figure 9.17: A rare glimpse of what a natural talus would look like. Roadside, Costa Rican highway.

$PSKLELDQV UHSWLOHV URGHQWV ELUGV DQG LQYHUWHEUDWHV DUH XELTXLWRXV WR FOLIIV regardless of location. Amphibians such DV VQDNHV VDODPDQGHUV DQG VSLGHUV DUH WKH PRVW FRPPRQ UHVLGHQWV IRXQG LQ FOLIIV ZRUOGZLGH /DUJHU PDPPDOV VXFK DV FR\RWHV VKHHS EREFDWV DQG SXPDV PD\ DOVR EH IRXQG depending on location and structure of the FOLII IDFH /DUVRQ HW DO ,Q WKH %OXH 0RXQWDLQV RI 2UHJRQ DQG :DVKLQJWRQ 0DVHU Rodiek and Thomas (1979) found 36 mammal species inhabiting the talus (the rock pile RIWHQ IRXQG DW WKH EDVH RI D FOLII DQG DQRWKHU VSHFLHV XVLQJ FDYHV LQ FOLIIV IRU EUHHGLQJ reproduction or both (p. 100). The presence of DQ\ PDPPDO RI FRXUVH LV VFDOH GHSHQGHQW Small mammals can move more freely on VPDOOHU OHGJHV DQG WUHHV EXW ODUJHU DQLPDOV need a larger cliff. Rodents are especially FRPPRQ RQ FOLII IDFHV EHFDXVH RI WKH DPRXQW of smaller cracks and holes they can retreat to when in danger of predation (Larson et DO S 5RGHQWV FRPPRQO\ IRXQG

LQ FOLII KDELWDWV DUH PLFH DQG UDWV EXW D PRUH traditionally adorable rodent lives there WRR WKH 3LND Ochotona princeps D UDEELW OLNH PDPPDO VKRZQ LQ ÀJXUH ,W LV WKH only animal that requires the talus habitat for survival (p. 152). Without a network of WDOL WKHVH DQLPDOV ZRXOG JR H[WLQFW /DUJHU mammalian species can also be found on FOLIIV VXFK DV WKH \HOORZ IRRWHG URFN ZDOODE\ ELJKRUQ VKHHS VKHHS DQG FRXJDUV *HQHUDOO\ WKHUH ZLOO EH PRUH ELUGV RQ FOLIIV WKDQ RQ QRQ FOLII VLWHV WKH PDMRULW\ RI WKH species belonging to two broad taxonomic JURXSV UDSWRUV DQG VHD ELUGV /DUVRQ HW DO S )DOFRQV UDYHQV HDJOHV KDZNV RZOV DQG YXOWXUHV DUH DOO FRPPRQ FOLII residents. Species vary by location. Land GZHOOLQJ ELUGV LQFOXGH ZUHQV FOLII VZDOORZV rock doves and common pigeons.

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Figure 9.18: Alvar on the edge of the Whiteshell region of Manitoba.

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9.2 Alvar Alvar communities are very similar to cliff FRPPXQLWLHV EXW DUH PXFK PRUH UDUH %RWK DUH IRUPHG LQ NDUVW WRSRJUDSKLF ]RQHV DUHDV formed by the dissolution of soft sedimentary URFN FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ XQGHUJURXQG GUDLQDJH V\VWHPV ZLWK VLQNKROHV DQG FDYHV 7KH biggest difference between an alvar and a cliff is that alvars occur on the horizontal plane LQVWHDG RI WKH YHUWLFDO SODQH ,Q PDQ\ DUHDV limestone cliffs are associated with alvars 0DQLWRED $OYDU ,QLWLDWLYH 0$, An alvar is characterized by a thin layer of soil- and in some cases no soil at all- over limestone or dolomite bedrock pavement &DWOLQJ %URZQHOO %HFDXVH WKH EHGURFN LV VR FORVH WR WKH VXUIDFH ZDWHU UHWHQWLRQ DQG GUDLQDJH LV OLPLWHG VR DOYDUV DUH VXVFHSWLEOH WR ERWK Ă RRGLQJ DQG GURXJKW

*DVWRQ\¡V FOLIIEUDNH Pellaea gastonyi; Rough )HVFXH Festuca hallii :LOG :KLWH 2QLRQ Allium textile 3RUWHU¡V &KHVV Bromus porteri; as well as with various types of mosses and OLFKHQV 0$, $OYDUV LQ 0DQLWRED H[WHQG RYHU DFUHV KD FRYHULQJ RQO\ RI WKH VRXWK ,QWHUODNH DQG RFFXU RQ ERWK SXEOLF (crown) and private land. None of the alvars documented in Manitoba are currently SURWHFWHG IURP GHYHORSPHQW DQG of them are in areas under mining and/ RU TXDUU\ OHDVHV 0$, S 7KH Manitoba Association of Plant Biologists (MAPB) has recommended only one alvar site known as Marble Ridge for designation as an ecological reserve. It is located between Fisher %UDQFK DQG +RGJVRQ LQ 0DQLWRED¡V ,QWHUODNH

9.3 Manitoba Sand Dunes There are four types of alvar communities in 0DQLWRED DOYDU JUDVVODQG DOYDU VDYDQQDK DOYDU VKUXEODQG DQG DOYDU ZHWODQG 0$, 2012). Figure 9.18 shows alvar grassland in the Whiteshell region of Manitoba. Most Canadian alvar communities occur on the HGJH RI WKH &DQDGLDQ 6KLHOG DQG LQ 0DQLWRED PRVWO\ LQ WKH ,QWHUODNH UHJLRQ 0$, Sixty-seven percent of those areas directly observed by the Manitoba Alvar Initiative or 0$, DUH JUD]HG E\ FDWWOH KRUVHV DQG ELVRQ 6RLO GHSWK LQ HDFK RI WKH DOYDUV UDQJH IURP FP Âľ EXW RIWHQ LV FP Âľ RU OHVV 0DQ\ UDUH SODQW VSHFLHV DUH IRXQG WKHUH and a surprisingly low number of invasive species. Within all the alvar communities VDPSOHG LQ WKH 0$, VXUYH\ RQO\ LQYDVLYH RU H[RWLF VSHFLHV ZHUH GRFXPHQWHG and they were never dominant. Thirteen rare and uncommon species were found including

Manitoba communities known as the Spirit 6DQGV LQ 6SUXFH :RRGV 3URYLQFLDO 3DUN DQG the Sandy Lands near Whiteshell Provincial 3DUN DUH VRPHZKDW GHVHUW OLNH 7KH 6SLULW 6DQGV VHH ÀJXUH KDV SDUDEROLF VDQG GXQHV DQG WKH KLJK WHPSHUDWXUHV commonly associated with deserts (Manitoba &RQVHUYDWLRQ Q G $FRUQ +RZHYHU because of the amount of annual precipitation (Manitoba averages range from 300-500mm per year) neither Spirit Sands nor Sandy /DQGV FDQ EH FODVVLÀHG DV GHVHUWV 7KH 6SLULW Sands was chosen for further analysis for this practicum because of the diversity of its topography and the variety and type of its ecological communities.

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Figure 9.19: Sand dunes in the Sandy Lands at Spruce Woods Park, Manitoba.

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Figure 9.20 &9.21: Sand dunes at Spruce Woods.

The active upland dunes at the Spirit Sands are features typically formed from the erosion of sandstone from water or wind. They can often be traced back to water-sorted deposits RI VDQG IURP EHDFKHV GHOWDV RU VDQGEDUV $FRUQ :ROIH +XQWOH\ DQG 2OOHUKHDG 2002). The upland dunes at the Spirit Sands were created by the ancient Lake Agassiz that once covered most of Manitoba. The Spirit 6DQGV KRVW D YDULHW\ RI SODQW FRPPXQLWLHV UDQJLQJ IURP VSUXFH SDUNODQG XSODQG GHFLGXRXV IRUHVW PL[HG JUDVV SUDLULH WR RSHQ and stabilized sand dunes and riverbottom/ ULSDULDQ IRUHVW 0DQLWRED &RQVHUYDWLRQ Q G Some of the fauna are rare or endangered in 0DQLWRED VXFK DV WKH 1RUWKHUQ 3UDLULH 6NLQN Plestiodon septentrionalis; Western Hog-Nosed 6QDNH Heterodon nasicus; the White Flower Moth Schinia bimatris DQG WKH +DLU\ 1HFNHG 7LJHU %HHWOH Cicindela hirticollis 5HGHNRS =RQHV NQRZQ DV ´EORZRXWV Âľ VHH Ă€JXUH 9.23) are characteristic of upland dunes. Plants in the dune area of the Spirit Sands are

exposed to very high temperatures during WKH VXPPHU DQG FRUUHVSRQGLQJO\ FROG temperatures during the winter. Because of the amount of sand that is not covered by YHJHWDWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUHV FDQ GUDPDWLFDOO\ increase in the summer and moisture levels are very low. Dunes are especially vulnerable to wind. Wind can move entire dunes up to P SHU \HDU ,QIRUPDWLRQ ERDUG 6SLULW 6DQGV The Spirit Sands also host rare plant species VXFK DV %DOO &DFWXV Mamillaria vivipara. /DUU\ 5RELQVRQ ZKR KDV EHHQ UXQQLQJ KRUVH drawn tours of the Spirit Sands for over two GHFDGHV UHSRUWV WKDW WKH 6SLULW 6DQGV DUH FKDQJLQJ YHU\ TXLFNO\ 5HGHNRS +LV opinion was corroborated by a land survey that determined 400 ha of dunes were present LQ DQG RQO\ KD LQ :ROIH HW DO 2000). Robinson notes that most of the area XVHG WR EH RSHQ VDQG GXQHV ZLWK VLJQLĂ€FDQWO\ less forest. He is concerned that the dunes may soon become completely covered in YHJHWDWLRQ 5HGHNRS +H VD\V WKDW if the government has enough of a desire

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Figure 9.22: Mixed grass prairie in Manitoba.

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Figure 9.23: Upland dune blow out. Generally wind caused, a roughly oval shaped area of the side of the dune will move downward, sometimes starting new dunes (Acorn, 2011).

to keep the rare species there that they will have to devise a plan to maintain the open sandy areas that the species depend on to live 5HGHNRS 7KH IDFW WKDW WKLV XQLTXH community is quickly disappearing presents an interesting opportunity to plant sand dune adapted plants in the vertical garden. Perhaps VRPH LQVHFWV DQG DQLPDOV ZRXOG ÀQG WKH vertical garden and colonise it. Species such as the hog-nosed snake and the skink may not ÀQG D YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ HVSHFLDOO\ KRVSLWDEOH EXW SHUKDSV WKH ZKLWH à RZHU PRWK DQG WKH KDLU\ QHFNHG WLJHU EHHWOH FRXOG ÀQG QHZ homes in vertical gardens in the city.

9.4 Mixed Grass Prairie 7KH PL[HG JUDVV FRPPXQLW\ JURZV LQ VDQG\ well-drained soils in areas receiving 250 mm DQG PP RI SUHFLSLWDWLRQ DQQXDOO\ 015 S 0DQLWRED &RQVHUYDWLRQ Q G ,W LV a combination of tall grass prairie and short JUDVV SUDLULH VHH ÀJXUH /LQGJUHQ DQG 'H 6PHW S +LVWRULFDOO\ SUDLULH FRYHUHG D VLJQLÀFDQW SDUW RI 0DQLWRED EXW due to widespread fragmentation from agricultural farming and other human LQWHUIHUHQFH SRRU FRQGLWLRQV GHJUDGDWLRQ DQG LQYDVLRQ RI VKUXEV WUHHV DQG H[RWLFV

much of the original prairie has been lost 1HUQEHUJ DQG ,QJVWUXS S ,W LV estimated that the original grassland region in 0DQLWRED ZDV NP2 RI ZKLFK RQO\ of mixed grass and 0.1% of tall grass prairie regions remain today (p. 480). The mixed grass prairie is located in the VRXWK ZHVWHUQ FRUQHU RI 0DQLWRED EHWZHHQ the short grass prairies of Saskatchewan and tall grass prairie of inner Manitoba 0DQLWRED 1DWXUDO 5HVRXUFHV 015 p. 4). It is critical habitat for the Ferruginous +DZN Buteo regalis %XUURZLQJ 2ZO Athene cunicularia /RJJHUKHDG 6KULNH Lanius ludovicianus exucubitories %DLUG¡V 6SDUURZ Ammodramus bairdii DQG 6SUDJXH¡V 3LSLW Anthus spragueii; each of which are listed as “at riskâ€? nationally or provincially (Lindgren DQG 'H 6PHW S 7KH 0DQLWRED PL[HG grass prairie is known to host 1-2% of the national population of these birds (p. 5). The mixed grass prairie is a hardy and climate DGDSWHG FRPPXQLW\ 015 S 3ODQWV LQFOXGLQJ 3UDLULH &URFXV Anemone patens; 6SHDU *UDVV Stipa comata ,QGLDQ %UHDGURRW Psoralea esculenta 'RWWHG %OD]LQJ 6WDU Liatris punctata %OXH *UDPD *UDVV Bouteloua gracilis;

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Figure 9.24: Prairie Potholes in the Minnedosa area.

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DQG 3XUSOH &RQHà RZHU Echinacea angustifolia; are considered characteristic (Manitoba &RQVHUYDWLRQ Q G S 7KHVH SODQWV DUH all specially adapted to extreme seasonal WHPSHUDWXUH YDULDQFHV DQG LQFOXGH FRRO season plants which emerge in spring and IDOO DQG ZDUP VHDVRQ SODQWV ZKLFK JURZ GXULQJ WKH KRW VXPPHU PRQWKV 015 p. 4). This special community is also home WR WKH HQGDQJHUHG :KLWH /DG\¡V 6OLSSHU Cypripedium candidum RQH RI 0DQLWRED¡V seven listed endangered plants. Both burning and rotational grazing are necessary to ensure a healthy mixed grass prairie 0DQLWRED &RQVHUYDWLRQ 1 ' S

9.5 Prairie Potholes The central region of the North American SUDLULHV LV GRWWHG ZLWK VPDOO ZHWODQGV FDOOHG SUDLULH SRWKROHV WKDW DUH OHIWRYHU IURP JODFLDWLRQ VHH ÀJXUH $FFRUGLQJ WR 'XFNV 8QOLPLWHG WKH\ DUH WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW and threatened waterfowl habitat in North America (N.D.). They range from freshwater to saline depending on surrounding drainage. Plants range from wetland water species like SRQGZHHG Potamogeton spp.; and widgeon JUDVV Ruppia spp.; to emergent species like EXOUXVKHV Scirpus VSS DQG FDWWDLOV Typha spp.; and plants that grow in seasonal PDUVKHV OLNH EOXHJUDVV IRZO Poa palustris EOXHVWHP Andropogon VSS &DQDGD DQHPRQH Anemone canadensis DQG PLQW Mentha arvensis (OGULGJH 7KH W\SHV RI SODQWV IRXQG will vary depending on the water depth of the zone of the pothole they occupy. The zones are GLFWDWHG E\ PRLVWXUH VWDQGLQJ ZDWHU OHYHOV VDOLQLW\ DQG WKH VL]H RI WKH SRWKROH 3RWKROHV that are larger in size have more complex ]RQDWLRQ ZKLOH VPDOOHU RQHV PD\ KDYH OHVV

variance from side to side. Prairie potholes FDQ EH WHPSRUDULO\ RU VHPLSHUPDQHQWO\ Ă€OOHG ZLWK ZDWHU 7KH\ DUH XVXDOO\ Ă€OOHG E\ VQRZ PHOW DQG QRW FRQQHFWHG E\ VXUIDFH VWUHDPV %HFDXVH RI WKLV ROGHU PRUH SHUPDQHQW ZDWHU ERGLHV FDQ EH EUDFNLVK RU VDOLQH EHFDXVH the only escape for the water trapped in the SRWKROH LV HYDSRUDWLRQ ZKLFK OHDYHV EHKLQG PLQHUDOV FDXVLQJ VDOLQDWLRQ (OGJULGJH S ,Q JHQHUDO WKH DPRXQW RI ZDWHU FRQWDLQHG LV correlated to the water table of the area. More than half of the prairie potholes have been drained to make way for agricultural Ă€HOGV KRZHYHU SUHVHUYDWLRQ HIIRUWV E\ 'XFNV Unlimited Canada are abundant due to the SRWKROHV¡ LPSRUWDQFH IRU ZDWHUIRZO KDELWDW Many invertebrates also live in the edges of WKH SRWKROHV SURYLGLQJ IRRG IRU WKH OD\LQJ hens and brood present. Their abundance is directly related to the amount of plant PDWHULDO SUHVHQW KRZHYHU SODQWV ZLWK PRUH complex structures provide the most cover DQG KDELWDW IRU LQYHUWHEUDWHV (OGULGJH S Prairie pothole zones are somewhat similar to standard zones found in marshes and other water-dominated communities. 7\SLFDOO\ WKH\ H[WHQG IURP WKH RXWHU GULHU areas (upland) to the semi submerged or VHDVRQDOO\ VXEPHUJHG ]RQHV ULSDULDQ LQWR the deep water areas where plants are entirely VXEPHUJHG DTXDWLF *RYHUQPHQW RI $OEHUWD Q G S 7KHVH ]RQHV HDFK KRVW GLIIHUHQW plants and invertebrates. Plants selected for the vertical garden design have been selected mostly from the upland ]RQH KRZHYHU VRPH DOVR JURZ LQ VHDVRQDOO\ Ă RRGHG DUHDV 7KHVH VSHFLHV DUH ORFDWHG DW WKH ERWWRP RI WKH ZDOO ZKHUH WKH PRVW

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Figure 9.25: Cli with groundwater ow encouraging plant growth.

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accumulation of water naturally occurs due to irrigation and gravity. These plants are particularly suited to grow on the bottom of the wall as plants in this zone are the most directly affected by salt spray and pollutants from the road below.

Conclusion Each of these communities provides further insight into different conditions present in a vertical garden. Cliff studies reveal the bare necessities for plant life growing on a YHUWLFDO SODQH DQG VXFFHVVLRQ SDWWHUQV DQG variances associated with microtopography. The information gathered about lithophytes present in both cliff and alvar communities is the basis for a set of parameters for SODQW VHOHFWLRQ DQG WKH DPRXQW RI VRLO sun exposure and water needed. Alvars provide further insight into how plants can adapt to limited soil and stressful waterrelated conditions. The Manitoba sand dune community is tolerant of highly variable temperatures similar to those that will occur RQ D ZDOO ZKLOH SUDLULH SRWKROH SODQWV DGDSW WR D YDULHW\ RI ZDWHU UHODWHG LQà XHQFHV à RRGV DQG GURXJKWV 3ODQWV IURP HDFK RI WKH FOLII DOYDU VDQG GXQHV PL[HG SUDLULH DQG SUDLULH pothole communities were chosen for the ÀQDO GHVLJQ 7KLV SODQW SDOOHW ZLOO IRUP D VLWH VSHFLÀF DQG UHJLRQDOO\ VHQVLWLYH JUDGLHQW RI plants for a Winnipeg vertical garden.

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10. DESIGN PARAMETERS AND INITIAL SKETCHES Throughout the process of researching and GHVLJQLQJ WKH YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ Ă€YH WKLQJV quickly grew to be dictating forces in the GHVLJQ 7KH\ DUH KDELWDW WHPSODWLQJ VXQ DQG ZLQG H[SRVXUH WKH DPRXQW RI VRLO JLYHQ IRU HDFK SODQW :LQQLSHJ ZLQWHUV DQG WKH IRUP of the structure itself. The habitat templates selected have similar microclimates to the zone of the vertical garden to be planted. Sun and wind exposure must be considered IRU WKH KHDOWK RI SODQWV VR ZHVWHUQ ZDOOV isolated from the wind but also warmed by the sun were chosen for further consideration. Individual plants are planted in individual pots to facilitate removal. Each different size GLUHFWO\ FRUUHODWHV WR WKH SODQWV¡ VL]HV ERWK LQ terms of spread and root mass. Provision for WKH ZLQWHU ZDV FRQVLGHUHG DQG WKH GHFLVLRQ was made to cover the plants during the cold VHDVRQ 7KH GHVLUH WR FUHDWH D VLWH VSHFLĂ€F garden installation inspired for the creation of a dynamic and responsive form.

10.1 Selecting Realistic Habitat Templates I recognized that habitat templating was going to be a critical element to my research early. I had originally wanted to create a tall grass prairie community on the side of the EXLOGLQJ EXW DV , GLG PRUH DQG PRUH UHVHDUFK I realised that this was not ideal. Root space and maintenance requirements of a tall grass prairie would be hard to replicate on the side of a building. Annual burns were of particular concern. The fantasy of annual green wall burns remained with me for a long time. It would appear that a whole building was RQ ÀUH EXW LQ UHDOLW\ WKH EXLOGLQJ ZRXOG EH completely protected and safe. This would EH D KXJH HYHQW IRU :LQQLSHJ SHRSOH ZRXOG come from far and wide to see the building JR XS LQ à DPHV EXW QRW UHDOO\ , KHOG RQ WR WKLV GUHDP IRU DV ORQJ DV , FRXOG EXW DIWHU UHDGLQJ PRUH DERXW JUHHQ ZDOOV DQG PLFURFOLPDWHV DQG WKH SODQW VSHFLHV WKHPVHOYHV LW EHFDPH REYLRXV that my research was going a different direction.

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Figure 10.02: Solar analysis of facades.

Figure 10.03: Wind analysis of Downtown Winnipeg with western facing facades with less wind exposure highlighted.

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10.2 Sun and Wind Exposure/ Location Downtown Winnipeg was selected because vertical gardening is most suited to areas where traditional horizontal gardens are not an option. This is usually due to lack of space. Downtown Winnipeg is a relatively dense urban area where density will continue to increase over time. It is desirable to integrate JDUGHQV LQ SODFHV WKDW DUH FXUUHQWO\ XQXVHG OLNH ZDOOV ZKLOH NHHSLQJ RSHQ ORWV DYDLODEOH for future development. For my exploration of sun and wind exposure I ran computerized wind simulations at different heights and sun path analyses on the GRZQWRZQ VHHQ LQ ÀJXUHV DQG These were done to isolate facades exposed WR D VXLWDEOH DPRXQW RI GLUHFW OLJKW ZKLOH also relatively isolated from the wind. The west-facing cliffs I had visited in Ontario and Manitoba had the highest level of plant GLYHUVLW\ VR , IRFXVHG PRVWO\ RQ ÀQGLQJ western facades. Though north facing walls were found in wall ecology studies to be WKH PRVW GLYHUVH ZHVWHUQ ZDOOV LQ FROG climates will have slightly longer growing seasons due to heat absorbed by the sun.

10.3 Container Size/ Soil Requirement Another aspect explored in depth was the container size each plant needed. Because most endemic prairie plants have very long URRWV LW LV SUREDEO\ QRW DGYLVDEOH WR JURZ many of these plants in containers. I have selected those which I predict have the best FKDQFH DW VXUYLYDO EDVHG RQ WKHLU OLIHVSDQ and predicted survival in pots for multiple VHDVRQV DQG WKHLU JHQHUDO KDUGLQHVV ,W is estimated that the size of the container

(chosen based on the size of the root mass of each plant) will be large enough for plant survival to be many seasons. Some plants will do very well initially and then die off once competition and limited rootspace stresses them too much. The plant pallet has been designed to incorporate different species RI GLIIHUHQW OLIHVSDQV VKDSHV WH[WXUHV and tolerance for competition. The worst case scenario would be for all of the plants to die in the first year. It was often suggested to me during my design process that perhaps annuals would be a simpler choice. I agree they would be HDVLHU WR SODQ IRU DV WKH\ ZRXOG EH UHSODFHG HYHU\ \HDU KRZHYHU P\ GHVLUH ZDV WR FUHDWH a garden that was based on Manitoba plant FRPPXQLWLHV WR HQULFK GRZQWRZQ SODQW diversity. Once testing of the design is FRPSOHWHG LI LW LV FRPSOHWHO\ XQIHDVLEOH WR XVH WKH SODQWV RXWOLQHG KHUHLQ WKHQ annual plants can be planted.

10.4 Winnipeg Winters The winter season is another aspect that I struggled with for a long time. I had to choose between creating a greenhouse for the vertical JDUGHQ DQG LQVXODWLQJ RU UHPRYLQJ LW IRU WKH ZLQWHU )RU WKH VFRSH RI WKH SUDFWLFXP LW LV assumed that native plants can be successfully overwintered in containers in zone 2b. Further WHVWLQJ LV UHTXLUHG EXW LI WKH SODQW LV DOORZHG WR IUHH]H VROLG WKHQ NHSW IUR]HQ DQG LQVXODWHG IRU WKH GXUDWLRQ RI WKH ZLQWHU LW LV DVVXPHG the plant will survive. It is critical that the plant not be exposed directly to warming VXQOLJKW WR SUHYHQW DFFLGHQWDO ZDNLQJ RI WKH plant in the middle of a sunny winter day.

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10.5 Potential Sites During the initial search for sites I found WKLUW\ SRVVLELOLWLHV VHH Ă€JXUH , narrowed the list down to two through an evaluation of the age of the building (and whether it was a designated historic VLWH LWV SURWHFWLRQ IURP VWURQJ GRZQWRZQ ZLQG FXUUHQWV LWV PDWHULDO FRPSRVLWLRQ WKH FRQGLWLRQ DQG VL]H RI WKH IDFDGH LWV DFFHVVLELOLW\ SUR[LPLW\ WR QHDUE\ DWWUDFWLRQV DQG WUDQVLW DQG LWV GHJUHH RI YLVLELOLW\ The two facades chosen for further development were selected primarily for WKHLU PDWHULDOLW\ SURWHFWLRQ IURP ZLQG DQG south-west exposure. One was a highly PRGLĂ€HG ¡V EULFN YHQHHUHG FRQFUHWH EXLOGLQJ 6W 0DU\ $YH QRZ NQRZQ DV &LW\ 3ODFH RULJLQDOO\ WKH (DWRQ 0DLO 2UGHU &DWDORJXH EXLOGLQJ WKHQ (DWRQ 3ODFH DQG D concrete building with a metal skin (229 Fort 6W :LQQLSHJ 6TXDUH ,W KDG EHHQ GHFLGHG early on that the vertical garden design would EH DGGHG WR DQ H[LVWLQJ IDFDGH LQ RUGHU WR improve existing environments and not depend on new construction. Designed as an DGGLWLRQDO HOHPHQW LW FRXOG DOVR EH DGGHG WR QHZ FRQVWUXFWLRQ DV HDVLO\ DV UHWUR Ă€WV

used as ashtrays. I decided that the garden would have the best chance of survival if it was not within reach of a person of average height. I had also discovered in my research WKDW DERYH VWRULHV LQ KHLJKW DGGLWLRQDO design considerations must be made for YHJHWDWLRQ 3HFN HW DO S VR , determined that the garden would range from 2m above grade to an 8 story maximum. Designs envisioned for each of the facades will be reviewed in the following sections. Each site inspired different scenarios with different aspects to consider. Lists of DGYDQWDJHV DQG GLIĂ€FXOWLHV ZHUH FUHDWHG IRU each design to determine which one was persued.

It was important that the chosen site be highly YLVLEOH ZLWKLQ WKH GRZQWRZQ ERWK WR YLVLWRUV and those who live or work there. I also wanted the gardens to be visually accessible. Ideally the gardens would be close enough to eye level so that people walking by could VHH LQGLYLGXDO SODQWV +RZHYHU , NQHZ WKDW , would have to elevate the gardens somewhat IURP VWUHHW OHYHO EHFDXVH RI PDOLFLRXV DFWV that occur to plants in the downtown. Plants JHW SXOOHG RXW RI WKHLU SODQWHUV SHHG RQ DQG

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Figure 10.06: Rotating Panels in front of Winnipeg Square.

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10.6 Design Sketch #1: Rotating Wall Inspired by a vertical garden design found in India called the Jaaga Vertical Garden -DDJD Q G WKH œURWDWLQJ ZDOO¡ FRQFHSW LV D QDUURZ greening tool that could be used on streets where there is not enough space for trees. 7KH GHVLJQ LV EDVHG RQ D URWDWLQJ FRPSRQHQW D IUDPH DQG D WUHOOLV 7KH IUDPH ZRXOG EH EROWHG LQWR WKH FRQFUHWH VLGHZDON DQG D EDUUHO would be cut in half and put on a rotating mechanism in the middle of the frame. The barrel would be insulated and planted. A trellis would extend from the frame to WKH QHDUHVW EXLOGLQJ DOORZLQJ D FDQRS\ RI YLQHV WR GHYHORS RYHU WRS RI WKH VLGHZDON providing shade for pedestrians. During the VXPPHU WKH EDUUHOV FRXOG EH WXUQHG DW ZLOO but during the winter they would be locked in SODFH ZLWK WKH SODQWV IDFLQJ WKH VLGHZDON WR protect them from salt spray. $GYDQWDJHV 5HDFWV DQG DGDSWV WR ZLQWHU E\ WXUQLQJ 9LQHV ZLOO FRYHU WKH VLGHZDON - Can easily be covered or wrapped for winter.

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Figure 10.07: Location of Winnipeg Square.

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Figure 10.08: Model of rotating panel.

Figure 10.09: Sketches of rotating panel.

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'LIĂ€FXOWLHV - Irrigating a rotating planter would be FRPSOLFDWHG - The panels would be large and require heavy PDFKLQHU\ WR EH PRYHG - The design does not allow for variation in VRLO GHSWK DQG W\SH ZLWKLQ D VLQJOH PRGXOH - The wall would only be vegetated on one VLGH EXW ERWK DUH DFWLYHO\ YLVLEOH - Size of the garden does not lend itself well to the plant community gradient proposal developed in response to the microclimate of D :LQQLSHJ YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ ,QGLYLGXDO SODQWV ZRXOG EH GLIĂ€FXOW WR UHPRYH 'XH WR WKH GLIĂ€FXOWLHV OLVWHG WKLV LGHD ZDV not pursued. In the end a similar design was installed successfully at the US Pavilion at WKH 0LODQ ([SR VR WKH GLIĂ€FXOWLHV OLVWHG above were able to be surpassed.

Figure 10.10: Sketches of rotating panel.

125

Figure 10.11: Sketches of gravity wall.

Figure 10.13: Gravity wall on Winnipeg Square.

126

10.7 Design Sketch #2: Gravity Wall

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Figure 10.12: Location of Winnipeg Square.

The gravity wall was developed in response to the moisture conditions of a vertical garden. Individual planter units would be on a counter weight pulley system so that when they were dry (and light) they would be self SURSHOOHG WR WKH WRS RI WKH ZDOO ZKHUH WKH\ would plug into an irrigation spigot. Once WKH\ ZHUH IXOO\ VDWXUDWHG WKH DGGHG ZHLJKW RI WKH ZDWHU ZRXOG WKHQ HDVH WKHP GRZQZDUG where they would once again start their ascent when water began to evaporate. This garden would create a dynamic visual representation of the moisture level of the JDUGHQ DQG ZRXOG JLYH SDVVHUV E\ DQ LQVLJKW into how a vertical garden works.

$GYDQWDJHV ,QWHUDFWLYH VKRZFDVHV LQWHUQDO SKHQRPHQD - Provides a dynamic lesson in physics and moisture requirements for plants. 'LIĂ€FXOWLHV &RXOG EH UHDG DV D QRYHOW\ LWHP RU D JDPH UDWKHU WKDQ DQ HGXFDWLRQDO RSSRUWXQLW\ - Essentially only demonstrates one aspect of YHUWLFDO JDUGHQV SODQWV QHHG ZDWHU :RXOG FRYHU D UHODWLYHO\ VPDOO SRUWLRQ RI WKH ZDOO - Plug in irrigation system would be complex. Through discussions with committee members it was decided that this was not the VWURQJHVW LGHD VR RWKHUV ZHUH SXUVXHG

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Figure 10.14: Cli recreation on Winnipeg Square.

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10.8 Design Sketch #3: The Cli Wall

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Figure 10.15: Location of Winnipeg Square.

$GYDQWDJHV 'LUHFW WUDQVODWLRQ RI FOLII UHVHDUFK - Irrigation system could be simply water SRXUHG RYHU WKH IDFH VLPLODU WR D IRXQWDLQ 'LIĂ€FXOWLHV - Translation of cliff research was deemed to be too literal as intentions were to create VRPHWKLQJ QHZ LQVWHDG RI D UHFUHDWLRQ :HLJKW ZRXOG EH H[WUHPHO\ KHDY\ :LGWK ZRXOG KDYH WR EH IDLUO\ WKLFN :RXOG EH UHOHJDWHG WR ERWWRP RI EXLOGLQJ - Responds only to one habitat template. This proposal was dismissed fairly early on due to the fact that the recreation of a plant community was not the desired outcome.

Figure 10.16: Sketch of cli wall.

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“DESERT” PLANTS

CLIFF PLANTS

PRAIRIE PLANTS

RIVERBOTTOM UNDERSTORY PLANTS Figure 10.17: First sketch of undulating wall concept. Originally, Riverbottom plants were considered for the design.

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Figure 10.19: Sketch of undulating wall.

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10.9 Design sketch #4: The Undulating Wall This proposal was based on considerations of plant root mass in selected habitat templates. 7KH ÂśFRQWDLQHUV¡ DUH VWUXFWXUHG WR FUHDWH D series of unique microclimates for plants. (DFK SODQW KDV LWV RZQ PRGXOH RU SRW DQG EH easily removed if necessary. $GYDQWDJHV 5HVSRQGV WR HDFK SODQW FRPPXQLW\ VWXGLHG LQ WHUPV PRLVWXUH VRLO W\SH DQG TXDQWLW\ - Undulation of the face of the garden will create more microclimates and unique niches IRU SODQWV DQG LQVHFWV - Because each plant is contained in a separate FRQWDLQHU LW ZRXOG EH HDVLHU LQ WKHRU\ WR SUHYHQW LQYDVLYH VSHFLHV IURP WDNLQJ RYHU - Undulation could provide interesting RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU KXPDQ LQWHUDFWLRQ - Clear translation of research. 'LIĂ€FXOWLHV 6WUXFWXUH ZRXOG EH FRPSOH[ DQG YHU\ H[SHQVLYH - Access for maintenance would need to be IURP WKH H[WHULRU DQG VSHFLDO HTXLSPHQW DQG WUDLQHG SHUVRQQHO ZRXOG EH QHFHVVDU\ - Irrigation system and re-circulation would be complex. This sketch had more advantages than GLIĂ€FXOWLHV VR LW ZDV VHOHFWHG IRU UHĂ€QHPHQW

Figure 10.20: Sketch of undulating wall.

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Figure 11.01: Concept rendering, green wall, City Place.

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11. DESIGN PROPOSAL The Undulating Wall sketch design (see FKDSWHU VHFWLRQ ZDV FKRVHQ IRU ÀQDO UHÀQHPHQW EHFDXVH LW GLUHFWO\ UHVSRQGV WR all research criteria leading up to the design. )URP WKH VKDSH WR WKH VL]H RI SODQW RSHQLQJV WR PDWHULDOV DQG SODQW SDOOHW HYHU\WKLQJ KDV D reason stemming from research.

11.1 Location 7KH ÀQDO ORFDWLRQ VHOHFWHG LV WKH ZHVW IDFDGH RI &LW\ 3ODFH DORQJ +DUJUDYH 6WUHHW 7KH building has undergone a series of repairs and UHWURÀWV QRW WKH OHDVW RI ZKLFK LQFOXGHV WKH recent addition of large clerestory windows and an entrance on the west side. This renovation was managed by Number Ten $UFKLWHFWXUH ZKR ZHUH JHQHURXV HQRXJK WR share their working drawings of the building. 7KH SODQV FDPH ZLWK D GLVFODLPHU GXH WR WKH DPRXQW RI UHQRYDWLRQV WKH LQQHU VWUXFWXUH varies quite a bit. Drawings do not necessarily reliably convey existing conditions. For this GHVLJQ , DP DVVXPLQJ WKDW WKH VWUXFWXUH RI WKH bays where the gardens are to be placed are reinforced concrete walls.

&LW\ 3ODFH¡V +DUJUDYH IDFDGH ZDV FKRVHQ EHFDXVH RI LWV LGHQWLĂ€FDWLRQ GXULQJ WKH neighbourhood analysis as a relatively wind-free spot downtown. Its also has excellent openings or “blank spotsâ€? (areas currently covered with stucco panels). It is centrally located and highly visible. Located LQ WKH KHDUW RI WKH 6SRUWV +RVSLWDOLW\ DQG (QWHUWDLQPHQW 'LVWULFW 6 + ( ' &LW\ 3ODFH LV DGMDFHQW WR 076 &HQWUH 0LOOHQQLXP OLEUDU\ and beside what is arguably the central hub of rapid transit in Winnipeg. I admire the exterior of the building for its pragmatic DQG FDUHIXO XVH RI EULFN DQG WKH VLPSOH \HW HOHJDQW FRUQLFH DQG OLPHVWRQH YHQHHUV +DYLQJ OLYHG IRXU EORFNV DZD\ , ZDV RIWHQ IDU enough away to appreciate the beauty of the EXLOGLQJ DV D ZKROH EXW ZKHQ GLUHFWO\ EHVLGH LW WKH VWUXFWXUH IHOW DV LW FRQWLQXHV WR IHHO somewhat underwhelming. I enjoy the nooks RQ WKH Ă€UVW Ă RRU ZLWK WKHLU DQJOHG EULFN EDVH they are wonderful wind shelters along Graham and Donald during blustery winter months. 7KH EXLOGLQJ¡V SK\VLFDO FRQQHFWLRQ WR LWV surroundings is limited. Entrances exist on DOO VLGHV RI WKH EXLOGLQJ EXW DUH GLVJXLVHG

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Figure 11.02: City Place

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within the uniformity of the facades. Underutilisation of such prime street facing UHDO HVWDWH LV VWULNLQJ 7KH ÀUVW FRXSOH RI à RRUV of the building have turned their backs to WKH VWUHHW ZLWK PDLQ HQWUDQFHV DQG VKRSV opening to the interior court. Street-side ZDOOV DUH QRW XVHG WR VKRZ PHUFKDQGLVH or to provide views into the building as WKH\ ZHUH KLVWRULFDOO\ EXW DUH VLPSO\ XVHG DV EDUULHUV $ERYH WKH RIÀFHV EHORQJLQJ WR Manitoba Public Insurance have windows WKDW ORRN GRZQ WR WKH VWUHHWV EXW WKHVH VHHP to be the only true connection to the outside except for the entrances. A mechanical room is located in the north-west corner of the third à RRU 7KLV FKRLFH RI ORFDWLRQ LV VXUSULVLQJ WR me. The north-west corner faces one of the EXVLHVW WUDQVLW FRUULGRUV LQ WKH FLW\ ZKLFK provides excellent opportunities for streetside connections and views in and out of City Place. Such transparency would help to draw people in while they wait for their next bus.

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The City Place building and location provide opportunities to connect to the greater FRPPXQLW\ DQG WR LQFUHDVH WKH SURĂ€OH RI the tenants. Using vertical gardens to highlight entrances and increase interest will provide an HFRQRPLF ERRVW WR WKH WHQDQWV DQG JLYH WKHP WKH opportunity to capitalize on a more “greenâ€? image.

135

Figure 11.04: ReďŹ ned design rendering.

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137

Rainwater is collected from the roof and drained into cisterns

Water is held and ďŹ ltered in the 3rd oor mechanical rooms

After water is used, it is collected and ďŹ ltered again to be recirculated.

Figure 11.05: Rainwater collection and irrigation system.

11.2 Design Structure/Form/Material 7KH JDUGHQ LV D UHWURĂ€W GHVLJQ WKDW FRXOG EH added to an existing building. It is a unique structure that would be made using a mold and various recycled products. For the SXUSRVH RI WKLV SUDFWLFXP WKH DVVXPSWLRQ is that the structure of City Place is robust HQRXJK WR KROG WKH JDUGHQ ZKLFK LV comprised mostly of lightweight materials. The garden will be located on the second Ă RRU RI WKH IDFDGH DERYH H[LVWLQJ VLJQDJH for tenants. The gardens will feature mostly KHDUW\ 0DQLWRED SODQWV ZKRVH UHODWLYH abundances will change over time.

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The search for suitable materials for the design began with visits to recycling depots such as the Habitat for Humanity Re-store. I ZDV EURZVLQJ WKURXJK WKH SOXPELQJ VHFWLRQ when I saw PVC pipes. Having worked in SOXPELQJ EULHà \ EHIRUH , ZDV VRPHZKDW familiar with the parts offered. PVC pipe come comes in standard diameters (a very wide variety - from 2� to 20�) and there DUH UHVWULFWRUV DQJOH FRQQHFWLRQV DQG FDSV PDQXIDFWXUHG WR ÀW DOO WKH GLDPHWHUV RIIHUHG 39& VHHPHG OLNH D JRRG RSWLRQ IRU D ZKLOH The different diameters and lengths could be FRUUHODWHG WR WKH VL]H RI WKH SODQW DQG PRUH LPSRUWDQWO\ LWV URRW PDVV 7KLV PDWHULDO KRZHYHU ZRXOG EH GLIÀFXOW WR VWDFN DW DQ DQJOH LV YHU\ KHDY\ DQG GRHV QRW SURYLGH WKH

Inexpensive, commercially available

Modules easy to remove and replace

Heavy PVC PIPE

Barrels Bags

Contain all plants in one Require additional manufacturing

Suspended

How to remove single plant only?

Fitted into PVC Structure

Could create suitable texture for moss

Not good texture for moss

Potentially Expensive

Reconstituted Materials Materials Dictated by Design

PVC PIPE

Lightweight

El Japonez Restaurant by Cherem Architects Highly customizable

Recycled Materials

Inexpensive

High toxicity Custom moulding Process required

O-The-Shelf Thermoplastic

Easy to acquire Yoga Mats

Recycled Rubber Flooring

Thermoset Composites Jute and Kenaf

High embodied Heavy Energy

Potentially lower embodied energy than reconsistuted materials

Industrial Truck Mats

Alginsulate

Unknown impact on plants

Spray Foam Insulation

Contained within a smaller PVC Tube

Fiberglass shell with pots inside

High embodied Energy Acrylic

Design Dictated by Materials

High Toxicity

Organic Materials

Lightweight

Foam Glass Insulation Coconut Mat Reconstituted Glass

Algae is fast growing and renewable

High embodied Energy

Commonly used in green roofs

Reconstituted Coconut Husks, Often used in planters and green roofs

Eavestroughs

Plastic Bottles

texture necessary to host the lichen and moss GHVLUHG WR FRORQLVH WKH SURMHFW VR DOWHUQDWLYHV ZHUH LQYHVWLJDWHG 39& LV VWLOO XVHG LQ WKH ÀQDO GHVLJQ EXW LWV UROH LV WR SURYLGH IRUPZRUN IRU WKH SODQWHUV ZKLOH RWKHU PDWHULDOV DUH VSUD\HG DURXQG WKHP VHH ÀJXUH 7KH ÀQDO VWUXFWXUH LV FRPSULVHG RI XQLTXH SDQHOV DV VHHQ LQ ÀJXUH DQG WKDW WRJHWKHU FUHDWH D G\QDPLF XQGXODWLQJ IRUP 3DQHOV ÀW LQWR HDFK RWKHU IRUPLQJ RQH cohesive garden. The garden has been scaled WR ÀW LQWR HDFK H[LVWLQJ ED\ RI WKH &LW\ 3ODFH EXLOGLQJ DOORZLQJ à H[LELOLW\ IRU LQVWDOODWLRQ in any of the bays. With changes to the plant SDOOHW SDQHOV FRXOG DOVR EH LQVWDOOHG RQ WKH northern and eastern facades if desired.

Figure 11.06: Flow diagram of material decision making process.

0DWHULDOV KLJKOLJKWHG LQ ÀJXUH KDYH EHHQ VHOHFWHG IRU WKHLU OLJKWQHVV DV ZHOO as being either recycled or otherwise environmentally friendly. The exterior shell is made from reinforced thermoplastic jute for structural stability. Recycled PVC pipes are retained as the formwork for the openings of plants. Alginsulate foam is used as an insulating material around plants. Due to high WHPSHUDWXUH à XFWXDWLRQ IRXQG RQ IDFDGHV DQ LQVXODWLYH PHPEUDQH LV QHFHVVDU\ $OJLQVXODWH a material currently in development by Dr. Michael Narodoslawsky at the University of Technology Graz in Austria (Verpackungs =HQWUXP *UD] LV DQ LQVXODWLYH IRDP PDGH IURP DOJDH WKURXJK D SURFHVV WKDW GRHV not produce any harmful substances .

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36

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Thermoplastic Jute Composite Shell, made in 4 sections and assembled on site. W: 22.5” Alguinsulate (insulation made from algae) foam

Drip line irrigation with moisture and temperature sensor at each pot W: 12.8”

W: 8.4”

W: 8.5”

Stainless steel structural frame anchored to load bearing wall. Spacing 36” on centre

PVC Drainage from each pot, filtered and pumped back to cisterns for reuse

Planters, 2”, 5.5” or 11” in diameter. Varying lengths. Lined with root barrier sleave for easy removal 273.9

W: 14.5”

W: 11”

W: 19”

W: 13”

W: 18” Drainage 1/2” from each pot, with root barrier at base of planter. W: 24.5”

W: 19.5”

Expanding bolt spacer W: 31”

W: 37”

W: 33”

6

Water pump and filter to pump drainage back to cistern located on 3rd floor mechanical level.

W denotes width at base of text.

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Figure 11.07: Sections showing orientation and relative size of planters and materials used.

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W: 30”

Existing Wall

188.55

10 25.5

Plant pots 2� Air space

Drainage Thermoplastic Jute Composite Shell, made in 4 sections and assembled on site.

24.5 31

17.5 23.5

8.5 15.5

Drip line irrigation

0 12

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72 in.

Figure 11.08: Sections showing depth of each community area.

The exterior thermoplastic jute face will have three different sized openings for the plants. The size and spread of each plant determines what the opening size is. The face will be a OLJKW FRORXU ZLWK D KLJK DOEHGR VR VRODU KHDW ZLOO EH VRPHZKDW PLWLJDWHG 2YHU WLPH LW LV intended that moss and lichen will colonise WKH IDFH RI WKH MXWH SURYLGLQJ PRUH YLVXDO interest. Lightweight soil designed for green URRI DSSOLFDWLRQV ZKLFK KDV D IXOO\ VDWXUDWHG weight of 60 lbs/sq. ft. (292.6 kg/m2 LQVWHDG of the typical 100 lbs/sq. ft. (1597 kg/m2 ZLOO EH XVHG 3HFN DQG .XKQ Q G S 7KLV growing medium was used on the Vancouver Public Library green roof (p.11). Water will be gathered for irrigation from UDLQIDOO RQ WKH URRI VHH ÀJXUH DQG VWRUHG LQ FLVWHUQV RQ WKH PHFKDQLFDO à RRU RI

&LW\ 3ODFH 5DLQZDWHU ZLOO EH ÀOWHUHG DV LW enters the cistern. Once water has circulated WKURXJK WKH JDUGHQ LW ZLOO EH SLSHG LQWR D secondary cistern where it will once more EH ÀOWHUHG 8SRQ FRPSOHWLRQ RI WKH VHFRQG ÀOWHULQJ WKH ZDWHU ZLOO EH WUDQVIHUHG EDFN WR WKH ÀUVW FLVWHUQ WR JR WKURXJK WKH JDUGHQ again. This will reduce runoff from the City 3ODFH VLWH DV ZHOO DV WKH DPRXQW RI ZDWHU in the combined sewer system downtown. 7KLV FRXOG EH D FULWLFDO GHWDLO IRU :LQQLSHJ because during times when the sewers reach FDSDFLW\ UDZ VHZDJH RYHUà RZV GLUHFWO\ into either the Red or Assiniboine Rivers. This occurs several times a year. In times of GURXJKW FLW\ ZDWHU ZLOO EH XVHG WR LUULJDWH EXW only when absolutely necessary.

141

Achillea millefolium, Common Yarrow. Qty: 23

Koeleria macrantha, June Grass. Qty: 9

Rosa arkansana, Wild Prairie Rose. Qty: 4

Agrostis scabra, Rough Hair Grass. Qty: 4

Juniperus horizontalis, Juniper. Qty: 4

Carex rupestris, Rock Sedge. Qty: 27

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Bearberry. Qty: 5

Koeleria macrantha, June Grass. Qty: 10

Juniperus horizontalis, Juniper. Qty: 4

Polypodium virginianum, Fern. Qty: 32

Achillea millefolium, Common Yarrow. Qty: 25 Schizachyrium scoparium, Little Blue Stem. Qty: 3 Anemone canadensis, Canada Anemone. Qty: 12 Danthonia spicata, Poverty Oat Grass. Qty: 6 Geum triorum, Three Flowered Avens. Qty: 23 Humulus Lupulus, Common Hops. Qty: 3 Vitis riparia, Riverbottom Grape. Qty: 3

Heuchera richardsonii, Alum Root. Qty: 9 Geum triorum, Three Flowered Avens. Qty: 20 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Bearberry. Qty: 4 Polypodium virginianum, Fern. Qty: 11 Bouteloua gracilis, Blue Grama Grass. Qty: 7 Parthenocissus quiquefolia, Virginia Creeper. Qty: 14 Mentha Arvensis, Field Mint. Qty: 14 Polypodium virginianum, Fern. Qty: 5

Figure 11.09: Plant Pallet as planted.

11.3 Plant Pallet and Habitat Potential 7KH SODQW SDOOHW VKRZQ LQ ÀJXUH LV comprised of plants found in four of the FRPPXQLWLHV VWXGLHG FOLIIV SUDLULHV VDQG GXQHV DQG SUDLULH SRWKROHV )URP WKHVH FRPPXQLWLHV RQH IHUQ RQH VHGJH IRXU VKUXEV LQFOXGLQJ WZR VXEVKUXEV WKUHH YLQHV ÀYH ZLOGà RZHUV DQG VL[ JUDVVHV ZHUH VHOHFWHG These plants are predicted to be able to thrive LQ WKH PLFURFOLPDWH RI D ZDOO DQG PRVW DUH able to grow in full sun or shade. Plants range from medium sized shrubs to grasses and small herbaceous plants. Smaller species DUH PRUH QXPHURXV DQG LW LV DVVXPHG WKDW they will be visible from street level due to their increased numbers. Stainless steel trellis

142

cables will be suspended vertically on the FROXPQV RI &LW\ 3ODFH JLYLQJ YLQHV DQG climbers a secured area to spread within. Vines will need to be pruned regularly to prevent excessive growth. 7KH SODQW OLVW ZDV ÀUVW GHYHORSHG GXULQJ WKH UHVHDUFK SKDVH ZKHQ D OLVW ZDV NHSW RI WKH plants most often mentioned as growing well on cliffs or walls. This list was then combined with the preliminary list I had developed during the Vertical Gardens Reading Course 8UEHQ ,PEHDXOW S

Sand Dune Rough Hair Grass Bearberry June Grass

Little Bluestem

Cliff Viriginia Creeper Fern Rock Sedge Yarrow Three Flowered Avens

Abundance

Little Bluestem Juniper

Mixed Grass Prairie

Alum Root Three Flowered Avens Blue Grama Grass Bluegrass Fowl Yarrow Poverty Oat Grass Wild Prairie Rose Little Bluestem

Riverbottom Grape

Prairie Pothole

Common Hops Canada Anemone Bluegrass Fowl Mint Blue Grama Grass

Time Figure 11.10: Planned plant abundance and change over time. Analysis is based on quadratic sampling methods that sample the spread of plant, and does not necessarily accurately represent the quantity.

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Figure 11.11: Plant pallet showing origin communities. Plants located between or in 2 circles are present in both communities. Many of the plants used are present in multiple communities, so the community in which it is most abundant determined its placement in the ďŹ gure.

Through consultation with committee PHPEHUV WKDW DUH SODQW H[SHUWV UHFRPPHQGHG plants were added and others removed. Each plant was then evaluated based on a series of FULWHULD ZLWK RQH SRLQW JLYHQ IRU WKH IROORZLQJ UHTXLUHPHQWV VDWLVĂ€HG - Appropriate size to be viewed from street OHYHO EXW DOVR VPDOO HQRXJK WR JURZ WR PDWXULW\ LQ D FRQWDLQHU $EOH WR JURZ LQ VXQ DQG VKDGH +DUGLQHVV WROHUDQFHV RI SROOXWLRQ VDOW 0RLVWXUH UHTXLUHPHQW :LQWHU LQWHUHVW %RQXV 2WKHU YDULHV H[DPSOHV LQFOXGH IRRG

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IRU ELUGV FRYHU IRU LQVHFWV RU ODUYDH Ă RZHU FRORXU DQG EORRP WLPH WH[WXUH HGLEOH IRU human consumption. Any plant that did not receive a rating of 4 or higher was removed from the list. Those that remain are the best of the originally selected plants for Manitoban vertical gardens. The majority of these plants provide food or QHVWLQJ PDWHULDOV IRU YDULRXV VSHFLHV RI ELUGV EXWWHUĂ LHV DQG EHHV $V VXFK QHVWLQJ ZLOO EH HQFRXUDJHG E\ WKH JDUGHQ DQG ZLOO EULQJ PRUH GLYHUVLW\ WR WKH GRZQWRZQ ZKLFK GRHV not currently have such a high plant diversity

Agrostis scabra, Rough Hair Grass. Qty: 8

Achillea millefolium, Common Yarrow. Qty: 28

Rosa arkansana, Wild Prairie Rose. Qty: 5

Anemone canadensis, Canada Anemone. Qty: 13

Juniperus horizontalis, Juniper. Qty: 8

Danthonia spicata, Poverty Oat Grass. Qty: 4

Schizachyrium scoparium, Little Blue Stem. Qty: 0.5

Mentha Arvensis, Field Mint. Qty: 31.5

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Bearberry. Qty: 8.5

Bouteloua gracilis, Blue Grama Grass. Qty: 2

Parthenocissus quiquefolia, Virginia Creeper. Qty: 6.5

Heuchera richardsonii, Alum Root. Qty: 33

Humulus Lupulus, Common Hops. Qty: 4

Carex rupestris, Rock Sedge. Qty: 28

Vitis riparia, Riverbottom Grape. Qty: 6

Koeleria macrantha, June Grass. Qty: 22.5

Geum triorum, Three Flowered Avens. Qty: 8

Polypodium virginianum, Fern. Qty: 53.5

Figure 11.12: Possible plant abundance in future.

as would attract such a variety of species. Larval habitat will be provided for solitary bees who nest in holes in wood. Hollow bamboo will be inserted in some of the smaller holes in the front face not occupied by plants. 7KH EHHV¡ FRORQL]DWLRQ ZLOO EH LQVWLJDWHG E\ design. Their presence in the garden will help ensure plant health is maintained.

seed or droppings brought to the garden by ZLQG DQLPDO RU ELUG 6RPH RI WKHVH SODQWV ZLOO QHHG WR EH UHPRYHG RWKHUV VXFK DV OLFKHQ DQG PRVV ZLOO EH HQFRXUDJHG 5HPRYDO of individual plants will be facilitated by JHRWH[WLOH OLQLQJV LQ HDFK SRW DOORZLQJ WKH plant to be easily removed from the garden.

The garden will undergo succession over time. Plants have been chosen for their different roles and behaviours in the VXFFHVVLRQ SURFHVV ,QLWLDOO\ SODQWLQJ ZLOO EH FOHDQ DQG RUGHUO\ SODQWV ZLOO EH RUJDQLVHG so that one plant will grow on each plane of WKH JDUGHQ 2YHU WLPH LW LV H[SHFWHG WKDW WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ RI SODQWV ZLOO FKDQJH HYROYLQJ into a less structured composition. Some VSHFLHV ZLOO EH ORVW HQWLUHO\ ZKLOH RWKHUV ZLOO need to be managed so they do not take over the whole garden. New plants will grow from

145

Figure 11.13: Vertical garden covered with a tarp for the winter.

146

147

11.4 Adaptive management Adaptive management is a method used in situations where the outcome is not fully known or predictable. It relies on study over time to develop new strategies that adapt and respond to changes in the system. Adaptive management can be very useful to ensure planting remains robust and healthy. The vertical garden will require adaptive PDLQWHQDQFH 3ODQW JURZWK ULJRXU DQG RYHUDOO health will be monitored. Sensors will be UHTXLUHG WR PRQLWRU VRLO PRLVWXUH DQG HQVXUH irrigation is regular. Materials will be checked to ensure they are not broken or hindering the success of the garden. Systems will be PRQLWRUHG E\ D WHDP RI SURIHVVLRQDOV IURP various industries. Monitoring of certain DVSHFWV ZLOO RFFXU GDLO\ HJ VRLO PRLVWXUH while others will occur monthly or as QHHGHG HJ SODQW KHDOWK RYHUDOO VWUXFWXUDO monitoring). If plant mortality rises above D FRXSOH SODQWV D PRQWK GHWDLOHG DQDO\VLV of the system will need to be undertaken to determine causation. It is recommended that both design and construction professionals PHHW WR LQVSHFW DQG GLVFXVV WKHLU ÀQGLQJV if and when issues arise. Solutions will be proposed and implemented as soon as authorisation is given from the owner and designer of the vertical garden. A single bay of the design will need to be built and installed in a location where it can easily be monitored before it can be installed at City Place. Monitoring will occur for a minimum of three years before a report will be compiled on the information gathered. This report will aid in the re-evaluation and potential redesign

148

RI WKH YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ 7KH ÀQDO LWHUDWLRQ after recommended revisions from the UHSRUW DUH PDGH ZRXOG EH LQVWDOOHG RQ &LW\ 3ODFH 2QFH WKH JDUGHQ LV LQVWDOOHG DGDSWLYH PDQDJHPHQW ZLOO VWLOO EH QHFHVVDU\ EXW PRVW major discoveries or failures should have been resolved through the initial monitoring phase. The opportunity to fund the project will be presented to the tenants of City Place. It is estimated that larger companies in City Place such as Manitoba Public Insurance WKH FXUUHQW RZQHU &,%& DQG WKH 0DQLWRED Liquor Mart may each be interested in sponsoring a green wall. Provincial and federal funding will also be sought as there are a few government grants for which the project would qualify.

11.5 Winter Garden During the winter the garden will be wrapped with a brightly coloured tarp to SURWHFW SODQWV IURP ZLQG GHVVLFDWLRQ DQG GUDVWLF WHPSHUDWXUH FKDQJHV 7KLV ZUDSSLQJ FRPELQHG ZLWK LQVXODWLRQ DQG DLU VSDFHV will shelter plants well from drastic changes LQ WHPSHUDWXUH ZKLFK DUH WKH ELJJHVW WKUHDW to plants on a wall during the winter. It is unknown if the tarp cover will be necessary; further testing is required. If plants are able WR VXUYLYH ZLQWHU ZLWKRXW EHLQJ FRYHUHG WKH garden will remain visible throughout the year.

Conclusion The structure and design of the vertical JDUGHQ LV VLWH VSHFLĂ€F LQ HYHU\ ZD\ SRVVLEOH from plant choice to overall form. A unique assemblage is created that respects and responds to the site and community in which it is located. The green wall design can be LQVWDOOHG DW GLIIHUHQW ORFDWLRQV LQ :LQQLSHJ however revisions at each site will be necessary to ensure health of the plants.

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Vertical Garden Location

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City Place

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Figure 12.01**: Planned development of True North Square.

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Carlton St.

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12. CONCLUSION T

he Undulating Wall at City Place will bring excitement and dynamism to the burgeoning S.H.E.D. in Winnipeg. Its undulating geometric forms create a point of interest and fascination in the neighbourhood. By using native plants from Manitoban habitat WHPSODWHV D FRQQHFWLRQ WR WKH ODUJHU UHJLRQDO ODQGVFDSH ZLOO EH HVWDEOLVKHG DQG ZLOO SURYLGH QHZ KDELWDW RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU EHHV ELUGV DQG EXWWHUà LHV 5HF\FOHG RU QDWXUDO materials will be used for many parts of the GHVLJQ ZKLOH NHHSLQJ ZHLJKW WR D PLQLPXP Adaptive management will be employed to monitor and adjust maintenance procedures as appropriate. &KDQJHV KDSSHQ LQ VLWHV HVSHFLDOO\ LQ cities. There are many plans proposed for the S.H.E.D. The site at City Place will be greatly affected by the True North Square development. It features a 20 storey mixed use building located directly beside the City Place +DUJUDYH IDFDGH ZKHUH WKH YHUWLFDO JDUGHQ ZDV SODQQHG 7KLV ZLOO FKDQJH WKH IDFDGH¡V VRODU H[SRVXUH FUHDWLQJ RQH PRUH VLPLODU WR a northern facing wall. Most of the plants chosen for the vertical garden proposed here

ZLOO EH DEOH WR DGDSW WR WKHVH QHZ FRQGLWLRQV as they are able to grow in both direct sun and shade. Some plants may need to be removed or replaced after construction is completed. Geotextile sleeves will facilitate the removal of individual plants. Humidity levels will LQFUHDVH GXH WR WKH LQFUHDVH LQ VKDGH ZKLFK will reduce the amount of irrigation lost to evaporation. Wind currents will change drastically and digital analysis will need to be undertaken to determine whether additional PRGLÀFDWLRQV DUH QHFHVVDU\ 8OWLPDWHO\ DV ZLWK DOO ODQGVFDSH SURMHFWV WKH GHVLJQ will be affected by all changes in the area. Designers should always plan for change and unforeseen complexities. This practicum provides a knowledge base for cold climate vertical garden enthusiasts WR DQWLFLSDWH JURZLQJ FRQGLWLRQV H[WHUQDO LQà XHQFHV DQG LGHDO VFHQDULRV IRU YHUWLFDO gardens in urban neighbourhoods. There are still many things that remain unknown in the ÀHOG DQG IXUWKHU UHVHDUFK LV UHFRPPHQGHG On the following spread a brief list of aspects that should be explored in the future is included.

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'HWDLOHG VFLHQWLĂ€F DQDO\VHV RI YHUWLFDO gardens that include comparative climate DQG 8+, GDWD GHWDLOV DERXW VSHFLHV RI SODQWV XVHG DQG ZK\ GHSWK DQG NLQG RI JURZWK PHGLD VRODU RULHQWDWLRQ ZLQG H[SRVXUH DQG frequency and type of irrigation.

- Quantity and quality of food producing plants in vertical gardens versus traditional gardens on grade.

- Comparative analysis of different kinds of vegetation used in green walls for different locations and scenarios. Eg. for a given situation would succulents or grasses be the most appropriate choice?

- Further investigation of ideal urban FDQ\RQ FRQĂ€JXUDWLRQ DQG ORFDWLRQ IRU successful vertical gardens in urban FHQWUHV &DUWRJUDSKLF PRGHOLQJ DQG RU WKH development of scripts to analyse locations in massing models could be developed.

- Compare heating and cooling trends in hydroponic versus soil systems. - Comparative analysis of heating and cooling models based on data from a single green wall to an entire building covered in plants. - Qualitative and quantitative studies of failed vertical gardens. - Publishing of construction standards and codes for vertical gardens. - Studies of animal and invertebrate colonization of vertical gardens. - Studies of VOC reduction/emission from plants used in green walls.

152

- Correlation of vertical garden diversity to overall success or other attributes.

- Potential for vertical gardens to increase the lifespan of a building wall. - Development of recommended plant lists for vertical gardens in various climates. - Increase positive awareness of vertical JDUGHQV LQ GHVLJQHUV FRQWUDFWRUV DQG the general public. - Increase number of grants and incentives available for vertical gardens. Adding vertical gardens to programs like LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) and adding supplemental landscape-based point systems like the Seattle Green Factor will greatly increase the prevalence of vertical gardens.

6WXG\ RI WKH VXLWDELOLW\ RI YROFDQLF DUFWLF HSLSK\WLF DQG PRXQWDLQ FOLII SODQW communities for vertical growth.

7UDQVODWLRQ RI H[LVWLQJ WH[WV VXFK DV WKH German FLL into a variety of languages.

- Comparison of successful vertical garden to healthy street tree (in terms of the amount RI VKDGH SROOXWLRQ DQG GXVW FRQWURO biodiversity and habitat provided)

- Further study of the percentage of cover RI FOLII FRPPXQLWLHV LQFOXGLQJ YHJHWDWLRQ W\SH SODQW W\SH VSHFLHV ULFKQHVV QXPEHU RI VSHFLHV ZHHG\ RU QDWLYH

- Further testing of green walls in Canada. - Research of how much soil is needed to overwinter a mature native plant in D FRQWDLQHU ,I LQVXODWLRQ LV QHHGHG KRZ PXFK" :LOO D VLPSOH WDUS FRYHU VXIĂ€FH RU LV accumulated snow on top and sides necessary? 7KH FUHDWLRQ RI D PRGXODU Ă H[LEOH YHUWLFDO garden design for cold climates that could be easily adapted to a variety of sites. - Studies on the mortality rates of plants in containers in Winnipeg. - Architectural and structural analysis of Winnipeg walls best suited to host vertical gardens.

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Chapter 2: A Short History of Vertical Gardening *UDSH 9LQHV SURYLGH VKDGH DQG IUXLWV RQ D *UHHN UHVWDXUDQW SDWLR RQ (OOLFH $YHQXH LQ Winnipeg. 9LQDOLD WKH 5RPDQ ZLQH KDUYHVW IHVWLYDO ZDV FHOHEUDWHG ZKHQ JUDSHV ZHUH KDUYHVWHG LQ ancient Greece. Image Vintage at Cherchell Roman mosaic UHWULHYHG IURP :LNLPHGLD KWWS HQ ZLNLSHGLD RUJ ZLNL 9LQDOLD PHGLD )LOH 9HQGDQJHVBURPDLQHVB & $ B&KHUFKHOO jpg Image in the public domain. 5HFHQW UHVXUJHV LQ WKH SRSXODULW\ RI YHUWLFDO JDUGHQLQJ KDYH VSXUUHG PDQ\ QHZ LQQRYDWLRQV LQ WKH ÀHOG 9HUWLFDO JDUGHQ E\ 3DWULFN %ODQF 3DULV ,PDJH E\ 0DULD =ELJQLHZLF]

Chapter 3: Types of Vertical Gardens 9LQHV JURZLQJ DW WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 0DQLWRED *UHHQ UHWDLQLQJ ZDOO V\VWHP E\ +XUFXOHV 6RLO EDVHG SDQHO V\VWHP LQ 9LFWRULD ,PDJH E\ 1HIHOL 0LWURYJHQLV 3.05 Felt hydroponic garden in Toronto.

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WORKS CITED $FRUQ - + Sand hill arthropods in Canadian grasslands (GPRQWRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI $OEHUWD $OEHUWL 0 Advances in urban ecology: integrating humans and ecological processes in urban ecosystems 6HDWWOH 6SULQJHU $OH[DQGUL ( -RQHV 3 7HPSHUDWXUH GHFUHDVHV LQ XUEDQ FDQ\RQ GXH WR JUHHQ ZDOOV DQG JUHHQ URRIV LQ GLYHUVH FOLPDWHV Building and Environment American Psychological Association (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. :DVKLQJWRQ ' & $PHULFDQ 3V\FKRORJLFDO $VVRFLDWLRQ %HDWOH\ 7 %LRSKLOLF XUEDQLVP LQYLWLQJ QDWXUH EDFN WR RXU FRPPXQLWLHV DQG LQWR our lives. William & Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review ² 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS VFKRODUVKLS ODZ ZP HGX FJL YLHZFRQWHQW FJL"DUWLFOH FRQWH[W ZPHOSU VHL UHGLU UHIHUHU KWWS $ ) )VFKRODU JRRJOH ca%2Fscholar%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dpatrick%2Bblanc%2Bhydroponic%2Bgardens%26gs_ upl%3D%26bav%3Don.2%2Cor.r_gc.r_pw.%2Ccf.osb%26ion%3D1%26biw%3D1680%26bih ' XP ' LH '87) VD '1 WDE 'ZV VHDUFK SDWULFN blanc%20hydroponic%20gardens%22 %HDWOH\ 7 Biophilic cities :DVKLQJWRQ ,VODQG 3UHVV %ODQF 3 The vertical garden from nature to the city 1HZ <RUN : : 1RUWRQ &RPSDQ\ ,QF %ODQF 3 Q G D Vertical garden Patrick Blanc 3HUVRQDO :HEVLWH 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZ verticalgardenpatrickblanc.com/ %ODQF 3 Q G E Vertical gardens: a scientiĂ€c and artistic approach 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZ YHUWLFDOJDUGHQSDWULFNEODQF FRP VLWHV GHIDXOW Ă€OHV VW\OHV VOLGHVKRZ SXEOLF GRFXPHQWV pdf/8618-0_0.jpg %RQDQ * Ecological climatology 1HZ <RUN &DPEULGJH 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV &DWOLQJ 3 0 %URZQHOO 9 5 $ UHYLHZ RI WKH DOYDUV RI WKH *UHDW /DNHV UHJLRQ ² 'LVWULEXWLRQ )ORULVWLF &RPSRVLWLRQ %LRJHRJUDSDK\ DQG 3URWHFWLRQ Canadian Ă€eld-naturalist.

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und Pà ege von Fassadenbegrßnungen %RQQ )RUVFKXQJVJHVHOOVFKDIW /DQGVFKDIWVHQWZLFNOXQJ Landschaftsbau e. V. - FLL )UDQFLV 5 $ :DOO HFRORJ\ D IURQWLHU IRU XUEDQ ELRGLYHUVLW\ DQG HFRORJLFDO HQJLQHHULQJ Progress in physical geography )UDQFLV 5 $ /RULPHU - 8UEDQ UHFRQFLOLDWLRQ HFRORJ\ WKH SRWHQWLDO RI OLYLQJ URRIV DQG walls. Journal of environmental management 'HSDUWPHQW RI *HRJUDSK\ DW .LQJV &ROOHJH London. *HW] ' $ .DURZ $ DQG .LHOEDVR - - ,nner city preferences for trees and urban forestry programs Green Over Grey (2009). Indoor air quality 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS JUHHQRYHUJUH\ FRP JUHHQ ZDOO EHQHÀWV LQGRRU DLU TXDOLW\ SKS *UHHQ 5RRIV IRU +HDOWK\ &LWLHV *5+& Green walls 101: systems overview and design second edition participant’s manual. Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. Government of Canada (2014). Canadian climate normals 1981-2010 Station Data 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS FOLPDWH ZHDWKHU JF FD FOLPDWHBQRUPDOV UHVXOWVB B BH KWPO"VWQ,' SURY ODQJ H G&RGH GLVS%DFN 6WDWLRQ1DPH :LQQLSHJ 6HDUFK7\SH &RQWDLQV SURYLQFH $// SURY%XW PRQWK PRQWK >D@ *RYHUQPHQW RI $OEHUWD Q G :HWODQGV ZHEEHG IHHW QRW UHTXLUHG Supplementary Resource 03 - What is a Wetland? 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS HQYLURQPHQW JRY DE FD HGX OLVWLQJ(G DVS"W[WVHDUFK ZHEEHG IHHW QRW UHTXLUHG VHDUFKW\SH DVVHW DXGLHQFH 7HDFKHUV +LQFKOLIIH 6 :KDWPRUH 6 /LYLQJ FLWLHV WRZDUGV D SROLWLFV RI YRQYLYLDOLW\ Science and culture +REEV 5 - 6DOYDWRUH $ $URQVRQ - %DURQ - %ULGJHZDWHU 3 &UDPHU 9 (SVWHLQ 3 .OLQN & /XJR $ 1RUWRQ ' 2MLPD ' 5LFKDUGVRQ ' 6DQGHUVRQ ( 9DOODGDUHV ) 9LOD 0 =DPRUD 5 =REHO 0 1RYHO HFRV\VWHPV WKHRUHWLFDO DQG PDQDJHPHQW DVSHFWV RI WKH new ecological world order. Global ecological biologeoraphy +RRNHU - +HQGULNV 1 7KH JUHHQ URRIV RI HXURSH Proceedings of The 107th Annual Convention and Exhibit of the National RooÀng Contractors Association 6DQ )UDQFLVFR +RZDUG / The climate of london deduced from meteorological observations /RQGRQ : Philips.

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