unDesired Adaptation - Synthetic Landscape

University of Innsbruck

unDesired Adaptation Miroslav IVAN

ioud | Synthetic Landscape Lab Supervisors Univ. -Prof. Claudia Pasquero | Maria Kuptsova, MA

unDesired Adaptation

By Miroslav IVAN

Master Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for an academical degree of Diplom-Ingenieur to the

University of Innsbruck Faculty of Architecture Supervisors Univ. -Prof. Claudia Pasquero Maria Kuptsova, MA

ioud Synthetic Landscape Lab



January 2021 P.ii

P.iii

Dedicated to my grandmother Maria, a pioneer of her time, for her relentless moral support and unlimited trust in me.

P.iv

Contents I.

Brief _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

vi

01 Climate change _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 004 01.1 01.2 01.3 01.4

Global warming in general.

Effects of global warming.

Eutrophication of water. .

Plastic trash. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 004 . . 005 . . 011 . . .013

02 South Tarawa, Kiribati_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 018 02.1 02.2 02.3

Kiribati in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 018 Tarawa, Kiribati. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 023 Water pollution in South Tarawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 029

03 Biorock™ technology _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 036 03.1 03.2 03.3 03.4

Biorock™ technology. . . . .

Structural material. . . . .

Restoration effects. . . . .

Adaptation to rising sea level. .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

036 037 037 039

04 Biorock Experiments _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 044 04.1 04.2 04.3 04.4 P.v

Seawater electrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 044 Replication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 045 Solution enhancement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 051 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 063

05 Concept Studies_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 102 05.1 05.2 05.3

2D Fibres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 CycleGAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 3D CycleGAN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

06 Synthetic fiber reef_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 132 06.1 06.2 06.3 06.4 06.5 06.6

Density concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Biorock landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Landscape mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 3D Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Synthetic fiber reef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 unDesired Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

07 Appendix_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 181 07.1

Logbook // Microscopic images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

ďťżďťż

08 References_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 223

P.vi

P.vii

I.

Brief The purpose of this project is to save and re-purpose regions vulnerable against changes directly connected to global warming and other environmental pollutions caused by recent human behavior. It also aims to do so in ecologically and economically sustainable manner and still meet all the requirements to preserve and restore the various damaged natural habitats. The structural base of the project is the BiorockTM technology, electrolysis of sea water, in which a chemical reaction is caused by a low electrical current, which accelerates the deposition of calcium carbonate limestone (concrete like material) at much higher rate as in the nature itself. This organic self-growing and even self-repairing material is universally available. It was developed

by German futuristic architect Wolf Hilbertz in the late 1970’s. These specific Biorock benefits are utilized and enhanced through combination with artificial intelligence based (machine learning) design, creating a symbiosis of nature and digital technology. This combination allows for extraordinarily effective, ecological and sustainable solutions. Furthermore the project is developed as a specific case study of Tarawa atoll, Republic of Kiribati. Kiribati is modest state in central Pacific Ocean, with population just over 110 000, all of which is living on one of the total 32 Atolls. With the highest point of the Tarawa being as low as 2m above sea level. It is one of the very first places in the world that are directly threatened by climate change, in turn making it the “Ground Zero” of this phenomenon and therefore provide the perfect location, not only from the scientific point of view, but as a mental reminder for future generations. Immediate



actions are needed as the effects of global warming are already taking place and “slowly” making Tarawa, among many other regions, uninhabitable.

P.viii

0 P.001

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef Appendix References

P.002

It’s freezing in New York - where the hell is global warming ?

-Donald J. Trump, 45th president of the USA, 2013 [001]

001 P.003

realDonaldTrump. (2013, April 23). It’s freezing in New York - where the hell is global warming ? [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/326781792340299776?lang=en

01

Climate change

01.1

Global warming in general The easiest way to describe global warming is simply by defining it as an average temperature rise of the atmosphere and oceans of our planet.

There has been a steady temperature rise since the beginning of recording of temperatures in the 1880’s. According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Surface temperature difference between 1880 and 2016 amounts to +0.95°C and 0.1°C on the ocean surface. The reason all this is happening is the so called Greenhouse Effect, which is mainly driven by the humanity’s excessive and ever rising use of fossil fuels. While burning fossil fuels water vaporizes, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ozone and nitrous oxide (N2O), the later also known as the primary greenhouse gas, are released in the atmosphere. Whereby the most common greenhouse gas is CO2, large portion of it produced by industry, cars, energy production or even heating of buildings.

This rapid man made change of ratios in gases of the atmosphere begun with the industrial revolution in 18th century. Since about 800 000 years ago and then the presence of CO2 measured about 280 parts per million (ppm). The amount measures at about 400 ppm now. [002] Another big aspect to global warming is the human population itself. The more humans there is on earth the more industry, energy production and infrastructure is needed. According to predictions made by United Nations (UN) the human population will rise from 7.7 Billion (mid. 2019), which is an increase of 2 billion since 1994, to 9.4-10.1 billion in 2050 and 9.4-12.7 billion in the year 2100, with the biggest increases occurring in third world countries, mainly subSaharan Africa and central and southern Asia. There is also a big increase expected in the population of Oceania, from 12 million in 2019, to 19 million by 2050 and 26 million by 2100 respectively.[003]

002 Pappas, S. (2017, August 10). What Is Global Warming?. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/37003-global-warming.html 003 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights [PDF]. Retrived from https://population.un.org/wpp/ Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf Climate change || Global warming in general

P.004

01.2

Effects of global warming

01.2.1

Ice melting Global warming has a negative effect on glacial ice, currently covering around 10% of the Earth’s surface, 90% of it is located in Antarctica, the remaining 10% covers the Greenland ice cap. Ice serves as a reflective layer, sending the extra heat coming from sun straight back to space, in turn leaving the planet colder. Melting of the ice affects other areas of Earth’s ecosystem as well, mainly rising levels of sea water or slowing down the ocean currents. The most affected types of ice are sea ice and glacier ice, whereby the later directly contributes to rising sea levels, as it was stored on land before, and after it melts and runs into the ocean the amount of water in the ocean itself increases substantially. Melting of sea ice disturbs other elements of the ecosystem, as destroying living space of walrus or polar bears and changing the jet stream. Predictions have been made, that already by summer 2040 the Arctic could be ice free, and even if humanity manages to significantly cut back CO2 emissions 95% of sea ice will be gone by 2100. As of right now 20% of sea level rise is caused by melting of the Greenland ice sheet, and if it should melt completely, it would raise the sea level by 6m on its own.[004]

01.2.2

Extreme weather The ongoing climate change has set off various other weather extremes other than the commonly known ocean level or temperature rise, mainly observable in changes of strength and occurrence of floods, hurricanes, heavy downpours, droughts or heat waves, among other things These symptoms are actually how most of the people experience climate change. Probably the best example right now are the ongoing (as of February 2020) Australian bush fires, in which at least 33 people died and more than 11 million ha (110 000km2) of bush, forest or parks has burnt down (estimated 1.25 billion native animals died as well[005]). The year 2019 was the hottest on record in Australia so far, it even broke the all-time temperature record of 40.3°C of 2013 twice after another on December 17th and 18th with 40.9°C and 41.9°C respectively.[006] Studies have shown that the probability of a such heatwave has highly increased since the beginning of exact recordings in late 19th century. These higher temperatures lead to excessive water evaporation in soil and in turn creating hotter days in the summer and drier climate. Especially agriculture is highly affected by these droughts, resulting in not only significant financial loses. To the contrary occurrence of heavy rains has been 30% up to its 1900-1960’s average. It is scientifically proven that warmer air can absorb more water vapor and therefore

004 005 006 P.005

Hancock, L. (n.d.). Why are glaciers and sea ice melting?. Retrieved from https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/why-are-glaciers-and-sea-ice-melting World Wildlife Fund (n.d.). BUSHFIRE EMERGENCY. Retrieved from https://www.wwf.org.au/get-involved/bushfire-emergency#gs.w7074f BBC News (2020, January 31). Australia fires: A visual guide to the bushfire crisis. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-50951043 Climate change || Effects of global warming

RECORD COLDEST

MUCH COLDER

COOLER

NEAR AVERAGE

WARMER

MUCH WARMER

RECORD WARMEST

Fig. 001 Global temperature 2019[Fig.001] Graph showing the global temperature rise on record in 2019 Climate change || Effects of global warming

P.006

causing heavier rainfalls in short period of time, and extreme cases even floods. There are many flood types, primary and most dangerous are flash floods, urban, river and coastal floods, all of which are affected by global warming, in some cases more than others. Floods count to a major risk, just in the time span from 1980 to 2009 floods cost lives of more than 500 000 people and affected more than 2.8 billion.

As the technology of satellite images progressed in the 1980’s serious raise in hurricane occurrence has been noticed. Nowadays it is possible to track intensity, frequency or duration of hurricanes and categorize these, whereby the category 4 and 5 are the strongest and more dangerous ones. Causes for this increase are mainly associated with higher ocean surface temperature, caused by either natural or human based actions, and local changes in the atmosphere and its chain of reaction between each other.[007]

007 P.007

National Climate Assessment (n.d.). Extreme Weather. https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/highlights/report-findings/extreme-weather Climate change || Effects of global warming

Fig. 002 Flooding in Kiribati, Tarawa[Fig.002] Globally floods occur at a rising rate in the later years

Climate change || Effects of global warming

P.008

01.2.3

Sea level rise The rising levels of sea water can be followed back to mainly two factors, first being the melting of glacial ice, second being the thermal expansion of seawater, as it gets warmer. In numbers, in years 2012-2016 Antarctic melted 4 times faster than in 1992-2001, 199 billion tons if ice as opposed to 51 billion tons. Even worse scenario is happing with the Greenland ice sheet, which lost 247billion tons and 34 billion tons of ice accordingly. This means that the water level is rising exponentially, for instance the sea level had gone up by 21-24cm since the 1880’s average levels, out of which 8.1cm in the last quarter century alone (since 1993). The rate at which this is all happening is significantly rising as well, nowadays the ocean levels rise by average 3.6mm annually, as opposed to 1.4mm in the last century. This sudden rise is affecting a large amount of the global population, statistically 8 out of 10 world’s metropolis cities are located in coastal areas.[008]As of right now there is no actual answer to what exactly is going to happen, but there are certain ways of making future projections.

These are based on emission aggregate of greenhouse gases and out of these various scenarios are calculated. Worst case scenario predictions for the year 2100 220 cm

is an ocean level rise of 2m (Fig. 003), although the actual range varies heavily.[009]

150

100

Low

Medium

High

50

0

2000

2020

2100

Fig. 003 Sea level rise scenarios[Fig.003] Graph showing possible scenarios of sea level rise by 2100

008 Lindsey, R. (2019, November 19). Climate Change: Global Sea Level. Retrived from https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sea-level 009 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2017, January). GLOBAL AND REGIONAL SEA LEVEL RISE SCENARIOS FOR THE UNITED STATES. Retrieved from https://tidesandcurrents. noaa.gov/publications/techrpt83_Global_and_Regional_SLR_Scenarios_for_the_US_final.pdf P.009

Climate change || Effects of global warming

-20.0

-17.5

-15.0

-12.5

-10.0

-7.5

-5.0

-2.0

-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

5.0

7.5

10.0

12.5

15.0

17.5

20.0

mm/year

Fig. 004 Regional annual sea level trends[Fig.004] Based on measurements from 1992 to 2009

Climate change || Effects of global warming

P.010

01.2.4

Ocean acidification A lot of changes are happening in the ocean ecosystem itself, observable mostly under the surface. Oceans absorb about 30% of CO2 emissions, and dissolve them, which makes them warmer. This process leads to decline in pH of the water, this is known as ocean acidification, which in turn leads to decrease in amount of carbonate ions. Carbonate ions are the most important part of building shell and skeleton structures of many organisms, including oysters, clams, sea urchins, many kinds of plankton and mainly corals, both deep and shallow water based. Especially corals are very sensitive to temperature fluctuations, which puts them in stressful situation. As a part of dealing with stress corals eliminate the color giving algae, making the white skeletons visible, process also knows as coral bleaching. Globally these bleaching events occur more frequently in the recent years. The largest coral reef in the world, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, diminished by 50% since 1998, in 2016 and 2017 it also suffered 2 major back to back bleaching episodes.[010][011]

01.3

Eutrophication of water Eutrophication, extreme enrichment of environment with nutrients, mainly caused by excessive Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P), is a chemical pollution, that negatively affects water ecosystems. It is largely caused by agricultural and urbanization ventures, such as use of fertilizers (mostly N), industrial discharge, sewage runoff and management of urban areas in general. Many economical negative effects, such as implementing food security, fisheries or tourism, are overshadowed by disruption of water ecosystems, which causes a much more alarming threat. Extreme high N a P amounts in ecosystems are origins to algae blooms, toxic water conditions and ocean acidification, which in turn can lead to fatal harming of marine life or even dead zones altogether. Like already discussed earlier, ocean acidification is very harmful towards marine ecosystems, especially organisms that depend on carbonate ions in the water. Algae Blooms cause a significant threat as well. Due to increased levels of N and P phytoplankton replicates much faster causing algae blooms, which consecutively disrupts the whole functioning circle of the ecosystem. Particularly using up oxygen contained in the water, not leaving enough for other life forms as fish or corals. Other aspect is blocking the sunlight, with significant algae growth on the surface plant underneath it are blocked from sunlight, meaning no photosynthesis is possible, which is basic life prediction for plants.[012][013]

010 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2020, February 10). What is Ocean Acidification?. Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification.html 011 Netflix (2017). Chasing Coral [Documentary]. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/37003-global-warming.html?jwsource=cl 012 Ngatia et al (2019, January 14). Nitrogen and Phosphorus Eutrophication in Marine Ecosystems [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.intechopen.com/books/monitoring-of-marine-pollution/ nitrogen-and-phosphorus-eutrophication-in-marine-ecosystems 013 Water Pollution Guide (n.d.). Eutrophication and Water Pollution. Retrieved from https://www.water-pollution.org.uk/eutrophication-and-water-pollution/ P.011

Climate change || Eutrophication of water

Fig. 005 Bleached corals[Fig.005] Due to warmer oceans white coral skeletons are becoming visible Climate change || Eutrophication of water

P.012

01.4

Plastic Another big part of marine pollution is composed of non chemical components, namely trash, and most of it being plastic. It takes plastic centuries to decompose, making it genuine threat to the environment. Broken down plastic, so called microplastics, is commonly consumed by smaller animals, making its way up the food chain all the way to human food. Usually the plastic trash floating in the oceans consists out of common items like bottles, plastic bags or food wrappers. These floating plastics tent to locally gather and create so called patches. The biggest one is the Pacific Garbage Patch, which covers an area of 1.6 million km2.[014]

014 P.013

National Geographic Society (2019, July 3). Marine Pollution. Retrived from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/marine-pollution/ Climate change || Plastic

Fig. 006 Water pollution[Fig.006] Plastic, the biggest non chemical ocean pollutant Climate change || Plastic

P.014

0 P.015

Climate change

South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef Appendix References

P.016

Arielle Duhaime-Ross: How long does Kiribati have?

Anote Tong: We think in 30 to 50 years something very drastic, if not before then.

-Anote Tong, former president of Kiribati, 2016 [015]

015 Duhaime-Ross, A. (2016, September 22). The tiny nation of Kiribati will soon be underwater — here’s the plan to save its people. Retrieved from https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/a39m7k/ doomed-by-climate-change-kiribati-wants-migration-with-dignity P.017

02

South Tarawa, Kiribati

02.1

Kiribati in general Republic of Kiribati is a small island state located in central Pacific ocean. It consists of 33 islands, 20 of which are inhabited, origin for most of them being an atoll. Its land area covers only 810 km2, but its total area spreads over 3.5 million km2. As most islands in that region they are all coralline origin and surrounded by coral reefs, either fringing or barrier. The Islands of Kiribati are separated into 3 Island regions, the Gilbert Group (west), Phoenix Group (center), Line Islands (east) and Banaba, single isolated island. It is the only country to be geographically represented in all 4 hemispheres.[016][017][018] Tarawa itself is the capitol of Kiribati. It consists of 2 different regions, the northern part, which is very similar to other remote islands of the Gilbert group, and the southern part, which is the urban center of Tarawa. In 2010 it inhabited 56 284 people, almost half of the country’s total population, which is about 110 000. Most of the government institution are also located here, divided into three administrative subdivisions, Betio Town Council (BTC), Teinainano Urban Council (TUC) and Eutan Tarawa Council (ETC).

Tarawa itself is a narrow strip of land in the middle of Polynesian Triangle, surrounding a massive 500 km2 big lagoon with a wide reef running along its perimeter [Fig. 011 on page P.024]. With the highest point of the island being as low as 2m above the sea level the whole population is strongly affected by global warming and its negative effects, scenario quite similar in the whole central Pacific region. [019][020]

016 017 018 019 020

Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 14, 2020 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribati Foster, S. & Macdonald, B. K. et al (2019, October 21). Kiribati. Retrieved February 14, 2020 from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kiribati Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020, January 30) FAO Fishery Country Profile - Kiribati. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fi/oldsite/FCP/en/KIR/profile.htm Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 15, 2020 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarawa Young Architects Competitions (2019). Kiribati Floating Houses [PDF]. Retrived from https://www.youngarchitectscompetitions.com/competition/kiribati-floating-houses

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Kiribati in general

P.018

Tarawa, Kiribati [1°20 N 173°00 E]

Fig. 007 Tarawa, Kiribati[Fig.007] Located in Central Pacific ocean, coordinates 1°28’N 173°2’E P.019

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Kiribati in general

Tarawa, Kiribati [1°20 N 173°00 E]

Fig. 008 Satellite picture of Tarawa, Kiribati[Fig.008] Located in Central Pacific ocean, coordinates 1°28’N 173°2’E South Tarawa, Kiribati || Kiribati in general

P.020

Fig. 009 South Tarawa, Kiribati[Fig.009] Located in Central Pacific ocean, coordinates 1°28’N 173°2’E P.021

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Kiribati in general

Fig. 010 South Tarawa, Kiribati[Fig.010] Located in Central Pacific ocean, coordinates 1°28’N 173°2’E South Tarawa, Kiribati || Kiribati in general

P.022

02.2

Tarawa, Kiribati

02.2.1

Global Warming in Kiribati UN classified Kiribati as being at risk from global warming as soon as 1989. Its geological features, like the very low maximal elevation of 2m over sea level, make Tarawa a prime example of how global warming is affecting people already. Floods are becoming a reality for local inhabitants, contaminating freshwater, destroying crops and property, usually caused by storms and the rate at which the sea is rising doesn’t leave much time left for further actions.

The average sea level rise is about 3.2mm a year since 1993, but this can vary significantly in local regions. As for instance Tarawa is located in Central Pacific ocean, where the ocean level rose significantly higher (up to 20mm/year) over the past years (Fig. 004), when even the average rate of rise is alarmingly high for any coastal region. Countries in this region are even more vulnerable, because of the economic situation, leaving the countries without sufficient financial strength to fight the climate change. For instance, there were plans drafted for building structures similar to offshore oil platforms, but its cost (over 2 billion US $) is approx. 10 times higher as the whole GDP of Kiribati, making these unrealistic. According to the World Bank’s ranking for 2018, Kiribati itself was ranked 183rd place (out of 185), with GDP of 188 million US $. All these factors combined make up for a very good chance that Kiribati will become the world’s first country to be completely erased by global warming, with many other similar countries soon following.[021][022]

02.2.2 Urbanization in South Tarawa It is not only the natural causes that negatively affect the island. As a next part in the island analysis I took a closer look at the urban areas, as urbanization is a significant factor when it comes to polluting the environment. The total area of South Tarawa is just above 15.76 km2 but once we leave out the land that isn’t available for further use it leaves us with area of ca. 10 km2 and a population density of 49 people per ha, for comparison London has a density of 51 people per ha. This overcrowding often leads to various respiratory infections, diarrhoea and dysentery. The 4 most dense urban areas consist of Bikenibeu - 36 people per ha, Bairiki - 77 people per ha, Nanikai - 82 people per ha and Betio with population of 15755 people, making it the most populated and most dense part of Tarawa, with 102 people per ha [Fig. 013 on page P.027].

021 022 P.023

Iberdrola (n.d.). Kiribati, the first country rising sea levels will swallow up as a result of climate change. Retrieved from https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/kiribati-climate-change Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 17, 2020 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)#cite_note-worldbank-21 South Tarawa, Kiribati || Tarawa, Kiribati

Fig. 011 Height map of Tarawa, Kiribati[Fig.011] Showing the 500km2 laggon and the wide reef South Tarawa, Kiribati || Tarawa, Kiribati

P.024

02.2.3 Landfills in South Tarawa Another extremely serious factor rapidly contributing to changes in the environment is sewage and trash management. This even more and more significant as urban areas become progressively more dense. Water being polluted by urbanization is basically omnipresent in every area and region inhabited by humans, caused mostly by severe surplus in P and N levels. One of the main sources of such pollution are landfills. There are a total o 3 landfills on South Tarawa, with Betio Town Council (BTC) managing the Betio landfill, and the Teinainano Urban Council (TUC) managing the Nanikai and the Bikenibeu landfills [Fig. 014]. Betio landfill is located next to the port area, accompanied by a sea wall, which was built in 1997. The leachate pumping system is inoperable, making it even a much bigger threat to the environment. It has a capacity of 54 000 m3 out of which only 8500 m3 are still available. The Nanikai landfill is located behind a sea wall as well, built in 2003/2004 and the leachate pumping system is also inoperable. Total capacity of this landfill is around 27 000 m3 with 17 800 m3 still remaining. The Bikenibeu landfill leachate pumping system is also inoperable, but from the total capacity of 35 000 m3 only 2500 m3 have been used, leaving the remaining 32 500 m3 of space still free [Fig. 013 on page P.027].[023][024]

023 024 pdf P.025

Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 17, 2020 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tarawa Way, B. (2013, April). Kiribati - Solid Waste Management [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.lgnz.co.nz/assets/Uploads/Our-work/55406d1888/PacificTA-Kiribati-Solid-Waste-Management.

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Tarawa, Kiribati

Fig. 012 Tarawa, Kiribati[Fig.012] Urban plan of Tarawa

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Tarawa, Kiribati

0

1

5km

P.026

Betio Landfill 54 000 m3 Betio Pop. 15 755

Nanikai Landfill 27 000 m3

Bairiki Pop. 3542 Teaoraereke Pop. 4,171 Banreaba

Ambo

Bikenibeu Landfill 35 000 m3

Tangintebu Eita Abarao

Bikenibeu Pop. 6568

Tanaea

Temwaiku Causeway Nanikai

Antebuka

Fig. 013 Urban areas and landfills in South Tarawa[Fig.013] Main urban areas with its population, landfills with its capacity P.027

Taborio

Bonkiri

Urban Areas Landfills South Tarawa, Kiribati || Tarawa, Kiribati

Fig. 014 Landfill in South Tarawa[Fig.014] South Tarawa has a total of 3 landfills

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Tarawa, Kiribati

P.028

02.3

Water pollution in South Tarawa The National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research of New Zealand (NIWA) examined and analyzed water on Tarawa. The aim was to inspect the water contained and adjacent to all 3 landfills located on South [Fig. 014 on page P.028], to be able to inspect and evaluate the impacts of solid waste on the contamination of the direct affected environment. Samples of water were taken over a lengthy period between December 2011 to November 2013, on 5 separate occasions, approx. 6 months apart. The samples were always taken on more locations, but always including an internal, external (adjacent to the landfill) and a control site, located slightly further away from the landfill itself.

The results [Fig. 015 on page P.030] show that there is contamination leaching out the landfills and affecting the surroundings. It also clearly shows that there is high elevation of nutrient concentration (N and P), in internal and also external sites. It is likely to enhance excess growth of algae. In urban areas it usually originates from organic matter, such as human and animal waste or chemical leaches. These can, in high levels, even cause health hazards for humans, mainly infants and resulting in microbiological contamination. Ammonia levels were also highly increased. Ammonia are result of decomposition of domestic waste, but they don’t cause any extreme threat to human health, being mainly sensed as odor and taste problematic.[025][026] The Fig. 015 and Fig. 016 below show measured levels of contamination, taken in march 2013, originating from the Nanikai landfill compared to levels recommended by Australian and New Zealand’s government in Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality.[027] These results were analyzed and used as basis for my further experiments in the following chapters.

025 Mosley, L. et al (2004). Water quality monitoring in Pacific Island countries [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255700290_Water_quality_monitoring_in_ Pacific_Islands 026 Hickey, C. & Crump, M. (2014, March). Water Quality Monitoring Activity in South Tarawa, Kiribati [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.ki/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/NIWAwater-quality-monitoring-report-landfills.pdf 027 ANZECC & ARMCANZ (2000). water quality guidelines [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.waterquality.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/anzecc-armcanz-2000-guidelines-vol1.pdf P.029

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Water pollution in South Tarawa

Kiribati Water Samples: Nanikai Collected March 2013 Dissolved Aluminium Total Aluminium Dissolved Arsenic Total Arsenic Dissolved Boron Total Boron Dissolved Cadmium Total Cadmium Dissolved Chromium Total Chromium Dissolved Cobalt Total Cobalt Dissolved Copper Total Copper Dissolved Iron Total Iron Dissolved Lead Total Lead Dissolved Manganese Total Manganese Dissolved Nickel Total Nickel Dissolved Zinc Total Zinc Dissolved Phosphorus(DRP) Total Phosphorus(TDP)

Unit g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 g/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3

Guidelines

0.0007 0.0007 0.0044 0.0044 0.001 0.001 0.0013 0.0013 NG NG 0.0044 0.0044 0.14 0.14 0.007 0.007 0.015 0.015

NAN INT #8 BL18 0.3 0.92 0.039 0.045 1.32 1.26 < 0.00021 0.00084 0.030 0.035 0.0083 0.0094 0.0158 0.047 12.5 16.9 0.0124 0.032 0.063 0.100 0.049 0.058 0.111 0.36 704 2150

NAN MAN BL21 0.071 0.48 0.0069 0.0089 2.5 2.3 < 0.00021 0.00084 0.0038 0.0053 0.00105 0.00136 < 0.0011 0.036 0.4 4.6 < 0.0011 0.0113 0.060 0.068 0.0082 0.0104 0.026 1.51 405 734

NAN EXT#9 BL22 0.013 0.031 < 0.004 < 0.0042 2.3 3.8 < 0.0002 0.00024 < 0.0010 0.0015 0.0007 < 0.00063 < 0.0010 0.0028 0.019 0.150 < 0.0010 0.0017 < 0.0010 0.0026 < 0.006 < 0.0063 < 0.004 0.0082 19 28

Total Phosphorus (TP)

mg/m3

50

19

1940

130

19

495

38

35

mg/m3

1000

5000

23

5790

20800

21

22

1520

337

29

31

6

Nitrate + Nitrite(NO3-N) TDN

mg/m3 mg/m3

45

<1 33100

26 900

292 8760

647 25800

371 544

26 219

11 1960

127 767

4 107

186 269

<1 422

mg/m3

Conductivity Salinity Turbidity pH

mS/cm % SW NTU pH units

100

964

94

NAN External sites NAN Control sites LAGOON OCEAN LAGOON OCEAN NAN EXT #7 NAN EXT #3 NAN EXT #1 NAN EXT #11 NAN CON #8 NAN CON #6 NIWA Code BL23 BL24 BL25 BL26 BL27 BL28 Lab ID 0.032 < 0.012 < 0.012 0.017 < 0.012 < 0.012 0.042 0.021 0.023 < 0.013 < 0.013 < 0.013 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 3.7 3.6 1.82 3.7 3.8 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.1 0.0002 0.0002 < 0.0002 < 0.0002 0.0003 0.0002 < 0.00021 < 0.00021 < 0.00021 0.00025 0.00039 0.00029 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 0.0014 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 0.0008 0.0009 < 0.0006 0.0009 0.0009 0.001 < 0.00063 < 0.00063 < 0.00063 < 0.00063 < 0.00063 < 0.00063 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 0.0018 0.039 < 0.0011 0.0026 0.015 0.013 0.024 0.005 < 0.004 < 0.004 0.117 0.036 0.162 0.0163 0.0197 0.174 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 0.0012 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 0.0015 < 0.0010 0.0031 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 < 0.0010 0.0022 0.0021 0.0048 0.0016 < 0.0011 0.0012 < 0.006 < 0.006 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.006 < 0.0063 0.0093 < 0.0063 < 0.0063 < 0.0063 < 0.0063 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.004 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 0.0112 0.024 < 0.0042 < 0.0042 20 8 36 28 1 3 22 9 45 38 5 10

Ammonia Nitrogen (NH4-N) Total Nitrogen (TN)

3240

NAN internal sites LAGOON NAN INT #3 NAN INT #2 BL19 BL20 < 0.012 0.055 < 0.013 0.04 < 0.004 0.0071 < 0.0042 0.0076 1.54 1.80 2.10 1.78 < 0.0002 < 0.00021 < 0.00021 < 0.00021 < 0.0010 0.0047 < 0.0011 0.028 < 0.0006 0.0008 < 0.00063 < 0.00063 0.0074 0.0020 0.0145 0.0152 0.008 0.75 0.0141 1.49 < 0.0010 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 < 0.0011 0.0011 0.23 0.0012 0.22 < 0.006 0.0074 < 0.0063 0.0083 0.004 0.0071 0.0057 0.026 <1 1170 12 1810

28

41900

997

9010

27900

704

600

4050

1710

191

287

780

6.8 13 103 8.43

25.8 48 5.1 8.41

21.5 40 21.4 8.39

21.6 40 216 7.69

53.7 99 65 8.27

52.2 97 68.1 8.26

51.9 96 9.6 8.21

53.6 99 384 8.05

53.9 100 3.8 8.28

38.2 71 26.4 8.82

54.7 101 5.3 9.37

Fig. 015 Contamination levels[Fig.015] Measured levels of contamination, Nanikai landfill, march 2013 South Tarawa, Kiribati || Water pollution in South Tarawa

P.030

NAN INT #8 Nanikai Internal site

Phosphates (TP) Ammonia Nitrogen Total Nitrogen (TN)

NAN EXT #3 Nanikai External site

Phosphates (TP) Ammonia Nitrogen Total Nitrogen (TN)

NAN CON #8 Nanikai Control site

Phosphates (TP) Ammonia Nitrogen Total Nitrogen (TN)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

Recommended Levels Measurements P.031

South Tarawa, Kiribati || Water pollution in South Tarawa

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

50000 mg/m3

Fig. 016 Contamination levels[Fig.016] Measured levels of contamination compared to recommended values South Tarawa, Kiribati || Water pollution in South Tarawa

P.032

0 P.033

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati

BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef Appendix References

P.034

Our cities and freeway systems appear insignificant when compared with the Great Barrier Reef, by far the largest fabricated structure on Earth. By following the coral’s example, we have a harmo­nious building technique with many advantages over conventional land based methods.

028 P.035

-Wolf Hilbertz, inventor of Biorock™ technology, 1987 [028]

Hilbertz, W. (1987). ELECTRO-ACCRETION: GROW SHELTERS FROM SEA MINERALS [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.wolfhilbertz.com/downloads/1987/hilbertz_el_accretion_1987.pdf

03

Biorock™ technology

03.1

Biorock™ technology Is a process invented by the late architect Wolf Hilbertz in the late 1970’s and further developed in decades long collaboration with biogeochemist Dr. Thomas Goreau. Biorock™ is further property of Global Coral Reef Alliance, a small non-profit organization, founded by Hilbertz and Goreau to research and develop this technology. It is based on basic electrolysis of seawater, meaning the electrical current flowing through conductive material in mineral solution promotes and boosts material deposition (mostly calcium carbonate) on the negative (cathode) side of the current. All that is necessary to make this happen is a low electrical current, conductive (metal) material for structural and form giving purposes and seawater. This process of creating structural material is ecological and economical at the same time, making it very efficient. Its variety of uses is very broad, including restoration of sea grass, salt marsh, fisheries, coral and oyster reefs, improving adaptation to sea level rise, creating ocean grown structural materials, shore protection or erosion of beaches. Furthermore it already has been tested and applied in various projects around the whole world, around 500 Biorock structures exist in more than 40 countries, mainly small islands.

Biorock was successfully applied to boost growth of fish population and shellfish mariculture or growing limestone structures to break water to defend coastal areas against erosion and rising oceans. At the same time it also supports marine life to survive and recover from nutrients pollution, physical destruction or the stressful events of global warming, such as coral bleaching, or rising temperature of the oceans for example. It enhances living space, growth and survival rates or resistance of all marine species, thereby enabling life that would be otherwise destroyed by global warming effects. In addition this sustainable technology can be supported by various sources of energy, such as sun, wind, waves and ocean current, making it even more so environmentally friendly. Biorock reefs powered by wave energy is currently being developed by T. Goreau at Pemuteran, Bali, Indonesia, making it the very first of its kind in Indonesia (Fig. 018).

Biorock™ technology || Biorock™ technology

P.036

03.2

Structural material Biorock technology has exceptional qualities when it comes to sustainable construction material. Firstly because we can use steel as form giving material, it is the cheapest,common and most used construction metal. It is even fully protected against corrosion, with the first layer of accretion serving as its protection. It is created out of minerals naturally contained in seawater, which grow on the initial metal structure, producing stone like coating. The white limestone coating created, when growing slowly (less than 1-2cm a year), is approx. 3 times stronger than regular Portland cement. In addition of being a very cost effective material to build, it strengthens itself with time and also is the only ocean grown material that can repair on itself. If there is a damage in the material it will re-grow from inside, starting with the damaged location. This feature is economically very prospective, not needing to be replaced or even rebuilt, while still being much cheaper than concrete to produce in the first place. Further when grown in enhanced conditions, such as enriched the solution, the material receives even stronger structural qualities and at the same time leads to reducing pollutants, such as CO2.

03.3

Restoration effects As of now it is the only sustainable technology that can effectively save coral reefs, which are massively endangered by global warming. As observed with Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Great Barrier Reef, corals are exposed to high temperatures caused by bleaching events and their mortality rate keeps on growing. Biorock technology is able to heavily reverse these factors, creating life where natural recovery doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t come in question anymore. It enhances the coral growth 2-10 times of its natural rate, enabling perfect biophysical conditions. Amazingly the survival rate against bleaching is 1600% - 5000% higher than with natural corals. These applications could even have potential in medicine and agriculture. Additionally to coral reefs restoration, oyster reefs experience similar reaction. They are able to grow up to 10 times faster, even 1000 times faster in volume and even prove a 10 times higher survival rate against stress. Oyster reefs significantly affect their surroundings, mainly by shore protection, water purification and creating habitat for fisheries as a food supply. Floating oyster and mussel reef mostly enhance the purification and filtering of polluted water. Another aspect being restoration of fisheries, it creates ideal living space for many kinds of fishes as well. Populations of fish, oyster, mussels, lobsters, crabs and giant clams have been observed by Indonesian fishermen to rapidly gain its numbers, size and diversity around Biorock structures. Being very flexible in its form giving abilities, it provides living space of all shapes and sizes, needed by various species of fish, in turn enabling collecting baby fish from open sea, creating perfect breeding conditions all while turning mortality to survival rate.

Other highly affected subjects that can be easily restored with this technology are sea grass and salt march, both having serious role in stabilizing the shore.

P.037

Biorockâ&#x201E;˘ technology || Structural material

Fig. 017 Mineral accretion process[Fig.017] Out-takes from the original patent filed by Wolf Hilbertz in 1981 Biorockâ&#x201E;˘ technology || Structural material

P.038

03.4

Adaptation to rising sea level Biorock technology can be used to create artificial shore protection for vulnerable, low laying coastal and island regions exposed to threads caused by global warming. The sea level rises at a rate of approx. 3-4 mm a year, while Biorock can grow up to 20mm a year, allowing for sustainable growth while still keeping up with the rising sea levels, plus at the same time in enhances the corals growth (especially oysters) as well, creating further layer of protection. This leads to whole beaches regrowing back, after being affected by ongoing erosions, caused mainly by sea level rise and stronger waves. It provides for perfect construction material to be used for breakwater structures to fight the waves, as it gets stronger with time and has the ability to repair itself when damaged and at the same time can be run by the same wave energy coming from the ocean. They are based on different principles than solid breakwaters, allowing the water to pass through them, and in turn leading to depositing sand beaches instead of eroding them.[029][030]

029 030 P.039

ZuBlu (2017, September 20). Biorock - The Future of Reef Restoration. Retrieved from https://www.zubludiving.com/articles/zublu-insights/biorock-reef-restoration Global Coral Reef Alliance (2009). Biorock™, Mineral Accretion Technology™, Seament™. Retrieved from http://www.globalcoral.org/biorock-coral-reef-marine-habitat-restoration/ Biorock™ technology || Adaptation to rising sea level

Fig. 018 Biorock reef[Fig.018] Installed by the Karang Lestari Reef Restoration Project, located at Pemuteran, Bali, Indonesia Biorockâ&#x201E;˘ technology || Adaptation to rising sea level

P.040

0 P.041

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology

BiorockTM experiments Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef Appendix References

P.042

We should not do this. [referring to removing fossil fuels from the ground and transferring it into the atmosphere] We know that sustainable energy is the end point. So why are we doing this experiment? It’s an insane experiment. It’s the dumbest experiment in human history.

-Elon Musk, founder of Tesla and SpaceX, 2018 [031]

031 Macdonald, F. (2018, September 8). Elon Musk Warns We’re Living Through The “Dumbest Experiment in Human History”. Retrieved from https://www.sciencealert.com/elon-musk-says-were-probably-living-in-a-simulation-and-warns-agains-our-insane-experiment-with-coal P.043

04

Biorock Experiments

04.1

Seawater electrolysis It was Michael Faraday (1791-1867), a famous English scientist, who discovered mineral accretion of seawater by electrolysis. It then took more than 100 years before W. Hilbertz to recognized its advantages and possible use. Back in 1976 Hilbertz was experimenting with electrolysis of seawater to create self-growing materials. In the process he discovered that various voltages create different result, in variety from soft to hard material. He got his inspiration from the nature itself, realizing that marine life grows precise sized shells and skeletons from minerals contained in seawater and that they must be able to control it somehow. He also recognized that metabolic energy is required for them to initiate the growth, as it needs certain chemical conditions to do so.

This led to the discovery that under electrical current these conditions are enabled and the growth enhances strongly. With low electrical current calcium carbonate limestone deposits, consisting of aragonite crystals, it is a very strong substance. Same substance that is the main component of white sand beaches and coral skeletons. With higher electrical current brucite (magnesium hydroxide) is deposited, at higher rate but making the material soft and unstable. Further experiments showed that growth of 1-2 cm of hard limestone material a year is plausible, while using steel as initial conductive material. The strength of this material was measured to be as 80 Newtons per mm2 (MegaPascals) equaling to more than 3 times the strength of typical Portland Cement.[032]

032 Goreau, T. J. (2012, October 17). Marine Electrolysis for Building Materials and Environmental Restoration [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.globalcoral.org/_oldgcra/InTech-Marine_ electrolysis_for_building_materials_and_environmental_restoration.pdf Biorock Experiments || Seawater electrolysis

P.044

04.2

Replication The aim for the experiment 001 [001 on page P.047] was to understand the Biorock process and recreate the original experiment performed and described by Wolf Hilbertz in his US patient from 1981 [Fig. 017 on page P.038]. Artificial seawater was used as a solution in the following experiments, containing mixture of dissolved mineral salts, usually used for saltwater aquariums. Further I experimented with metals used for anode (positive) and cathode, the negative side of the electrical current. After the first experiment I increased the amount of artificial mineral salts in the solution to equal double concentration of natural seawater, the aim was to enhance the Biorock process (mineral accretion). After the first experiment I also realized that I need to adjust electrical current individually, as each of the metals used as anodes or cathodes have different resistance and conductivity each and this being further directly dependent on diameter of the material itself. I adjusted the power supply accordingly, a single max. 30V and 5A power supply was used. Simple glass aquarium was used as a container, with volume of approx. 4l. A detailed description of every material used and every variable or time period for each experiment is individually described in the following sub-chapters. The results are documented in photo and written statements with the observations made respectively.

In the second set, experiment 002 [002 on page P.049] I further explored the Biorock process, while varying the dissolved minerals and additives in the solution. The aim was to examine if the mixture of nitrogen (common pollutant used in agriculture) and phosphate (common nutrient P) will enhance the growth process. In addition more â&#x20AC;&#x153;buildingâ&#x20AC;? minerals such as calcium were added to as well, with the same aim to enhance the growth process. Common fertilizers with high dose of nitrogen (N) and phosphate, in form of PO4 used for adding nutrients into aquariums, were used as sources. The same set up was used as in the previous experiments.

P.045

Biorock Experiments || Replication

Anode

Model (Cathode)

Solution

+

-

Power supply

Fig. 019 Experiment set up[Fig.019] Single power supply, small aquarium and diverse metals for anode and cathode were used Biorock Experiments || Replication

P.046

[001- 01]

Experiment No. 001 // General settings / initial settings ++Time [01] 3h, 10.0V / 1.6A ++Power [02] 6h, 3.9V / 2.0A

[03] 6h, 4.8V / 2.0A

[04] 6h, 4.9V / 2.0A // Anode ++[01][[02]Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++[03]Copper wire, Ă&#x2DC;3mm ++[04]Steel plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Copper wire, Ă&#x2DC;3mm ++Distance to anode 5cm // Solution ++2l H2O ++[01]Artificial seawater ++[02][03][04] 2x Artificial seawater

P.047

Biorock Experiments || Replication

[001- 02]

[001- 03]

[001- 04]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[001-01_3h]

n/a

[001-02_6h]

n/a

[001-03_6h]

n/a

[001-04_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion Replication of W. Hilbertz Prototype was mostly unsuccessful, in all four exhibits there is just a very little to none mineral accretion. Sample [04-001] produced the best results, samples [001-03] and [001-04] have shown that neither copper or steel are admissible as anode, as once they dissolve the solution the whole reaction comes to a stop. In all further testing Aluminium anodes will be used.

Biorock Experiments || Replication

P.048

[002- 01]

Experiment No. 002 // General settings ++Time 6h ++Power 5V // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Copper wire, Ă&#x2DC;3mm ++Distance to anode 5cm // Solution ++ 2l H2O ++[01] 60ml Phosphate PO4 ++[02] 60ml Phosphate PO4

320g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 ++[03] 300g Hakaphos rot P2O5

200g Calcium carbonate CaCO3 ++[04] 300g Hakaphos rot P2O5

320g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2

P.049

Biorock Experiments || Replication

[002- 02]

[002- 03]

[002- 04]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[002-01_6h]

n/a

[002-02_6h]

n/a

[002-03_6h]

n/a

[002-04_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion The addition of phosphates (PO4) shows enhancement in the efficiency of the growing process, but the solution based on any common fertilizers doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t provide enough minerals to grow the structure in such short period of time, the growth itself is still very thin, porous and unstable.

Biorock Experiments || Replication

P.050

04.3

Solution enhancement The following experiment sets 003, 004 and 005 [003 on page P.053][004 on page P.055][005 on page P.057] further explore the effects of nutrients (P) and pollutants (N) in order to enhance the Biorock growth. The tested solutions are based on the results of the water pollution analysis in and surrounding South Tarawaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landfills, conducted by The National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research of New Zealand (NIWA), published in march 2013 [Fig. 015 on page P.030]. Higher levels of nutrients (P), ammonia (NH4) and significantly higher levels of nitrates (N) were found, accordingly to this all the solutions are

precisely designed while testing different specific kinds of these chemical compounds. Each set of these experiments futures different kind of phosphate, such as Monocalcium phosphate, Phosphoric acid and Trisodium phosphate respectively, each mixed with various pollutants. Experiment 006 [006 on page P.059] then takes the determined optimal solution mixture and examines how concentration of the mixture affects the growth. Experiment 007 [007 on page P.061] examines how the thickness of the cathode affects the overall growth. In order to avoid excessive acidification of the solution, which in turn disallows

the Biorock precess to continue, Aluminium plates were used for anodes. The model (cathode) is build out of soldered steel wire. All the following models have also the same shape, based on tetrahedron, a triangular pyramid like shape with every edge having exactly the same length (approx. 8cm). The results were documented in photos and analyzed on 1-5 scale according to strength, porosity and volume. The documentation photos were taken after the experiment has taken place, with constant total time of 6 hours. The amount of electrical current is 5V and out of this resulting current (in A), the power supplies used have had max.30V and 5A.

P.051

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

+

+

-

+

-

Fig. 020 Experiment set up[Fig.020] Three separate power supplies, three separate aquariums, aluminium plate for anode and steel wire for cathode Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

P.052

[003- 01]

Experiment No. 003 // General settings ++Time 6h ++Power 5V // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1.2mm ++Soldered pyramid, measurements 8x7cm/+10cm ++Distance to anode 1cm // Solution ++700ml H2O ++50ml Phosphate PO4 ++100g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++100g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer) ++[01] 100g Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 ++[02] 100g Calcium chloride CaCl2 ++[03] 100g Magnesium chloride MgCl2 ++[04] 100g Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

P.053

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

[003- 02]

[003- 03]

[Evaluation]

[003- 04] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[003-01_6h]

n/a

[003-02_6h]

n/a

[003-03_6h]

n/a

[003-04_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion: In samples [003-02] and [003-03] mineral accretion did not take place or was very insufficient. Sample [003-01] produced successful mineral accretion, great enhancement in growth on the side closer the anode, but the material was still relatively porous and fragile. Best results were observed in sample [003-04], the mineral accretion has had great overall growth enhancement, while providing some extent of strength and much less porosity than before, making ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 a valid choice for salt for the mixture.

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

P.054

[004- 01]

Experiment No. 004 // General settings ++Time 6h ++Power 5V // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1.2mm ++Soldered pyramid, measurements 8x7cm/+10cm ++Distance to anode 1cm // Solution ++700ml H2O ++50ml Phosphate PO4 ++100ml Phosphoric acid H3PO4 ++100g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer) ++[01] 100g Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 ++[02] 100g Calcium chloride CaCl2 ++[03] 100g Magnesium chloride MgCl2 ++[04] 100g Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

P.055

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

[004- 02]

[004- 03]

[Evaluation]

[004- 04] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[004-01_6h]

n/a

[004-02_6h]

n/a

[004-03_6h]

n/a

[004-04_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion: None of the samples produced any results and the growth was unsuccessful in all cases, making phosphoric acid unsuitable as a source of phosphates for the mixture.

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

P.056

[005- 01]

Experiment No. 005 // General settings ++Time 6h ++Power 5V // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1.2mm ++Soldered pyramid, measurements 8x7cm/+10cm ++Distance to anode 1cm // Solution ++700ml H2O ++50ml Phosphate PO4 ++100g Trisodium phosphate Na3PO4 ++100g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer) ++[01] 100g Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 ++[02] 100g Calcium chloride CaCl2 ++[03] 100g Magnesium chloride MgCl2 ++[04] 100g Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

P.057

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

[005- 02]

[005- 03]

[Evaluation]

[005- 04] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[005-01_6h]

n/a

[005-02_6h]

n/a

[005-03_6h]

n/a

[005-04_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion: Mineral accretion based on Trisodium phosphate Na3PO4 produced very uneven or totally insufficient results.

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

P.058

[006- 01]

Experiment No. 006 // General settings ++Time 6h ++Power 5V // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1.2mm, distance to anode 1cm ++Soldered pyramid, measurements 8x7cm/+10cm // Solution ++700ml H2O ++[01] 25ml Phosphate PO4

25g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

25g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer)

25g Ammonium sulphate((NH4)2SO4 ++[02] 50ml Phosphate PO4

50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

50g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer)

50g Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 ++[03] 100ml Phosphate PO4

100g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

100g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer)

100g Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 P.059

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

[006- 02]

[006- 03]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[006-01_6h]

n/a

[006-02_6h]

n/a

[006-03_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion: Best results were produced by the sample [006-02] with middle value of concentration of the solution, the growth is distributed evenly, while maintaining overall strength with decent volume and quite low porosity. Sample [006-03] has greater overall volume, but is more porous with less strength.

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

P.060

[007- 01]

Experiment No. 007 // General settings ++Time 6h ++Power 5V // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 3.0 x 0.05cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Soldered pyramid, measurements 8x7cm/+10cm ++Distance to anode 1cm ++[01] Steel wire, Ø0.48mm ++[02] Steel wire, Ø1.0mm ++[03] Steel wire, Ø2.0mm // Solution ++700ml H2O ++50ml Phosphate PO4 ++50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++50g Calcium cyanamide CaCN2 (Fertilizer) ++50g Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

P.061

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

[007- 02]

[007- 03]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

n/a

[007-01_6h]

n/a

[007-02_6h]

n/a

[007-03_6h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Conclusion: No clear results could been produced and the effects of thickness of cathode wire on overall growth must be further examined.

Biorock Experiments || Solution enhancement

P.062

04.4

Optimization The next sets of experiments set out to further optimize and improve the results from all the previous experiments, in which I was able to determine the main factors that contribute to optimal growth. These factors being amount of power used, anode type, the solution itself and the specific mixture of additives used in the solution. In previous experiments I was not able to compare my results, this being mostly due to ever changing conditions during the reaction duration, so in order to better understand and analyze these reactions a logbook of Volt and Ampere values and the changes made to these was kept and noted, always in specific time intervals, while keeping the overall power at close to constant value. The power needed for the reaction constantly changes, depending on the additives used or their concentration and it also constantly changes over time as the anode dissolves in the solution and changes the properties affecting electrical conductivity. Also a photo documentation of the growth progress was kept, always in constant time span, depending on the given experiment. For being able to better judge the determined results weight of the samples was taken and noted, in the time span of 24-48 hours after the testing ended. The previous experiments determined that the smaller the distance from cathode to anode the better the growth, therefore the distance was reduced to 0.5 cm for all further testing. Best results from previous testing was observed in experiment [006-02] [006 on page P.059] and because this sample proved to be such a success its settings and solution additives were adapted as starting point for further testing. The solution therefore initially contents mixture of Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 and Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4. The best results from each set of following experiments were then adapted for further testings in other areas affecting the growth. [033]

033 P.063

All close up photos of biorock experiments done by Maria Jose Fernandez-Cardin, BSc | www.500px.com/p/mfernandezcardin?view=photos Biorock Experiments || Optimization

Anode

Power

[008 on page P.067]

[009 on page P.071]

Growth Optimization Solution

[010 on page P.075]

[011 on page P.079]

Mixture

[012 on page P.083] [013 on page P.087] [014 on page P.091]

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.064

04.4.1

Optimization Set Up In order to be able to better determine and control all aspects of the reaction the cathode was reduced to a soldered triangle consisting of three 7cm parts and one 10cm part, all with constant diameter, depending on the given experiment at hand. For better comparison of the effectiveness of the growth the time span for all the following experiments was extended, providing a more in depth look at the growth process. Because of extended testing duration in order to save time six samples were grown at the time, also providing the exact same outside conditions for every experiment. Six power supplies were used to make sure that the electrical current can be adjusted separately to exactly given values.

P.065

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

+ +

-

-

+

+ +

+

Fig. 021 Experiment set up[Fig.021] Six separate power supplies, six separate aquariums, aluminium plates for anode and steel wire as cathode Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.066

[008-01]

[008-02]

Experiment No. 008 n/a

36h

24h

12h

n/a

48h

// General settings ++Time 48h ++Power [01] 5W

[02] 10W

[03] 20W

[04] 12.5W

[05] 15W

[06] 17.5W // Anode ++Aluminium plate, 20 x 2.5 x 0.05cm, weight 7g ++Measurements knicks 9/6/5cm ++Surface nature / blank // Cathode ++Soldered steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1,2mm, weight 5g ++Measurements 7/7/7/10cm ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++0.5l H2O ++50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++40g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

P.067

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[008-03]

[008-04]

[008- 05]

[008-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume

n/a

Porosity Weight

6g

[008-01_48h]

13g

[008-02_48h]

14g

[008-03_48h]

15g

[008-04_48h]

13g

[008-05_48h]

14g

[008-06_48h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.068

Description Experiment No. 008 This set of experiments is directed to determine the optimal setting for the power supplies. Previous testing has shown that the resistance of the solution continuously changes, affecting the overall electrical conductivity of given solutions and therefore it is necessary to adapt the overall power during the reaction duration. The relationship between current, voltage and resistance is defined in Ohmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s law as: R (resistance [Ohm]) = V (voltage[Volt]) / I (current[Ampere]). Because the resistance is not constant and the power supplies can be adjusted in terms of voltage and current I decided to measure and compare the electrical work, defined as: 1 [Watt] = 1 [Volt] x 1 [Ampere]. Meaning that the amount of overall electrical work was measured and noted in the logs, instead of just voltage or current, making solutions consisting of different additives with various resistance comparable against each other. Each sample was tested with different electrical power, although non linear results were produced sample [008-03] tested with 20 W of electrical power shows the best results in terms of strength, volume and porosity. These tests were conducted in two separate runs, which means that the results may vary a little due to outside conditions.

Conclusion ++ The more power the stronger the growth [008-03] ++ There is operating temperature for optimal growth progress ++ Overall electrical power needs to be continuously adjusted in constant time spans

P.069

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[008- 03]

P.070

[009-01]

[009-02]

24h 36h 48h

// General settings ++Time 48h ++Power 20W // Aluminium anode ++[01] Plate, 20 x 1.5 x 0.2cm, weight 15g ++[02] Plate, 20 x 2.5 x 0.15cm, weight 18g ++[03] Plate, 20 x 2.5 x 0.2cm, weight 25g ++[04] Plate, 20 x 5 x 0.15cm, weight 36g ++[05] Rod - full, 20 x Ø0.8, weight 26g ++[06] Rod - empty, 20 x Ø0.8 x 0.1, weight 12g ++Measurements knicks 9/6/5cm ++[01][02][03][04] Surface nature / blank ++[05][06] Surface sand blasted // Cathode ++Soldered steel wire, Ø1,2mm, weight 5g ++Measurements 7/7/7/10cm ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++0.5l H2O ++50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++40g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

12h

Experiment No. 009

P.071

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[009-03]

[009-04]

[009- 05]

[009-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

18g

[009-01_48h]

18g

[009-02_48h]

17g

[009-03_48h]

18g

[009-04_48h]

21g

[009-05_48h]

20g

[009-06_48h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.072

Description Experiment No. 009 Even though the previous experiments [002 on page P.049] have shown that from financially affordable materials used as anodes aluminium proved to be most suitable, as it does not stop the reaction progress as opposed to steel or copper, this set of experiments investigates the effects of form and/or size of the anode and how it is affecting the overall growth process, while also determining the most effective one, in terms of durability. Best results were produced by sample [009-05], which used a full aluminium rod with measurements of 20 x Ă&#x2DC;0.8 cm, weight 26g, as anode, all samples were produced with previously determined 20 W of electrical power. This sample provides decent amount of volume while maintaining good overall strength and the least porosity compared to all other test subjects. The total amount of anodes needed in given sample was also noted in the logbook and even though sample [009-04] used lesser quantity of anodes the overall growth was more porous and therefore following experiments will all feature full aluminium rod as anode.

Conclusion ++ The combination of form and size is decisive for anode types ++ Full aluminium rod with measurements of 20 x Ă&#x2DC;0.8 cm, weight 26g produced best results [009-05] ++ Thickness and amount of material determine anodeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s durability [009-04]

P.073

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[009- 05]

P.074

[010-01]

[010-02]

P.075

24h 36h 48h

// General Settings ++Time 48h ++Power 20W // Aluminium Anode ++[01][02][03] Rod - full, 20 x Ø0.8, weight 26g ++[04][05][06] Rod - full, 25 x Ø0.8, weight 32g ++Surface sand blasted // Cathode ++[01][02][03] Soldered steel wire, Ø1,2mm, weight 5g ++[04][05][06] Soldered steel wire, Ø1,2mm, weight 6g ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++[01][02][03] 0.5l H2O, [03] renewed [24h] ++[04] 1.0l H2O, [05] 1.5l H2O, [06] 2.0l H2O ++[01] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g + 40g [24h] Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[02] 50g + 50g [24h] Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[03] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

Solution renewed [24h] ++[04][05][06] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

12h

Experiment No. 010

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[010-03]

[010-04]

[010- 05]

[010-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

69g

[010-01_48h]

104g

[010-02_48h]

88g

[010-03_48h]

38g

[010-04_48h]

28g

[010-05_48h]

26g

[010-06_48h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.076

Description Experiment No.010 This set of experiments examines the effects of manipulating the concentration of the solution and its additives regarding the growth process midway through the experiment. After time period of 24 hours the samples [010-01] [010-02] [010-03] were either enhanced or fully renewed. Sample [010-01] is focused on examining the effects created by enhancing the solution with salt (ammonium sulfate), [010-02] was enhanced with phosphates and in sample [010-03] the whole solution was fully renewed. Samples [010-04] [010-05] [010-06] examine how varying the concentration of previously tested solution [009-05] [009 on page P.071] affects the growth process. Best results were produced in test [010-01], sample exceeds all previous tests in terms of strength and shows decent volume while at the same time maintaining very low porosity. Decreasing the concentration of the solution did not produce any successful improvement and therefore all further test will be done with 0.5l of water, as in previous experiments in order to maintain the same concentration.

Conclusion ++ Addition of salt (ammonium sulfate) after 24h creates great strength and also reduces the porosity [010-01] ++ Lesser concentration of the solution leads to extensive porosity in the growths [010-04] [010-05] [010-06] ++ Further addition of phosphates produces more volume but the growth is also much more porous [010-02] [010-03]

P.077

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[010- 01]

P.078

[011-01]

[011-02]

24h 36h 48h

// General Settings ++Time 48h ++[01][02][03][04][05] Power 20W ++[06]Power 20W + external heater // Aluminium Anode ++Rod - full, 20 x Ø0.8, weight 26g ++Surface sand blasted // Cathode ++[01][03][04][05][06] Soldered steel wire, Ø1,2mm ++[02] 3 x Soldered steel wire, Ø1,2mm ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++[01] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

80g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[02][06] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g + 40g [24h] Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[03] 25g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g + 40g [24h] Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[04] 100g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g + 40g [24h] Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[05] 50g + 50g [24h] Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

40g + 40g [24h] Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4

12h

Experiment No. 011

P.079

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[011-03]

[011-04]

[011- 05]

[011-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

72g

[011-01_48h]

76g

[011-02_48h]

45g

[011-03_48h]

55g

[011-04_48h]

69g

[011-05_48h]

69g

[011-06_48h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.080

Description Experiment No.011 This set of experiments further explores the effects of manipulating the solution. All samples were compared to up to this point most successful growth, namely the sample [010-01] [010 on page P.075]. Sample [011-02] also examines how changing the amount of cathode material affects the growth. No valid results were produced and this area needs further testing. Sample [011-06] sets out to examine how changing the operating affects the growth process.

Previous experiments have shown that there is optimal operating temperature, which differs for each solution individually. They also show that boiling water must be used for the solution, as it allows the reaction to start in optimal and most effective manner. In order to examine the difference same conditions as in sample [010-01] [010 on page P.075], were recreated and external heater was added. No improvement in growth or strength of the material was observed and therefore no additional increase of the operating temperature is necessary. Sample [011-01] examines whether overall increase of salt concentration can enhance the growth process, but could not improve previous test results. Samples [011-03] [011-04] explore increase and decrease of phosphates, but also could not improve previous results, whereby test [011-05] compares addition of both phosphates and salt [24h], but neither here any improvement was observed.

Conclusion ++ Neither lesser or higher concentration of phosphates could provide any improvements [011-03] [011-04] ++ Varying the amount of cathode wire needs further examination [011-02] ++ Additional increase of the operating temperature does not enhance the growth process [011-06]

P.081

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[011- 05]

P.082

[012-01]

[012-02]

12h 18h 24h

// General Settings ++Time 48h ++Power 20W // Aluminium Anode ++Rod - full, 20 x Ă&#x2DC;0.8, weight 26g ++Surface sand blasted // Cathode ++Soldered steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1,2mm ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++[All] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++[01] 40g + 40g [12h] Sodium thiosulfate Na2S2O3 x 5 H2O ++[02] 40g + 40g [12h] Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 ++[03] 40g + 40g [12h] Calcium chloride CaCl2 ++[04] 40g + 40g [12h] Magnesium chloride MgCl2 x 6 H2O ++[05] 40g + 40g [12h] Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 ++[06] 40g + 40g [12h] Iron(II) sulfate FeSO4 x 7 H2O

6h

Experiment No. 012

P.083

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[012-03]

[012-04]

[012- 05]

[012-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

5g

[012-01_24h]

28g

[012-02_24h]

5g

[012-03_24h]

5g

[012-04_24h]

5g

[012-05_24h]

37g

[012-06_24h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.084

Description Experiment No.012 This set of experiments sets out to further improve the structural qualities of the previously produced material and it does so through changing the solution additives, namely different salts other than ammonium sulfate, as was the case in all previous tests, are examined while maintaining all the other settings and procedures of up until now the most successful growth produced in sample [010-01] [010 on page P.075]. Samples [012-01] [012-03] [012-04] and [012-05] tested sodium thiosulfate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride and magnesium sulfate respectively, but all of these additives proved unsuitable and could not produce any successful mineral accretion. On the other hand samples [012-02] and [012-06], examining copper(II) sulfate and iron(II) sulfate have shown great potential in terms of strength and the lack of porosity. In both cases the volume of the growth could not match the previous results, but both of these newly discover materials need further testing and will be examined in detail in the next sets of experiments.

Conclusion ++ Neither Sodium thiosulfate, calcium or magnesium chloride, nor magnesium sulfate produced any valid results [012-01] [012-03] [012-04] [012-05] ++ Copper(II) sulfate produced extraordinary strength, decent volume and close to no porosity [012-02] ++ Iron(II) sulfate also produced great strength, decent volume and close to no porosity [012-06]

P.085

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[012- 02]

P.086

[013-01]

[013-02]

12h 18h 24h

// General Settings ++Time 48h ++Power 20W // Aluminium Anode ++Rod - full, 20 x Ă&#x2DC;0.8, weight 26g ++Surface sand blasted // Cathode ++Soldered steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1,2mm ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++[All] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++[All] 0.5l H2O ++[All] Solution renewed [12h] ++[01][02] 40g Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[03][04] 40g Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 ++[05][06] 40g Iron(II) sulfate FeSO4 x 7 H2O ++[02][04][06] 100 Phosphate PO4

6h

Experiment No. 013

P.087

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[013-03]

[013-04]

[013- 05]

[013-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

53g

[013-01_24h]

26g

[013-02_24h]

25g

[013-03_24h]

25g

[013-04_24h]

22g

[013-05_24h]

18g

[013-06_24h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.088

Description Experiment No.013 The aim of this set of experiments was to further improve the most successful combinations of additive mixtures, these being ammonium sulfate [010-01], copper(II) sulfate [012-02] and iron(II) sulfate [012-06]. As the logbook values observed in experiment 012 [012 on page P.083] clearly show the reaction of both copper and iron sulfate came almost to a stop after less then 12 hours and therefore for all samples from this set of experiments the whole solution was renewed after 12hours and also the time span of the tested reaction was reduced to 24 hours (instead of the previously tested 48h). At the same time samples [013-02] [013-04] and [013-06] also explore the effects of adding extra phosphates to enhance the growth. The observations have shown that extra phosphate, contrary to my predictions, decreases the overall growth in all three tested samples and therefore is not suitable. Sample [013-01] also could not match the previous results, only improvements were observed in samples [013-03] and [013-05], in both cases the overall strength and volume were improved, while maintaining close to none porosity.

Conclusion ++ For copper(II) sulfate and iron(II) sulfate renewing the solution [12h] increases the overall growth quality [013-03] [013-05] ++ Ammonium sulfate could not match the previous results [013-01] ++ Additional phosphate, contrary to expectations, decreases the overall growth [013-02] [013-04] [013-06]

P.089

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[013- 03]

P.090

[014-01]

[014-02]

12h 18h 24h

// General Settings ++Time 48h ++Power 20W // Aluminium Anode ++Rod - full, 20 x Ă&#x2DC;0.8, weight 26g ++Surface sand blasted // Cathode ++Soldered steel wire, Ă&#x2DC;1,2mm ++Distance to anode 0.5cm // Solution ++[All] 50g Monocalcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2 ++[All] 0.5l H2O Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 ++[01][02][04] 40g Copper(II) sulfate CuSO4 ++[02][04][05] 40g, [03] 80g Iron(II) sulfate FeSO4 x 7 H2O ++[01][02][05] 40g, [06] 80g

6h

Experiment No. 014

P.091

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[014-03]

[014-04]

[014- 05]

[014-06]

[Evaluation] Strength Volume Porosity Weight

42g

[014-01_24h]

40g

[014-02_24h]

51g

[014-03_24h]

15g

[014-04_24h]

33g

[014-05_24h]

60g

[014-06_24h]

Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight Strength Volume Porosity Weight

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.092

Description Experiment No.014 This set of experiments sets out to examine further mixing of the already quite successful additives used for results produced in samples [013-01], [013-03] [013 on page P.087] and [010-01] [010 on page P.075]. Samples [014-01], [014-04] and [014-05] focus on examining effects created by mixing two different salt additives, sample [014-02] even mixes all three previously successful salt additives. None of these tests could produce any improvements to previous results. Samples [014-03] and [014-06] examine effects of having present the double amount of copper sulfate and iron sulfate respectively. Sample [014-03], using copper sulfate could not match the results produced by [013-03], it had greater volume, but the strength slightly decreased. Sample [014-06], using iron sulfate, shows improvement in all evaluated categories, namely greater strength, more volume and even less porosity.

Conclusion ++ Double amount of iron sulfate greatly improves all attributes of the resulting material [014-06] ++ Double amount of copper sulfate increases the volume, but the strength growth decreases also [014-03] ++ Mixing two or more different additives greatly decreases all evaluated attributes and is therefore not suitable [014-01] [014-02] [014-04] [014-05]

P.093

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[014- 06]

P.094

P.095

[014- 03]

[014- 05]

P.096

P.097

[008- 01]

[008- 02]

[008- 03]

[008- 04]

[008- 05]

[009- 05]

[009- 06]

[010- 01]

[010- 02]

[010- 03]

[011- 03]

[011- 04]

[011- 05]

[011- 06]

[012- 01]

[013- 04]

[013- 05]

[013- 06]

[014- 01]

[014- 02] Biorock Experiments || Optimization

[008- 06]

[009- 01]

[009- 02]

[009- 03]

[009- 04]

[010- 04]

[010- 05]

[010- 06]

[011- 01]

[011- 02]

[012- 02]

[012- 06]

[013- 01]

[013- 02]

[013- 03]

[014- 03]

[014- 04]

[014- 05]

[014- 06]

[014- 06]

Biorock Experiments || Optimization

P.098

0 P.099

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments

Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef Appendix References

P.100

Concepts differentiate architecture from mere building... A bicycle shed with a concept is architecture; a cathedral without one is just a building.

-Bernard Tschumi, Architect [034]

034 Quotetab (n.d.). Concepts differentiate architecture from mere building...A bicycle shed with a concept is architecture; a cathedral without one is just a building [Quote]. Retrieved from https://www.quotetab.com/quote/by-bernard-tschumi/concepts-differentiate-architecture-from-mere-buildinga-bicycle-shed-with-a-co P.101

05

Concept Studies The aim for these conceptual studies is to develop a set of design principles that can be applied in regions mostly affected by global warming and all the threads connected with this situation, as examined in the previous chapters. These concepts are then applied to Betio, Kiribati region, as a case study.

At the same time the aim is to develop universal design principles that would work in other, similarly affected regions of the so called Island States as well.

The primary working material intended for all the following concepts is the BiorockTM technology, for creating cement like structural material as a result of electrolysis of seawater. This symbiosis of Biorock material and artificial fiber-like reef structure provides for various application opportunities for restoration of the environment and marine life alike, even having positive effects on industry (detailed research inducted in previous chapters [P.036]). Furthermore the aim is to fully examine and utilize these benefits resulting from this symbiosis and its unique features, in order to take full advantage of this the functions of the structure. High scale and high density fibres are used on the outside parts of the island, they serve as a shore protection and restoration and as water breakers. Based on principle of refraction, they let the water through, as opposed to reflection as usual water breakers do, meaning this combination makes them much more effective and at the same time helps the natural erosion. Medium density and volume fibres allow to re-create beneficial conditions for the nature to recover, favorable for marine life as fish, corals or oysters for example. Biorock technology has proven very beneficial for all of them. This kind of fibres can be located both on the outside and the inside of the lagoon, according to local specific needs . Lastly low density fibres, used for industry purposes, such as fish or oyster farms, leaving enough space to run these operations in flexible way.

Concept Studies || Optimization

P.102

05.1

2D Fibres The following concept studies were aimed at further developing the density concept in terms of functionality applied to the case study location Tarawa island, Kiribati and even more precisely the most dense and populated area of Betio. Various concepts and application areas were examined, the 2 main groups being the octagrid and proximity based networks. With proximity networks having a better capabilities for adapting to different scenarios, further in depth studies followed. The main aim with these is to apply, control and manipulate the density of the fiber structure in order to create a design that mostly suits its functions applied to a specific area according to its use. Graphics on the following pages depict the most prolific results, these 2D based principles developed in this study are later on further examined in 3D as well, creating a conceptual base for the project.

P.103

Concept Studies || 2D Fibres

P.104

0

200

1000m Octagrid Fiber structure

Fig. 022 Octagrid based fiber structure[Fig.022] Concept Study No. 5, Parameters No. 001

P.105

Concept Studies || 2D Fibres

0

200

1000m Proximity Network

Fig. 023 Proximity Network[Fig.023] Applied to project area

Concept Studies || 2D Fibres

P.106

0

200

1000m Density Gradient Low to High

Fig. 024 Proximity Network Density Gradient[Fig.024] Applied to project area P.107

Concept Studies || 2D Fibres

0

40

200m Density Gradient Low to High

Fig. 025 Proximity Network Density Gradient[Fig.025] Close up and indication of following zoom in

Concept Studies || 2D Fibres

P.108

P.109

P.110

05.2

CycleGAN CycleGAN is an unpaired image to image machine learning algorithm, which allows generating a new synthetic image based on specific inputs and their characteristics. This procedure requires digital training of translation models without them having to be paired in any way. With this machine learning algorithm, models are trained using a collection of images from a source (X) and a target domain (Y). During this training process so called “discriminators”(Dx, Dy) constantly check the accuracy of the output by translating it back to the input and comparing it with the initial input. Once trained, the algorithm “translates” from one domain to another (X>Y (G) or Y>X (F)) without a one-to-one mapping between the source and the target domain”. The following paragraph explains how the algorithm works described by the authors themselves.[035] “Our model contains two mapping functions G : X > Y and F : Y > X, and associated adversarial discriminators DY and DX. DY encourages G to translate X into outputs indistinguishable from domain Y , and vice versa for DX and F. To further regularize the mappings, we introduce two cycle consistency losses that capture the intuition that if we translate from one domain to the other and back again we should arrive at where we started.” [036]

DY

DX

G X

Y F

035 Jun-Yan Zhu, Taesung Park et al (2021, January 03). Unpaired Image-to-Image Translation using Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks [PDF]. Retrieved from https://https://arxiv.org/ pdf/1703.10593.pdf 036 Jun-Yan Zhu, Taesung Park et al (2021, January 03). Unpaired Image-to-Image Translation using Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks [PDF]. Retrieved from https://https://arxiv.org/ pdf/1703.10593.pdf P.111

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

P.112

P.113

[Real_A]

[Fake_A]

[Rec_A]

[Real_B]

[Fake_B]

[Rec_B] Concept Studies || CycleGAN

[CycleGAN Fiber Translation]

P.114

[Input A]

[Input B] P.115

[5]

[10]

[15]

[20]

[55]

[60]

[65]

[70]

[105]

[110]

[115]

[120]

[155]

[160]

[165]

[170] Concept Studies || CycleGAN

[Translation Epochs]

[25]

[30]

[35]

[40]

[45]

[50]

[75]

[80]

[85]

[90]

[95]

[100]

[125]

[130]

[135]

[140]

[145]

[150]

[175]

[180]

[185]

[190]

[195]

[200]

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

P.116

05.2.1

CycleGAN workflow The following concept study explores how the previously examined unpaired image to image translation (CycleGAN) can be implemented on the actual site in Betio. It focuses on making the process as effective and precise as possible. There are 3 basic inputs for all tests, input A stands for satellite image of the area, input B is the biorock model and input C is an image of fibers. Between these input images CycleGAN translation networks were applied to create synthetic biorock landscapes and fiber structures. Three such workflows were tested, namely single, fake double and double CycleGAN workflow.

Details and workflow structures tested are shown in following pages.

P.117

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

[CycleGAN Fiber Structure]

P.118

[Input B] Biorock model

[Input A] Satellite image

[Input C] Fiber structure

[Translation AB]

[Network AB]

[Input A] Satellite image

[Network AC]

[Translation AC]

P.119

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

[Overlay Image - Translation AB + Translation AB-AC + Satellite Image]

[Overlay AB-AC]

[Single CycleGAN Workflow]

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

P.120

[Input B] Biorock model

[Translation AB]

[Network AB]

[Input A] Satellite image

[Network AB-C]

[Input C] Fiber structure

P.121

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

[Overlay Image - Translation AB + Translation AB-AC + Satellite Image]

[Overlay AB2-AC]

[Fake Double CycleGAN Workflow]

[Translation AB-AC]

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

P.122

[Input B] Biorock model

[Input A] Satellite image

[Input C] Fiber structure

[Translation AB]

[Network AB]

[Input A] Satellite image

[Network AC]

[Network AB-AC]

[Translation AC]

P.123

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

[Overlay Image - Translation AB + Translation AB-AC + Satellite Image]

[Overlay AB2-AC]

[Double CycleGAN Workflow]

[Translation AB-AC]

Concept Studies || CycleGAN

P.124

05.3

3D CycleGAN This test shows how the previously created 2D translation of synthetic biorock landscapes can be also translated into 3-dimensional space. For precise results the 3D CycleGAN network requires 2 inputs of the same area, one in color and one in black and white, where as the black colored areas will be extruded. In my case the input A is synthetic biorock landscape and input B is the same area represented in black and white graphics. According to these a voxel based translation is implemented. Various parameters can be also set to influence and steer the translation into a desired and more controled outcome.

This makes it a very suitable tool to implement design strategies. These parameters include Z-dimension affecting the overall height, resolution affecting the local density and generations, which are controlling the level of detail. Also there is a solid percentage regulator, which affects the overall density and solid to empty ratio.

P.125

Concept Studies || 3D CycleGAN

[Input A]

[3D CycleGAN Translation]

[Input B]

Concept Studies || 3D CycleGAN

P.126

[3D CycleGAN Translation]

Z Dimension Resolution Generations Solid % P.127

[40] [20] [40] [<0.5]

Concept Studies || 3D CycleGAN

P.128

0 P.129

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments Concept studies

Synthetic fiber reef Appendix References

P.130

Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s old collapses, times change, And new life blossoms in the ruins.

037 P.131

-Friedrich Schiller, writer, 1804 [037]

AZquotes (n.d.). Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s old collapses, times change, And new life blossoms in the ruins [Quote]. Retrieved from https://www.azquotes.com/quote/838697

06

Synthetic fiber reef Synthetic fiber reef is a structure that focuses on solving issues in low altitude areas caused by global warming while creating new and preserving the existing natural habitats. Also at the same time maintaining overall sustainability and even improving the social and economic conditions of the region.

It does so by creating a synthetic fiber reef structure naturally “grown” with BiorockTM technology, presenting it with exceptional ecological and economical benefits. The design is driven by symbiosis of utilizing the specific Biorock qualities combined with enhancing these through artificial intelligence (machine learning) based composition. For the case study one of the most populated and prolific victims of climate change in the central Pacific Ocean was chosen, the volcanic atoll of Tarawa, Kiribati.

The three main functions of the structure are to provide protection from global warming [Protection], preserve existing and create new natural habitat [Restoration] and generate sustainability and economic surplus for the region [Sustainability]. Each of these main functions is paired with Biorock material that particularly suits the needs of the given function, thus greatly enhancing the efficiency of the structure. This synergy is referred to as a density concept.

In order to incorporate the density concept into the design artificial intelligence (machine learning) based techniques are used to provide the most precise and efficient translation from the naturally grown Biorock material into digital space. This allows us to map each Biorock material onto specific part of the application area according to its function. In the next step this newly created synthetic Biorock landscape is translated into 3-dimensional space, also with artificial intelligence generated design, creating the “bone structure” for the synthetic fiber reef.

The structure is applied on the same area as previously implemented concept studies, namely the Betio area on South Tarawa, Kiribati.

Synthetic fiber reef || 3D CycleGAN

P.132

[South Tarawa, Kiribati]

0

P.133

1000

Synthetic fiber reef || 3D CycleGAN

5000m

[Close up of Betio area]

0

Synthetic fiber reef || 3D CycleGAN

100

500m

P.134

06.1

Density concept The Density Concept is a primary idea on how to enhance the efficiency in the design of the fiber structure. It is based on the combination of density and specific Biorock materials used for the fibres, creating a unique synergy, whereby the main functions, each requiring a different density, are enhanced by the specific structural qualities of given Biorock material. The structural qualities are resulting from the Biorock experiments in previous chapters, where these growths are also pictured and explained in detail.

The 3 main functions of the fiber structure are protection, restoration and generating sustainability. Protection needs to be provided from natural phenomena such as rising sea level, tropical storms and erosion. In order to create such protection a high density fiber structure is combined with structurally strongest Biorock material previously examined, namely 014_06 [014 on page P.091]. This allows the structure to function as a refraction based breakwaters, which as opposed to regular breakwaters, slows the incoming water from the ocean and actually even regrows the beaches back instead of eroding and inevitably losing them. This is only possible because of the great structural strength of this material and its general self-repairing character, providing a sustainable structure to withstand the natural forces.

Second main function is the restoration of the existing and even creating a new natural habitat. Biorock material 014_03 [014 on page P.091] is used for its medium overall volume and strength. This combination of medium density and medium volume provides for enough living space for marine habitat, while at the same time enhancing the growth and survival rate of corals. This newly created natural habitat can also greatly boost the economy with creating a unique diving destination for tourists.

Sustainability is ensured through providing enough space for industrial revenue while maintaining natural character. This is created through combination of low density fibres and 013_03 Biorock material [013 on page P.087] with low volume and medium strength, providing enough space for industry, such as fish and oyster farms, and at the same time maintaining overall flexibility for easy structural changes. Biorock in general also greatly enhances the growth of oysters making the production very competitive in international market.

P.135

Synthetic fiber reef || Density concept

Synthetic fiber reef || Density concept

P.136

[DENSITY CONCEPT]

P.137

High Density

Medium Density

Low Density

[Protection]

[Restoration]

[Sustainability]

Breakwaters Anti Erosion Effect

Living Space New Natural Habitat Tourism

Industrial Space for Fish and Oyster Farms

Synthetic fiber reef || Density concept

[BIOROCK MATERIAL]

Synthetic fiber reef || Density concept

Biorock 014_06

Biorock 014_03

Biorock 013_03

[Protection]

[Restoration]

[Sustainability]

Great Structural Strength Self-repairing

Medium Volume and Strength Coral Survival Rate increase rise in marine population Tourism

Low Volume and Medium Stregth Fish Farms Oyster Growth Enhancement

P.138

P.139

Low Density High Density

P.140

Biorock landscape

06.2.1

Model 014_03 Translation [Natural Habitat] The translation generates a synthetic landscape for mostly restoration purposes

[Model 014_03]

06.2

of the natural habitat. Biorock model [014_03] is enhanced with Copper(II) sulfate, generating medium volume and structural strength of the growth. These qualities combined also with medium density of the structure provide ideal conditions for the newly formed ecosystem.

This combination allows for creation of a new habitat, with enough living space to inhabit all kinds of marine life. Biorock generally highly increases the survival rate of corals in case of bleaching events and also their growth. The medium density of the structure makes it [Training Input 014_03]

accessible for humans, forming a vast tourist attraction as diving park.

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

P.141

51g

[014-03_24h] Synthetic fiber reef || Biorock landscape

P.142

[Synthetic biorock 014_03 landscape]

This translation generates synthetic landscape for protection. The combination of Biorock material [014_06] and high density design creates a perfect symbiosis to enhance

[Model 014_06]

06.2.2 Model 014_06 Translation [Protection]

the protection function of the structure. Biorock [014_06] is enhanced with Iron(II) sulfates, making it the structurally strongest growth that was tested. Combined with high density design it creates perfect breakwater structure, that also protects the island against floods

[Training Input 014_06]

and even reverses the erosion of beaches.

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

P.143

60g

[014-06_24h] Synthetic fiber reef || Biorock landscape

P.144

[Synthetic biorock 014_06 landscape]

This translation creates a synthetic landscape suited for industrial purposes.

Biorock material [013_03] is generates a relatively low volume material while also

[Model 013_03]

06.2.3 Model 013_03 Translation [Industry]

maintaining its structural strength. Design with this material in low density allows for efficient use of the structure as an industry in itself. The low density provides space for

[Training Input 013_03]

fish and oyster farms, while Biorock highly increases oyster growth.

Strength Volume Porosity Weight

P.145

25g

[013-03_24h] Synthetic fiber reef || Biorock landscape

P.146

[Synthetic biorock 013_03 landscape]

06.3

Landscape mapping All the previously generated synthetic landscape translations, with their respective materials, are now being mapped according to their function.

They are combined in order to best suit the functions of the structure. The protection landscape is used on the outside of the lagoon to provide optimal use as breakwaters and efficiently shelter the island. The natural habitat landscape is mapped surrounding the Betio area on the inside of the lagoon. The distance from the open sea protects the ecosystem and also at the same time creates a gradient blend between human and natural habitat. The industrial landscape is located even further inside the lagoon, in order to not disrupt the inhabitants with its presence.

Two Stages of such synthetic landscape evolution were worked out. The first stage depicts the Island in current state mapped with the Biorock structure according to its functions as described above. The second stage depicts the development of gaining the land back once the erosion is stopped by the breakwaters. It also shows the predicted growth in the Biorock structure. This evolution of the synthetic Biorock landscape can be seen on the next page.

P.147

Synthetic fiber reef || Landscape mapping

P.148

[Synthetic city landscape]

[ Synthetic Biorock Landscape - Stage 1] [ Protection] [ Natural Habitat] [ Industry] P.149

[ Synthetic Biorock Landscape - Stage 2] [ Protection] [ Natural Habitat] [ Industry] P.150

06.4

3D Translation The newly created synthetic landscape, mapped with its respective functions, is translated into 3-dimensional space. The artificial intelligence based design technique allows for a precise translation of the previously added material qualities. The translation is controlled by various parameters to reflect the physical attributes and density concept of each material and even amplify these in the process. Because of this precision the efficiency of the functions is greatly improved. Stage 2 shows the translation of the island and the development in gaining back and creating new land mass and further extending the city once the erosion stops. The results of the translation are shown in the next pages, as well as the parameters used to translate each Biorock material.[038]

038 P.151

Bathymetric data of Tarawa provided by TCarta Marine LLC | https://www.tcarta.com/ Synthetic fiber reef || 3D Translation

P.152

[Input B/W - Stage 2]

Model 014_03 Translation [Natural Habitat] Z-Dimension Resolution Generations Solid Percentage

60 20 40 <0.5

Model 014_06 Translation [Protection] Z-Dimension Resolution Generations Solid Percentage

80 40 40 <0.7

Model 013_03 Translation [Industry] Z-Dimension Resolution Generations Solid Percentage

100 15 40 <0.4

Model 013_03 Translation [Industry] P.153

Synthetic fiber reef || 3D Translation

0

200

1000m

P.154

[Protection layer][br 014_06] Z-Dimension Resolution Generations Solid Percentage

P.155

+60 +20 +40 <0.5

[3D Translation Stage 2]

[Industry layer][br 013_03] Z-Dimension Resolution Generations Solid Percentage

+100 +15 +40 <0.4

[natural habitat][br 014_03] Z-Dimension Resolution Generations Solid Percentage

+80 +40 +40 <0.7

P.156

06.5

Synthetic fiber reef The synthetic fiber reef is generated from the 3-dimensional translation of the Biorock landscape, which already incorporates all specific qualities of each base material used. The fibers are the â&#x20AC;&#x153;bone structureâ&#x20AC;? for the Biorock to grow on. The generation of the fibers focuses on bringing the physical, especially volumetric attributes of each Biorock material used to the design itself. This is done in a function oriented process in order to reflect the previously developed density concept and even further amplify it. To create the base grid, each function layer is created with one of the of the three base Biorock materials. To further increase the efficiency of the functions drop points are introduced to the system. These additionally enhance the growth locally in strategically chosen areas, whereby each drop point represents the future function of the space and the form is defined by the growth enhancement itself. Each function is represented by specific Biorock material, from the previously created pool of materials, which best suits and also defines the given function. These drop points can be locally managed and strategically placed according to the needs of the inhabitants of the island and the ecosystem itself.

P.157

Synthetic fiber reef || Synthetic fiber reef

P.158

P.159

P.160

P.161 Synthetic fiber reef || Synthetic fiber reef

[Industry layer][br 013_03]

[Protection layer][br 014_06]

[Natural Habitat][br 014_03]

[Synthetic Fiber Structure - Base Grid]

[Industry layer][br 013_03] Group Min Radius Thickness

10 .3 .010

[Natural Habitat][br 014_03] Group Min Radius Thickness

15 .3 .015

[Protection layer][br 014_06] Group Min Radius Thickness

Synthetic fiber reef || Synthetic fiber reef

20 .3 .020

0

200

1000m

P.162

P.163

[Synthetic Fiber Structure - Drop Points]

P.164

P.165

[Synthetic Fiber Structure - Drop Points]

P.166

P.167

[Synthetic Fiber Structure - Functions]

P.168

P.169

P.170

06.6

unDesired Adaptation Synthetic fiber reef is a structure that naturally enhances the growth of volcanic islands, as opposed to regular growth rate, it does not take millions of years and can surpass the increasing sea level rise caused by global warming. By creating efficient breakwater structures that can repair themselves with very low building costs, it not only shields the island from flooding and reverses the erosion of beaches, but it also makes it especially sustainable. At the same time the fiber reef forms new natural habitat and creates thriving conditions for a whole marine ecosystem. The nowadays highly endangered corals are protected against bleaching events, with greatly increased survival rate and substantial boost in growth as well. This ecosystem also attracts other forms of marine life, such as fish, which generates a whole new economic revenue in tourism as an immense, almost endless diving park. It also enhances the already existing main source of income of the island, namely the fishing industry. The natural fishing is amplified by the presence of a new ecosystem and the fiber reef also provides industrial space for fish and oyster farms. The oyster growth rate is remarkably enhanced by Biorock, making it a very efficient component of the existing industry, that can be competitive even in international markets. Both of these new industry branches ensure the economical and ecological sustainability of the region for the future generations. All these qualities make the synthetic fiber reef a ecological structure that can save Tarawa and its inhabitants from being wiped out of existence in the next 30 years. This may be greatly required, but certainly is unDesired Adaptation.

P.171

Synthetic fiber reef || unDesired Adaptation

P.172

0 P.173

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef

Appendix References

P.174

07

Appendix

07.1

Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 008 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 5W 19.4V 0.27A 18.3V 0.29A 17.4V 0.30A 17.1V 0.30A 17.0V 0.30A 16.9V 0,30A 17.1V 0.30A 16.3V 0.30A 15.9V 0.36A 14.2V 0.39A 11.8V 0.38A 17.4V 0.30A 16.3V 0.32A 16.4V 0.40A 22.0V 0.30A 17.7V 0.35A 16.6V 0.35A 16.9V 0.35A 16.5V 0.35A 15.3V 0.37A 17.5V 0.37A 12.0V 0.37A 14.2V 0.37A 13.7V 0.40A 14.4V 0.41A 14.5V 0.41A 14.7V 0.41A n/a n/a

P.175

[02] 10W 13.3V 0.76A 13.8V 0.79A 15.5V 1.25A 12.7V 0.77A 12.5V 0.76A 14.4V 0.79A 13.1V 0.79A 14.6V 0.80A 14.1V 0.83A 7.30V 0.90A 14.3V 0.65A 16.6V 0.65A 14.4V 0.70A 14.9V 0.80A 24.0V 0.50A 18.5V 0.61A 17.8V 0.61A 17.0V 0.60A 12.2V 0.71A 12.2V 0.80A 14.6V 0.85A 18.5V 0.86A 13.1V 0.85A 14.4V 0.90A 30.5V 0.45A 30.5V 0.26A 31.5V 0.34A n/a n/a

[03] 20W 16.5V 1.38A 16.6V 1.34A 19.4V 1.29A 17.6V 1.20A 19.5V 1.20A 14.4V 1.10A 17.5V 1.25A 19.2V 1.21A 18.6V 1.15A 31.5V 0.29A 31.5V 0.44A 31.5V 0.20A 31.5V 0.39A 31.5V 0.30A 31.5V 0.07A 31.5V 0.15A 31.5V 0.13A 31.5V 0.14A 31.5V 0.19A 31.5V 0.15A 31.5V 0.14A 31.5V 0.30A 31.5V 0.30A 31.5V 0.28A 31.5V 0.17A 31.5V 0.14A 31.5V 0.23A n/a n/a

Time 00.00h 00.25h 00.50h 00.50h 01.00h 02.00h 02.00h 03.00h 04.00h 10.00h 11.50h 12.00h 12.00h 13.00h 24.00h 24.50h 25.00h 26.00h 27.00h 29.50h 36.00h 36.00h 37.00h 38.00h 39.00h 42.00h 45.00h 48.00h

Notes

Adjustments Adjustments Anode change [02][03] Not capped [03] Anode change [01][02][03] Cold Restart, added heater for jump start [03] Photo documentation [24h], Cold Restart, added heater for jump start [03] Heater removed [03]

Photo documentation [36h], Anode change [01][02] Warm Restart, No Adjustments, H2O added [01][02][03] Anode change [02] Photo documentation [48h]

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 008 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [04] 12.5W 24.4V 0.55A 22.5V 0.55A 22.5V 0.60A 20.9V 0.60A 23.0V 0.60A 23.3V 0.55A 23.4V 0.55A 23.1V 0.55A 23.1V 0.55A 23.1V 0.60A 14.5V 0.60A 16.2V 0.60A 16.7V 0.80A 13.9V 0.80A 14.6V 0.90A 13.5V 0.90A 13.9V 0.95A 12.4V 0.95A 12.0V 1.10A 13.2V 1.09A 13.0V 1.00A 13.1V 1.00A ----------16.7V 0.98A 14.8V 0.90A 14.3V 0.90A 14.5V 0.90A ----------21.6V 0.90A 19.2V 0.90A 14.7V 0.80A 15.2V 0.90A 15.0V 0.90A

[05] 15W 21.8V 0.75A 20.2V 0.74A 20.1V 0.80A 19.1V 0.79A 20.1V 0.79A 19.9V 0.80A 21.1V 0.80A 20.0V 0.80A 20.0V 0.80A 19.4V 0.85A 10.1V 0.85A 14.4V 0.85A 14.4V 1.05A 12.5V 1.05A 13.1V 1.20A 12.3V 1.20A 12.6V 1.25A 13.3V 1.25A 13.2V 1.25A 16.8V 1.25A 14.9V 0.90A 14.0V 1.05A 14.4V 1.10A 11.3V 1.05A 11.8V 1.10A 15.2V 1.00A 15.5V 1.00A 14.8V 1.10A 22.2V 1.14A 20.6V 1.11A 16.0V 084A 16.7V 0.95A 17.0V 0.95A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[06] 17.5W 19.3V 0.95A 17.6V 0.95A 18.3V 1.05A 17.6V 1.05A 17.3V 1.05A 17.8V 1.10A 16.8V 1.10A 13.7V 1.16A 14.3V 1.25A 21.3V 1.31A 24.3V 1.30A 23.7V 1.30A 24.4V 0.95A 15.7V 0.95A 16.4V 1.16A 17.1V 1.16A ----------9.8V 1.16A 18.7V 1.06A 15.6V 1.06A 16.0V 1.10A 16.8V 1.10A 17.1V 1.15A 19.5V 0.95A ----------19.8V 0.95A 15.9V 0.95A 16.9V 1.20A 23.8V 1.21A 22.4V 1.21A 10.3V 0.90A 14.0V 1.30A 14.1V 1.30A

Time 00.00h 00.25h 00.25h 00.50h 01.00h 01.00h 01.50h 02.00h 02.00h 03.00h 05.00h 05.00h 05.00h 06.00h 06.00h 07.00h 07.00h 08.00h 08.00h 09.00h 09.00h 10.00h 10.00h 11.00h 11.00h 12.00h 13.00h 13.00h 18.00h 18.00h 19.00h 19.00h 20.00h

Notes Initial Settings, Cold Start Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Anode change [04][05][06] No Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Anode change [04][05][06], Photo documentation [12h], No Adjustments Adjustments Cold Restart, Anode change [04][05][06], No Adjustments H2O added, No Adjustments Adjustments No Adjustments

P.176

P.177

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 008 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [04] 12.5W 9.50V 0.90A 16.7V 0.90A 20.4V 0.64A 13.1V 0.64A 16.8V 0.80A 15.5V 0.80A 16.0V 0.80A 23.5V 0.80A 30.9V 0.18A 30.9V 0.10A 16.8V 0.75A 14.6V 0.75A 15.0V 0.85A 14.3V 0.85A 14.6V 0.90A 14.9V 0.90A 14.9V 0.90A ----------15.8V 0.90A ----------15.9V 0.90A 15.5V 0.85A 8.20V 0.91A 11.0V 1.25A 11.3V 1.25A 23.2V 1.24A 18.0V 0.80A 28.8V 0.80A 24.9V 0.55A 30.9V 0.38A 30.9V 0.17A 30.9V 0.14A

[05] 15W 9.60V 0.95A 12.4V 1.30A 20.0V 0.84A 9.60V 0.84A 11.9V 1.10A 11.6V 1.10A 11.9V 1.16A 11.9V 1.16A 25.9V 1.16A 25.6V 1.16A 20.2V 0.75A 10.7V 0.75A 15.4V 1.10A 11.2V 1.10A 12.5V 1.30A 12.8V 1.29A 19.0V 1..29A 14.1V 1.10A 16.0V 0.90A 16.5V 0.95A 20.8V 0.95A 19.5V 0.90A 27.0V 0.79A 21.3V 0.60A 23.5V 0.60A 14.4V 0.60A 18.1V 0.90A 31.6V 0.51A 31.5V 0.40A 31.5V 0.36A 31.5V 0.42A 31.5V 0.12A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[06] 17.5W 31.5V 0.86A 19.7V 0.61A 27.4V 0.80A 30.6V 0.82A 27.6V 0.70A 31.5V 0.66A 30.0V 0.60A 31.5V 0.56A 28.6V 0.60A 24.4V 0.60A 29.7V 0.65A 31.0V 0.65A 31.5V 0.50A 31.5V 0.50A ----------31.5V 0.37A 31.5V 0.22A ----------31.5V 0.02A ----------31.5V 0.01A 31.5V 0.27A 31.5V 0.16A ----------31.5V 0.18A 31.5V 0.32A 31.5V 0.35A 31.5V 0.10A 31.5V 0.08A 31.5V 0.28A 31.5V 0.17A 31.5V 0.08A

Time 21.00h 21.00h 21.00h 22.00h 22.00h 23.00h 23.00h 24.00h 24.00h 24.00h 24.00h 25.00h 25.00h 26.00h 26.00h 27.00h 28.00h 28.00h 29.00h 29.00h 30.00h 30.00h 31.00h 31.00h 32.00h 33.00h 33.00h 36.00h 36.00h 40.00h 42.00h 48.00h

Notes Anode change[05][06], H2O added, stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [24h], No Adjustments Warm Restart, Anode change [04][06], H2O added, No Adjustments Adjustments Not capped [P6] Adjustments No Adjustments Adjustments, Anode change [05][06] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments No Adjustments Anode change [04][05], H2O added, stir Adjustments Cold Restart, Anode change [06], Photo documentation [36h] Adjustments, Not capped [05][06] Not capped [04][05][06], No Adjustments No Adjustments Photo documentation [48h] , anodes used [01] 3, [02] 5, [03] 5, [04] 5, [05] 6, [06] 6

P.178

P.179

100x Zoom [008-03]

100x Zoom [008-03]

P.180

Logbook for Experiment [ 009 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 23.8V 1.00A 17.1V 1.00A 18.2V 1.13A 15.8V 1.13A 16.3V 1.25A 12.0V 1.25A 13.5V 1.50A 13.1V 1.50A 13.6V 1.55A 9.7V 1.55A 10.8V 1.80A 25.5V 1.80A 22.7V 0.95A 17.1V 0.95A 18.3V 1.10A 18.4V 1.10A 20.2V 1.10A 20.4V 1.00A 15.0V 1.00A 21.0V 0.95A 15.0V 0.95A 17.2V 1.25A 14.3V 1.25A 15.0V 1.40A 18.4V 1.36A 17.3V 1.25A 19.1V 1.25A 18.1V 1.15A 23.4V 1.15A 21.5V 0.95A 21.9V 0.95A ------ -----8.1V 0.95A 13.8V 1.60A 18.2V 1.60A P.181

[02] 20W 23.0V 1.00A 19.3V 0.99A 18.5V 1.10A 16.2V 1.09A 17.0V 1.25A 15.0V 1.25A 15.5V 1.35A 14.5V 1.35A 14.8V 1.40A 14.2V 1.40A 14.4V 1.45A 14.0V 1.45A 14.2V 1.50A 12.0V 1.50A 13.0V 1.60A 17.5V 1.60A 16.1V 1.60A 14.5V 1.40A 8.6V 1.40A 16.8V 1.30A 10.4V 1.30A 12.6V 1.60A 21.2V 1.60A 190.V 1.10A 31.5V 0.12A 31.5V 0.34A 26.7V 1.72A 26.2V 080A 16.5V 0.85A 19.3V 1.10A 11.8V 1.10A 14.5V 1.40A 13.8V 1.40A 14.3V 1.45A 12.0V 1.45A

[03] 20W 23.1V 1.00A 20.3V 0.99A 19.8V 1.05A 16.9V 1.05A 18.0V 1.20A 17.0V 1.19A ------ -----17.1V 1.20A ------ -----14.9V 1.20A 15.6V 1.40A 15.2V 1.40A ------ -----13.0V 1.40A 13.5V 1.50A 13.8V 1.50A 15.7V 1.50A 14.8V 1.40A 10.7V 1.40A 13.7V 1.45A 9.0V 1.45A 12.2V 1.90A 13.8V 1.90A 13.0V 1.70A 31.5V 0.80A 25.8V 0.80A 21.0A 0.79A 21.6V 0.90A 15.8V 0.89A 17.9V 1.20A 15.3V 1.20A 15.3V 1.30A 15.5V 1.30A 15.7V 1.35A 11.7V 1.35A

[04] 20W 20.0V 1.00A 19.4V 1.00A 19.2V 1.10A 17.3V 1.10A 17.6V 1.15A 16.3V 1.15A 16.7V 1.23A 15.6V 1.23A 15.9V 1.30A 14.8V 1.30A 15.2V 1.35A 13.8V 1.35A 14.5V 1.45A 14.5V 1.45A ------ -----16.8V 1.48A 17.6V 1.48A 16.4V 1.30A 12.5V 1.26A 16.8V 1.30A 10.9V 1.30A 12.7V 1.60A 17.0V 1.59A 15.7V 1.30A 24.0V 1.40A 20.0V 1.00A 20.1V 1.00A ------ -----15.0V 0.99A 17.3V 1.20A 12.2V 1.20A 21.7V 1.00A 9.9V 0.99A 13.9V 1.40A 19.7V 1.39A

[05] 20W 26.8V 1.00A 23.4V 0.99A 21.7V 0.95A 19.6V 0.95A 20.0V 1.00A 17.0V 1.00A 18.0V 1.15A 15.0V 1.15A 16.2V 1.30A 13.0V 1.30A 14.5V 1.50A 10.7V 1.51A 12.2V 1.70A 12.1V 1.70A ------ -----19.0V 1.70A 20.5V 1.70A 18.0V 1.20A 9.9V 1.20A 13.0V 1.75A 26.6V 1.75A 22.7V 0.90A 16.5V 0.90A 18.0V 1.15A 25.6V 1.20A 22.7V 0.90A 27.2V 0.90A 25.6V 0.80A 19.1V 0.80A 21.0V 1.00A 14.5V 1.50A 12.7V 1.75A 9.2V 1.75A 10.4V 2.00A 10.4A 2.00A

[06] 20W 11.5V 1.00A 11.6V 1.00A 11.5V 1.80A 11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A 11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 1.80A ------ -----11.5V 0.03A 30.9V 0.24A 30.9V 0.14A ------ -----23.4V 2.04A 19.8V 1.10A 15.7V 1.10A 17.6V 1.20A 21.4V 1.20A 20.4V 1.00A 14.6V 1.00A

Time 0.00h 0.50h 0.50h 1.00h 1.00h 2.00h 2.00h 3.00h 3.00h 4.00h 4.00h 5.00h 5.00h 6.00h 6.00h 7.00h 7.00h 7.00h 8.00h 8.00h 9.00h 9.00h 10.0h 10.0h 12.0h 12.0h 13.0h 13.0h 14.0h 14.0h 15.0h 15.0h 17.0h 17.0h 18.0h

Notes Start with boiling water, Full power, [02][03] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added, stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, boiling water added, stir Cold Restart, Anode change [02][03][04][05], Photo documentation [12h] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, stir Adjustments

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 009 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 17.3V 1.25A 10.0V 1.25A 13.7V 1.65A 10.2V 1.65A 11.2V 1.90A 15.2V 1.90A 12.4V 1.55A 10.9V 1.55V 12.3V 1.70A 30.9V 0.71A 25.6V 1.70A 18.5V 1.10A 15.9V 1.10A 18.1V 1.30A 21.2V 1.30A 19.3V 1.20A 30.9V 0.72A ------ -----30.9V 1.00A 30.9V .46A 30.9V 0.43A 30.9V 0.40A ------ -----30.9V 0.34A ------ -----30.9V 0.36A n/a n/a 30.9V 0.72A ----- ----30.9V 0.24A 30.9V 0.22A

[02] 20W 12.5V 1.70A 23.2V 1.75A 17.4V 1.30A 25.4V 1.30A 20.7V 1.05A 22.5V 1.05A 21.5V 0.95A 28.1V 0.95A 25.9V 0.85A 31.5V 0.59A 31.5V 0.65A ------ -----31.5V 0.54A ------ -----31.5V 0.38A ------ -----31.5V 0.42A ------ -----31.5V 0.62A 31.5V 0.40A 31.5V 0.35A 31.5V 0.32A ------ -----31.5V 0.30A ------ -----31.5V 0.28A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.15A ----- ----31.5V 0.20A 31.5V 0.33A

[03] 20W 12.9V 1.65A 10.7V 1.64A 11.8V 1.80A 11.5V 1.80A ------ -----10.5V 1.80A 11.2V 1.90A 11.5V 1.90A ------ -----31.5V 0.87A 31.5V 1.20A 24.6V 0.80A 26.0V 0.85A ------ -----29.8V 0.85A 26.8V 0.80A 31.5V 0.48A ------ -----31.5V 0.72A 31.5V 0.46A 31.5V 0.36A 31.5V 0.30A ------ -----31.5V 0.27A ------ -----31.5V 0.28A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.14A ----- ----31.5V 0.22A 31.5V 0.25A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W 18.1V 1.20A 8.8V 1.20A 17.1V 1.20A 14.2V 1.20A 15.1V 1.40A 23.4V 1.40A 20.3V 1.10A 18.3V 1.10A 18.9V 1.20A 31.5V 0.11A 31.5V 0.20A ------ -----31.5V 0.24A ------ -----31.5V 0.27A ------ -----31.5V 0.26A ------ -----31.5V 0.42A 31.5V 0.32A 31.5V 0.28A 31.5V 0.28A ------ -----31.5V 0.27A ------ -----31.5V 0.27A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.22A ----- ----31.5V 0.19A 31.5V 0.24A

[05] 20W 9.8V 2.10A 11.1V 2.10A 10.5V 2.00A 12.0V 2.00A 11.5V 1.90A 10.1V 1.90A 10.4V 2.00A 13.0V 2.00A 11.8V 1.80A 31.9V 0.29A 31.9V 0.51A ------ -----31.9V 0.63A ------ -----31.9V 0.44A ------ -----31.9V 0.38A ------ -----31.9V 0.70A 31.9V 0.55A 31.9V 0.53A 31.9V 0.50A ------ -----31.9V 0.39A ------ -----31.9V 0.34A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.46A ----- ----31.9V 0.29A 31.9V 0.24A

[06] 20W 16.3V 1.20A 10.0V 1.20A 12.8V 1.70A 10.1V 1.70A 11.3V 1.90A 24.3V 1.90A 20.7V 1.05A 21.0V 1.05A 21.2V 1.00A 18.6V 1.00A 18.7V 1.15A ------ -----25.4V 1.15A 24.1V 0.90A 14.3V 0.90A 19.1V 1.20A 7.7V 1.20A 11.6V 1.80A 10.5V 1.90A 11.6V 1.90A 11.0A 1.90A 15.7V 1.90A 12.8V 1.60A 22.4V 1.60A 17.0V 1.20A 30.9V 0.81A n/a n/a 30.9V 1.42A 21.6V 0.90A 30.9V 0.21A 30.9V 0.43A

Time 18.0h 19.0h 19.0h 20.0h 20.0h 21.0h 21.0h 22.0h 22.0h 24.0h 25.0h 25.0h 26.0h 26.0h 27.0h 27.0h 28.0h 28.0h 29.0h 30.0h 31.0h 32.0h 32.0h 33.0h 33.0h 34.0h 36.0h 37.0h 37.0h 47.0h 48.0h

Notes Adjustments, anode change [01], boiling water added, stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Cold Restart, Anode change [All], boiling water added, Photo documentation [24h] [02][04][05] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, stir No adjustments No Adjustments No Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments None capped Photo documentation [36h], anode change [06], boiling water added Adjustments Boiling water added Photo documentation [48h], anodes used [01] 4, [02] 3, [03] 3, [04] 2, [05] 3, [06] 3

P.182

P.183

40x Zoom [009-05]

100x Zoom [009-05]

P.184

Logbook for Experiment [ 010 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 29.5V 2.04A 24.2V 0.90A 21.9V 0.90A 22.3V 0.95A 20.8V 0.95A 20.8V 1.00A 18.9V 1.00A 19.3V 1.10A 17.2V 1.10A 18.0V 1.20A 11.6V 1.20A 14.8V 1.50A 10.3V 1.50A 12.7V 1.80A 9.9V 1.81A 11.0V 2.00A 11.3V 2.00A 25.0V 2.00A 22.0V 1.00A 20.9V 1.00A ------ -----8.9V 1.00A 13.5V 1.70A 7.1V 1.70A 9.0V 2.04A 14.0V 2.04A n/a n/a 30.9V 0.09A 31.0V 0.02A 30.9V 0.05A 30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----25.4V 2.04A P.185

[02] 20W 31.5V 0.41A ------ -----31.5V 3.37A 22.9V 0.95A 24.1V 0.95A 23.7V 0.90A 20.0V 0.90A 20.5V 1.00A 18.4V 1.00A 19.1V 1.10A 23.1V 1.10A 22.1V 0.90A 14.4V 0.90A 17.2V 1.20A 10.1V 1.21A 13.9V 1.60A 12.8V 1.61A 24.8V 1.61A 22.4V 1.00A 15.3V 1.00A 17.9V 1.25A 7.1V 1.25A 10.8V 2.10A 7.3V 2.10A 9.0V 2.50A 8.5V 2.50A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.05A 31.5V 0.03A 31.5V 0.17A 31.5V 4.00A 25.4V 0.90A 15.7V 0.90A 25.4V 0.90A 8.6V 1.21A

[03] 20W 31.6V 0.54A ------ -----29.9V 5.21A 21.1V 0.95A 18.8V 0.95A 19.0V 1.10A 14.8V 1.10A 16.5V 1.40A 8.0V 1.40A 11.5V 1.90A 7.7V 1.90A 9.3V 2.20A 9.0V 2.30A ------ -----9.6V 2.30A ------ -----11.3V 2.31A 16.1V 2.31A 10.5V 2.05A 15.2V 2.05A 12.5V 1.70A 18.8V 1.70A 12.6V 1.70A 19.6V 1.70A 16.7V 1.40A 31.5V 1.22A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.40A 31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.13A ------ -----31.5V 3.04A

[04] 20W 31.6V 0.35A 31.5V 0.40A 31.5V 2.84A 24.2V 0.87A 24.2V 1.00A 23.9V 0.90A 22.7V 0.90A ------ -----24.5V 0.90A 24.3V 0.85A 21.0V 0.85A 21.4V 0.95A 22.0V 0.95A ------ -----25.0V 0.95A 16.9V 0.95A 19.4V 1.10A 9.4V 1.10A 15.0V 1.50A 9.7V 1.50A 13.5V 1.80A 10.6V 1.80A 11.5V 2.00A 31.5V 1.09A 28.2V 0.80A ------ -----n/a n/a 31.5V 0.04A 31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.15A

[05] 20W 31.9V 0.20A ------ -----31.9V 0.11A ------ -----31.9V 0.09A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.40A ------ -----31.9V 0.40A ------ -----31.9V 0.20A 31.9V 0.40A 31.9V 0.40A ------ -----31.9V 0.40A ------ -----31.9V 0.40A ------ -----31.9V 0.50A ------ -----31.9V 0.70A ------ -----n/a n/a 31.9V 0.00A 31.9V 0.00A 31.9V 0.01A 31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.03A ------ -----31.9V 0.36A

[06] 20W 30.9V 0.13A ------ -----30.9V 0.14A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----30.9V 0.70A ------ -----30.9V 0.50A ------ -----30.9V 0.40A ------ -----30.9V 0.30A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A 30.9V 0.20A 30.9V 0.20A 30.9V 0.20A 30.9V 0.20A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----n/a n/a 30.9V 0.00A 30.9V 0.00A 30.9V 0.02A 30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 1.25A ------ -----26.8V 1.00A

Time 0.00h 0.00h 0.50h 0.50h 1.00h 1.00h 2.00h 2.00h 3.00h 3.00h 4.00h 4.00h 5.00h 5.00h 6.00h 6.00h 7.00h 7.00h 8.00h 8.00h 9.00h 9.00h 10.0h 10.0h 11.0h 11.0h 12.0h 12.0h 12h 12.5h 13.0h 13.0h 14.0h 14.0h 15.0h

Notes Start with boiling water, Full power, none capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [12h] Cold Restart, Anode change [01][02][03][04], Photo documentation [12h] Adjustments No Adjustments, heater added to [06] Adjustments Heater moved to [05] Adjustments

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 010 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 21.6V 1.00A 8.4V 1.00A 13.5V 1.60A 10.2V 1.60A 11.8V 1.90A 11.5V 1.90A ------ -----10.3V 1.90A 11.0V 2.00A 12.9V 2.00A 12.2V 1.90A 24.9V 1.90A 17.3V 1.30A 22.6V 1.30A 14.0V 1.30A 14.8V 1.40A 15.3V 1.41A ------ -----23.4V 1.41A 19.6V 1.20A 30.9V 1.04A 15.1V 2.04A 12.8V 1.70A 16.3V 1.70A 14.8V 1.50A 14.2V 1.50A 14.0V 1.60A 10.3V 1.60A 11.5V 1.80A 11.4V 1.80A ------ -----30.6V 1.80A 25.7V 0.85A 27.5V 0.85A 27.1V 0.80A

[02] 20W 12.0V 1.80A 9.4V 1.80A 11.2V 1.90A 9.8V 1.90A 10.2V 2.00A 11.3V 2.00A ------ -----25.5V 2.00A 13.1V 1.60A 23.6V 1.60A 17.4V 1.20A 31.5V 1.05A 25.4V 0.90A 31.5V 0.84A 14.5V 0.90A 19.3V 1.20A 19.7V 1.20A 18.3V 1.15A 31.5V 0.83A ------ -----31.5V 0.73A 31.5V 1.14A 25.5V 0.90A 31.5V 0.56A 31.5V 0.55A 31.5V 0.38A ------ -----31.5V 0.29A ------ -----31.5V 0.31A ------ -----31.5V 0.31A ------ -----31.5V 0.38A ------ ------

[03] 20W 13.9V 1.60A 24.3V 1.60A 17.5V 1.30A 31.5V 1.23A 23.2V 0.90A 28.8V 0.90A 27.5V 0.85A 31.5V 0.85A 31.5V 0.85A 31.5V 0.61A ------ -----31.5V 0.47A ------ -----31.5V 0.49A 31.5V 1.16A 23.2V 0.90A 28.6V 0.90A 26.0V 0.85A 31.5V 0.64A ------ -----31.5V 0.57A 27.8V 2.25A 10.8V 2.00A 13.8V 1.99A 12.3V 1.80A 12.0V 1.79A 12.8V 1.90A 11.4V 1.89A ------ -----10.9V 1.55A 12.1V 1.75A 12.7V 1.75A ------ -----14.1V 1.75A 13.5V 1.65A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W ------ -----28.8V 3.17A 23.1V 1.00A 7.8V 1.00A 11.4V 1.50A 8.3V 1.50A 11.3V 2.00A 9.7V 2.00A ------ -----7.9V 1.99A 9.3V 2.40A 9.1V 2.40A ------ -----n/a n/a 9.9V 2.40A 9.1V 2.20A 21.9V 1.00A ------ -----15.9V 2.19A 12.5V 1.80A 18.6V 1.80A 22.8V 1.80A 17.9V 1.25A 22.3V 1.25A 18.3V 1.20A 15.0V 1.20A 16.1V 1.30A 16.6V 1.30A ------ -----18.0V 1.29A 17.2V 1.25A 21.2V 1.25A 19.0V 1.10A 24.0V 1.11A 21.9V 1.00A

[05] 20W [06] 20W ------ ------ 25.7V 0.90A 31.9V 1.31A 25.8V 0.90A 28.0V 0.80A ------ -----27.2V 0.80A 25.1V 0.90A ------ ------ ------ -----22.0V 0.80A 27.7V 0.90A 24.0V 0.95A 26.4V 0.85A 24.7V 0.95A 28.6V 0.85A ------ ------ ------ -----15.2V 0.95A 17.2V 0.85A 18.4V 1.20A 21.3V 1.05A 17.3V 1.20A 17.2V 1.05A ------ ------ 19.3V 1.15A n/a n/a n/a n/a 15.0V 1.20A 17.2V 1.15A 16.0V 1.30A 18.0V 1.20A 17.9V 1.30A 17.2V 1.20A 17.5V 1.20A ------ -----15.2V 1.20A 16.3V 1.20A 15.9V 1.30A 17.5V 1.30A 17.5V 1.30A 17.6V 1.30A 23.6V 1.30A 27.5V 1.30A 21.4V 1.05A 23.4V 0.90A 29.0V 1.05A 21.0V 0.90A 24.3V 0.90A 22.5V 0.95A 17.1V 0.90A 21.5V 0.95A 20.0V 1.05A 21.7V 1.00A 13.2V 1.05A 20.0V 1.00A 17.0V 1.30A ------ -----14.1V 1.30A 30.0V 1.00A 15.2V 1.40A 25.0V 0.85A 14.8V 1.40A 16.2V 0.85A ------ ------ 20.2V 1.05A 15.1V 1.40A 167.0V 1.05A 15.0V 1.45A 18.0V 1.20A

Time 15.0h 16.0h 16.0h 16.5h 16.5h 17.0h 17.0h 18.0h 18.0h 19.0h 19.0h 20.0h 20.0h 21.0h 21.0h 21.0H 22.0h 22.0h 23.0h 23.0h 24.0h 24.00h 25.00h 25.50h 25.50h 26.00h 26.00h 27.00h 27.00h 28.00h 28.00h 29.00h 29.00h 30.00h 30.00h

Notes Adjustments Heater removed from [05] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added, stir Adjustments Anode change [01] Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [24h] Cold Restart, [01]+40g (NH4)2SO4, [02]+50g Ca(H2PO4)2, [03] Solution renewed Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, Anode change [01][06], Boiling H2O added, stir P.186

Logbook for Experiment [ 010 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 25.4V 0.80A ------ -----20.5V 0.80A 21.6V 0.90A 21.1V 0.90A 21.8V 0.95A 17.3V 0.95A 21.3V 1.10A 15.2V 1.10A 18.1V 1.30A 14.7V 1.31A 16.1V 1.40A 16.0V 1.40A 30.9V 0.09A 30.9V 0.09A 30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.14A ------ -----30.9V 0.68A ------ -----30.9V 1.20A 23.5V 0.90A 17.9V 0.90A 21.2V 1.05A 29.1V 1.05A 24.4V 0.90A 30.9V 0.89A ------ -----30.9V 0.70A 30.9V 0.65A P.187

[02] 20W 31.5V 0.48A ------ -----31.5V 0.26A ------ -----31.5V 0.17A ------ -----31.5V 0.15A ------ -----31.5V 0.13A ------ -----31.5V 0.12A ------ -----31.5V 0.12A 31.5V 0.08A 31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A 31.5V 0.05A

[03] 20W 11.1V 1.65A 12.2V 1.80A 15.1V 1.80A 13.0V 1.60A 19.1V 1.59A 15.2V 1.35A 23.1V 1.35A 19.1V 1.10A 27.9V 1.10A 23.0V 0.90A 31.5V 0.89A 20.6V 1.10A 31.5V 0.88A 31.5V 0.27A 31.5V 0.14A 31.5V 0.15A ------ -----31.5V 0.30A ------ -----31.5V 0.25A ------ -----31.5V 0.23A ------ -----31.5V 0.17A ------ -----31.5V 0.19A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.16A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.21A 31.5V 0.20A

[04] 20W 14.4V 1.00A 17.4V 1.20A 18.7V 1.20A ------ -----22.5V 1.20A 20.6V 1.10A 24.0V 1.10A 21.8V 1.00A 31.5V 0.85A 21.4V 1.00A 23.5V 1.00A 30.8V 1.00A 26.0V 0.85A 31.6V 0.05A 31.5V 0.08A 31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.17A ------ -----31.5V 0.17A ------ -----31.5V 0.17A ------ -----31.5V 0.19A ------ -----31.5V 0.24A ------ -----31.5V 0.27A ------ -----31.5V 0.39A ------ -----31.5V 0.61A ------ -----31.5V 0.45A 31.5V 0.40A

[05] 20W 14.2V 1.45A ------ -----14.0V 1.45A ------ -----31.9V 0.81A 28.9V 0.75A 9.2V 0.75A 15.5V 1.30A 13.7V 1.30A 14.8V 1.40A 14.3V 1.40A 14.7V 1.40A ------ -----31.9V 0.47A 31.9V 0.54A 31.9V 0.75A 30.1V 0.70A 26.0V 0.70A 28.2V 0.75A 24.0V 0.75A 26.4V 0.85A 23.4V 0.85A 24.7V 0.90A 25.8V 0.90A ------ -----26.1V 0.89A ------ -----28.3V 0.89A 25.2V 0.80A 18.3V 0.80A ------ -----26.8V 0.80A ------ -----31.9V 0.73A 31.9V 0.70A

[06] 20W 29.2V 1.20A 23.7V 0.90A 16.8V 0.90A 20.5V 1.05A 16.2V 1.05A 18.1V 1.20A 17.0V 1.20A ------ -----17.8V 1.20A ------ -----17.3V 1.20A 17.0V 1.20A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A 30.9V 0.24A 30.9V 0.83A 29.3V 0.75A 28.0V 0.75A ------ -----16.8V 0.75A 21.5V 1.00A 17.6V 1.00A 19.5V 1.10A 14.9V 1.10A 16.8V 1.25A 16.0V 1.25A ------ -----15.5V 1.25A 16.2V 1.30A 15.7V 1.30A ------ -----14.4V 1.30A 15.7V 1.40A 16.0V 1.40A 16.0V 1.40A

Time 30.00h 30.00h 31.00h 31.00h 32.00h 32.00h 33.00h 33.00h 34.00h 34.00h 35.00h 35.00h 36.00h 36.00h 37.00h 38.00h 38.00h 39.00h 39.00h 40.00h 40.00h 41.00h 41.00h 42.00h 42.00h 43.00h 43.00h 44.00h 44.00h 45.00h 45.00h 46.00h 46.00h 47.00h 48.00h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments Anode change [05] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Cold Restart, Anode change [All], Photo documentation [36h] No Adjustments, [04] not capped Adjustments, heater adder [01] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, heater adder [04] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Heater moved to [03] Adjustments No adjustments, [05] not capped Photo documentation [48h], anodes used [01] 4, [02] 3, [03] 3, [04] 3, [05] 3, [06] 3 Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

P.188

P.189

40x Zoom [010-01]

100x Zoom [010-01]

P.190

Logbook for Experiment [ 011 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 29.5V 2.00A 23.4V 0.90A 20.9V 0.90A 21.2V 1.00A 20.8V 1.00A ------ -----19.0V 1.00A 19.5V 1.10A 19.6V 1.10A ------ -----18.6V 1.10A 17.9V 1.10A 18.3V 1.15A 16.4V 1.15A 14.6V 1.15A 15.8V 1.40A 24.7V 1.40A 23.1V 1.00A 23.1V 1.00A 19.7V 1.00A 20.6V 1.05A 18.6V 1.05A 19.2V 1.10A 19.5V 1.10A ------ -----19.7V 1.10A 19.8V 1.10A ------ -----20.3V 1.10A ------ -----18.3V 1.10A 31.0V 0.09A ------ -----24.0V 0.1.25A 21.0V 1.00A P.191

[02] 20W 31.5V 2.66A 24.0V 0.90A 22.6V 0.89A 23.0V 0.95A 21.8V 0.95A 21.5V 1.00A 19.1V 1.00A 19.7V 1.10A 18.4V 1.10A ------ -----18.9V 1.10A 13.1V 1.09A 17.0V 1.30A 9.7V 1.30A 8.3V 1.30A 14.4V 1.60A 9.3V 1.60A 11.9V 1.90A 11.9V 1.90A 14.9V 1.90A 12.5V 1.70A 8.4V 1.70A 10.3V 2.10A 9.2V 2.10A ------ -----9.2V 2.10A 8.7V 2.10A 9.1V 2.20A 9.6V 2.20A ------ -----27.1V 2.20A 31.5V 0.77A 23.7V 0.90A 31.5V 0.77A ------ ------

[03] 20W 31.0V 5.27A 25.2V 0.90A 21.8V 0.89A 22.1V 1.00A 22.2V 0.99A ------ -----21.8V 1.00A ------ -----21.4V 1.00A ------ -----20.6V 0.99A ------ -----19.5V 0.98A 19.8V 1.10A 18.5V 1.11A 21.3V 1.11A 21.0V 1.00A 20.0V 1.00A ------ -----17.1V 1.00A 18.7V 1.10A 10.3V 1.10A 14.3V 1.50A 10.7V 1.49A ------ -----9.8V 1.50A 8.6V 1.50A 11.4V 2.00A 10.0V 2.00A ------ -----10.4V 2.00A 28.1V 2.03A 22.6V 1.00A 28.1V 2.03A 24.1V 0.90A

[04] 20W 28.1V 3.19A 21.8V 0.90A 20.7V 0.90A 21.5V 1.00A 17.1V 1.00A 18.0V 1.15A 8.3V 1.16A 17.1V 1.25A 10.2V 1.71A 11.1V 1.90A 13.3V 1.90A 12.3V 1.80A 15.6V 1.80A 14.0V 1.60A 31.5V 1.57A 12.2V 1.70A ------ -----18.6V 1.70A 15.3V 1.40A 31.5V 1.34A 12.4V 1.70A 31.5V 0.69A ------ -----31.5V 1.72A 20.8V 1.15A 29.4V 1.15A 13.0V 1.15A 15.8V 1.30A 31.5V 1.24A 22.2V 0.95A 31.5V 0.41A 31.6V 0.83A 28.6V 0.75A 31.6V 0.83A ------ ------

[05] 20W [06] 20W+heater 30.3V 3.23A 25.5V 0.90A 24.8V 0.90A 22.6V 0.90A 23.2V 0.90A 22.3V 0.90A ------ ------ 22.5V 0.95A 21.1V 0.89A 19.3V 0.96A 20.8V 1.00A 19.7V 1.05A 18.8V 1.00A 18.5V 1.05A 19.7V 1.10A 18.2V 1.20A 19.0V 1.10A 20.6V 1.20A ------ ------ 19.7V 1.10A 18.4V 1.09A 16.5V 1.10A 18.5V 1.15A 17.1V 1.20A 16.9V 1.15A 7.8V 1.20A 17.8V 1.20A 11.5V 1.80A 14.3V 1.20A 8.7V 1.80A ------ ------ 8.2V 1.80A ------ ------ 9.2V 2.04A 9.5V 1.20A 8.7V 2.04A 13.5V 1.60A ------ -----20.0V 1.60A 8.4V 2.04A 16.4V 1.40A ------ -----14.9V 1.40A 11.2V 2.04A ------ ------ ------ -----28.4V 1.40A 12.9V 2.04A 25.4V 0.90A 11.8V 1.80A 25.3V 0.90A 13.0V 1.80A 24.2V 0.90A 8.2V 1.80A ------ ------ 9.3V 2.04A 9.3V 0.90A 10.7V 2.04A 14.5V 1.50A ------ -----11.1V 1.45A 26.9V 2.04A 31.9V 0.52A 20.6V 2.04A 26.0V 0.90A 15.4V 1.40A 31.9V 0.52A 20.6V 2.04A 18.5V 1.10A 18.4V 1.20A

Time 0.00h 0.00h 0.50h 0.50h 1.00h 1.00h 2.00h 2.00h 3.00h 3.00h 4.00h 4.00h 5.00h 5.00h 6.00h 6.00h 6.00h 7.00h 7.00h 8.00h 8.00h 9.00h 9.00h 10.00h 10.00h 10.50h 10.50h 10.50h 11.00h 11.00h 12.00h 12.00h 12.00h 13.00h 13.00h

Notes Start with boiling water, full power [All] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added [All] Adjustments [06] not capped Adjustments Adjustments [04] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [12h], anode change [02][05] Cold Restart, boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 011 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 18.2V 1.00A 19.0V 1.10A 18.4V 1.10A ------ -----18.7V 1.10A ------ -----18.2V 1.10A ------ -----18.6V 1.10A ------ -----17.6V 1.10A 17.3V 1.10A 17.5V 1.20A 16.8V 1.20A 17.3V 1.25A 18.9V 1.25A 18.1V 1.20A 20.9V 1.20A 20.2V 1.10A 20.3V 1.10A ------ -----n/a n/a 29.5V 1.10A 24.7V 0.90A 17.5V 0.90A 18.9V 1.10A 19.7V 1.10A ------ -----18.0V 1.10A 18.2V 1.15A 15.4V 1.15A 16.2V 1.30A 14.0V 1.30A 14.8V 1.40A 13.0V 1.40A

[02] 20W 19.6V 0.89A 20.3V 1.00A 10.3V 1.00A 15.2V 1.40A 9.8V 1.40A 12.0V 1.80A 8.2V 1.80A 9.4V 2.10A 8.4V 2.10A 9.2V 2.30A 10.3V 2.30A 8.5V 2.30A 8.8V 2.40A 9.5V 2.40A 9.0V 2.30A 11.1V 2.29A 10.1V 2.10A 15.8V 2.10A 12.6V 1.70A 26.7V 1.70A 18.3V 1.20A n/a n/a 12.2V 1.21A 31.5V 2.40A 31.5V 2.17A 22.7V 0.90A 16.9V 0.89A 18.7V 1.10A 18.4V 1.10A 18.8V 1.15A 17.0V 1.15A 17.5V 1.20A 14.8V 1.20A 16.0V 1.35A 10.2V 1.35A

[03] 20W 12.4V 0.89A 17.5V 1.20A 9.2V 1.20A 14.3V 1.70A 29.6V 1.70A 26.3V 0.90A 9.4V 0.90A 18.2V 1.20A 23.7V 1.20A 21.7V 1.00A 8.1V 1.00A 6.6V 1.00A 12.1V 1.80A 10.6V 1.80A 10.7V 1.90A 10.9V 1.90A ------ -----13.4V 1.90A 12.4V 1.80A 16.1V 1.80A 14.3V 1.60A n/a n/a 31.6V 1.22A 10.0V 2.40A 8.0V 2.18A 12.5V 1.70A 14.0V 1.69A 13.6V 13.60A 11.6V 1.59A 12.7V 1.65A 9.9V 1.65A 11.5V 1.90A 10.6V 1.90A 11.0V 2.00A 14.5V 2.00A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W 31.5V 0.20A ------ -----31.5V 0.15A ------ -----31.5V 0.11A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A 31.5V 0.17A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.11A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----n/a n/a 31.6V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.05A 1.6V -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 2.13A 25.0V 0.90A 25.0V 1.66A 22.3V 0.95A 15.3V 0.95A

[05] 20W 12.2V 1.10A 16.3V 1.40A 13.7V 1.37A 13.9V 1.50A 19.1V 1.50A 16.6V 1.30A 25.0V 1.30A 14.1V 1.40A 17.6V 1.40A 16.6V 1.30A 23.4V 1.30A 16.9V 1.30A ------ -----22.4V 1.30A 19.6V 1.10A 28.5V 1.10A 23.9V 0.90A 31.9V 0.44A ------ -----31.5V 0.37A ------ -----n/a n/a 31.5V 2.76A 15.6V 1.40A 29.0V 1.40A 21.5V 0.95A 29.9V 0.95A ------ 25.90A 25.5V 0.85A ------ -----23.7V 0.85A 24.8V 0.90A 25.8V 0.90A 23.9V 0.85A 31.9V 0.75A

[06] 20W+heater 23.0V 1.20A 21.1V 1.10A 30.9V 0.82A 18.0V 1.10A 28.3V 1.10A 23.7V 0.90A 30.9V 0.53A 20.2V 1.00A 24.7V 1.00A 23.8V 0.95A 30.9V 0.65A 21.2V 0.95A ------ -----25.5V 0.95A 23.7V 0.90A 30.9V 0.87A 23.9V 0.90A 30.9V 0.67A ------ -----30.9V 0.42A ------ -----n/a n/a 30.9V 0.05A 30.9V 0.06A 30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.14A 0.9V 29.3V 2.04A 22.3V 1.00A 18.0V 1.00A 20.1V 1.10A 14.6V 1.10A 17.3V 1.30A 16.0V 1.30A

Time 14.00h 14.00h 15.00h 15.00h 16.00h 16.00h 17.00h 17.00h 18.00h 18.00h 18.00h 19.00h 19.00h 20.00h 20.00h 21.00h 21.00h 22.00h 22.00h 23.00h 23.00h 24.00h 24.00h 24.00h 24.50h 24.50h 25.00h 25.00h 26.00h 26.00h 27.00h 27.00h 28.00h 28.00h 29.00h

Notes [04] not capped Adjustments Boiling water added [06], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, anode change [03] Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments [04][05][06] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [24h], anode change [01][02][04][06] Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments

P.192

Logbook for Experiment [ 011 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 14.0V 1.50A 11.4V 1.50A 12.2V 1.70A 12.2V 1.80A 10.2V 1.80A 11.0V 1.90A 13.4V 1.90A 12.7V 1.70A 17.5V 1.70A 15.0V 1.45A 22.9V 1.45A 11.6V 1.45A 22.6V 0.90A 30.9V 0.88A 30.9V 0.11A n/a n/a 31.0V 0.14A 30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.13A ------ -----30.9V 0.34A ------ -----30.9V 0.38A ------ -----30.9V 0.41A 30.9V 1.15A 26.4V 0.80A 30.9V 0.64A ------ -----30.9V 0.61A ------ ----------- -----P.193

[02] 20W 11.8V 1.70A 9.3V 1.70A 10.6V 2.00A ------ -----8.3V 2.00A 9.2V 2.10A 8.4V 2.10A 9.0V 2.30A 9.3V 2.30A ------ -----11.5V 2.30A 9.1V 2.30A ------ -----9.6V 2.30A ------ -----n/a n/a 31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ ----------- -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ ----------- ------

[03] 20W 12.3V 1.75A 31.5V 0.85A 26.7V 0.85A 22.9V 0.95A 18.2V 0.96A 21.5V 1.10A 16.3V 1.10A 16.9V 1.25A 16.5V 1.25A ------ -----31.5V 0.87A 31.5V 1.94A 25.4V 0.80A 31.2V 0.80A 31.5V 0.81A n/a n/a 31.5V 0.09A 31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 1.02A 25.2V 0.90A 31.5V 0.83A ------ -----31.5V 1.41A 21.0V 1.00A 14.9V 1.00A 17.7V 1.20A 16.6V 1.45A 26.1V 1.45A 19.2V 1.15A 21.2V 1.15A ------ ----------- ------

[04] 20W 18.6V 1.20A 15.3V 1.20A 12.1V 1.20A 14.2V 1.50A 12.8V 1.50A 13.8V 1.60A 16.5V 1.60A 14.8V 1.45A 19.2V 1.45A 17.0V 1.30A 20.9V 1.30A 10.0V 1.30A 14.0V 1.50A 15.7V 1.50A 14.4V 1.40A n/a n/a 18.0V 1.20A 24.4V 1.26A 19.7V 1.10A 31.5V 1.04A 27.2V 0.90A 31.5V 0.66A ------ -----31.5V 0.51A ------ -----31.5V 0.35A ------ -----31.5V 0.25A 31.5V 0.78A ------ -----31.5V 0.20A ------ -----31.5V 0.18A ------ ----------- ------

[05] 20W [06] 20W+heater 29.1V 0.70A ------ -----31.9V 0.09A 22.2V 1.30A 9.2V 0.70A 11.3V 1.30A 17.0V 1.30A 13.9V 1.60A 18.7V 1.30A 14.4V 1.60A 17.6V 1.25A 13.8V 1.50A 23.4V 1.25A 20.0V 1.50A 20.7V 1.10A 16.5V 1.25A 24.8V 1.10A 20.7V 1.25A 22.9V 1.00A 18.5V 1.10A 28.9V 1.00A 22.6V 1.10A 11.5V 1.00A 7.6V 1.10A 17.8V 1.20A 13.5V 1.50A 19.0V 1.20A 19.4V 1.50A ------ ------ 17.3V 1.30A n/a n/a n/a n/a ------ ------ 12.2V 1.80A 31.9V 0.13A 11.0V 1.80A ------ ------ 11.8V 1.90A 31.9V 0.82A 13.2V 1.90A 30.8V 0.75A 13.2V 1.60A 31.9V 0.39A 21.6V 1.60A ------ ------ 16.6V 1.25A 31.9V 0.36A 26.2V 1.25A ------ ------ 21.1V 1.00A 31.9V 0.38A 25.3V 1.00A ------ ------ 23.0V 0.90A 31.9V 0.52A 31.9V 0.70A 31.9V 1.05A 25.9V 2.04A 26.5V 0.80A 15.8V 1.35A 31.9V 0.54A 30.3V 0.98A ------ ------ 27.3V 0.90A 31.9V 0.49A 30.5V 0.90A ------ ------ 15.1V 0.90A ------ ------ 19.1V 1.15A

Time 29.00h 30.00h 30.00h 30.00h 31.00h 31.00h 32.00h 32.00h 33.00h 33.00h 34.00h 34.00h 34.00h 35.00h 35.00h 36.00h 36.00h 36.50h 36.50h 37.00h 37.00h 38.00h 38.00h 39.00h 39.00h 40.00h 40.00h 41.00h 41.00h 41.00h 42.00h 42.00h 43.00h 43.00h 43.00h

Notes Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [36h], anode change [01][02][03][05] Cold Restart, boiling water added [All], stir [02] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments [01] not capped Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 011 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 30.9V 0.55A ------ -----30.9V 0.46A ------ -----30.9V 0.36A 30.9V 0.35A 30.9V 0.33A

[02] 20W 31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A 31.5V 0.00A 31.5V 0.00A

[03] 20W 26.4V 1.15A 22.5V 1.00A 30.9V 0.99A 25.8V 0.85A 31.5V 0.65A 31.5V 0.58A 31.5V 0.53A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W 31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A 31.5V 0.04A 31.5V 0.04A

[05] 20W [06] 20W+heater 31.9V 0.36A 25.6V 1.15A ------ ------ 21.5V 1.00A 31.9V 0.30A 30.9V 0.67A ------ ------ ------ -----31.9V 0.26A 30.9V 0.43A 31.9V 0.20A 30.9V 0.36A 31.9V 0.28A 30.9V 0.32A

Time 44.00h 44.00h 45.00h 45.00h 46.00h 47.00h 48.00h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments No adjustments, [03] not capped No adjustments Photo documentation [48h]

P.194

P.195

40x Zoom [011-05]

100x Zoom [011-05]

P.196

Logbook for Experiment [ 012 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 31.0V 0.34A 31.0V 1.14A 28.0V 0.08A 18.4V 0.81A 20.6V 1.10A 28.1V 1.11A 20.5V 1.05A 29.1V 1.05A 25.2V 0.95A 23.6V 0.95A ------ -----26.6V 0.95A 25.2V 0.90A 19.7V 0.91A ------ -----18.7V 0.91A 17.7V 0.91A 20.8V 1.10A 26.2V 1.10A 23.5V 1.00A 22.0V 1.00A ------ -----22.5V 1.00A ------ -----19.9V 1.00A 21.4V 1.10A 17.7V 1.10A 19.3V 1.20A 18.9V 1.20A ------ -----22.7V 1.20A 26.2V 1.10A 25.7V 0.90A 24.2V 0.85A 21.9V 1.00A P.197

[02] 20W 13.6V 1.24A 18.5V 1.24A 18.5V 1.20A 18.2V 1.20A ------ -----20.0V 1.20A 18.9V 1.15A 11.7V 1.15A 15.1V 1.40A 9.6V 1.40A 13.0V 1.70A 13.3V 1.70A ------ -----15.3V 1.70A 14.3V 1.60A 18.4V 1.60A ------ -----16.1V 1.40A 23.0V 1.40A 19.6V 1.15A 25.5V 1.15A 22.0V 1.00A 29.0V 1.00A 24.5V 0.85A 30.6V 0.85A 28.6V 0.75A 31.5V 0.68A ------ -----31.5V 0.95A 29.7V 0.80A 31.5V 0.42A 31.5V 0.32A ------ -----31.5V 0.32A ------ ------

[03] 20W 31.5V 0.36A 31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ ----------- -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.32A ------ -----31.5V 0.38A ------ ------

[04] 20W 31.5V 0.94A 31.5V 0.05A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ ----------- -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A 31.6V 0.12A ------ -----31.6V 0.14A ------ ------

[05] 20W 31.9V 0.98A 31.9V 0.72A ------ -----31.9V 0.12A ------ -----31.9V 0.03A ------ -----31.9V 0.02A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.02A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ ----------- -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.8V 0.00A ------ -----31.8V 0.00A 31.8V 0.00A ------ -----31.8V 0.00A ------ ------

[06] 20W 7.5V 2.04A 7.2V 2.04A ------ -----8.5V 2.04A ------ -----9.6V 2.04A ------ -----11.5V 2.04A 11.4V 2.00A 13.4V 2.00A 12.2V 1.80A 17.0V 1.80A 14.6V 1.50A 25.7V 1.50A 19.7V 1.10A 27.6V 1.10A 22.8V 1.10A 22.4V 1.00A 30.9V 0.83A 28.2V 0.75A 30.9V 0.50A ------ -----30.9V 0.47A ------ -----30.9V 0.29A ------ -----30.9V 0.23A ------ -----30.9V 0.19A ------ -----30.9V 0.14A 30.9V 0.24A ------ -----30.9V 0.28A ------ ------

Time 0.00h 0.50h 0.50h 1.00h 1.00h 1.50h 1.50h 2.00h 2.00h 2.50h 2.50h 3.00h 3.00h 4.00h 4.00h 5.00h 5.00h 5.00h 6.00h 6.00h 7.00h 7.00h 8.00h 8.00h 9.00h 9.00h 10.00h 10.00h 11.00h 11.00h 12.00h 12.00h 12.00h 12.50h 12.50h

Notes Start with boiling water, initial settings [03][04][05] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments [02] Boiling water added Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments [01][03][06] Boiling water added Adjustments Adjustments [06] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments [02] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [12h], anode change [01][02] Cold Restart, boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 012 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 19.4V 1.00A 21.2V 1.10A 15.9V 1.10A 17.8V 1.25A 16.5V 1.25A 14.4V 1.25A 16.2V 1.40A 15.5V 1.40A 23.9V 1.40A 19.4V 1.10A 282.2V 1.10A 24.0V 0.90A 30.9V 0.80A 28.5V 0.70A 30.9V 0.31A ------ -----30.9V 0.17A ------ -----30.9V 0.12A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A 31.0V 1.17A 31.0V 1.08A 27.2V 0.85A 21.8V 0.85A 23.6V 1.00A 18.6V 1.00A 19.5V 1.15A 18.8V 1.15A ------ -----19.6V 1.15A ------ -----21.0V 1.15A

[02] 20W 31.5V 0.16A ------ -----31.5V 0.15A ------ -----31.5V 0.15A 31.5V 0.15A ------ ----------- -----31.5V 0.15A ------ -----31.5V 0.15A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.13A ------ -----31.5V 0.10A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A

[03] 20W 31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A 31.5V 0.01A ------ ----------- -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W 31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A 31.5V 0.02A ------ ----------- -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A 31.6V 0.04A 31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A

[05] 20W 31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A 31.9V 0.01A ------ ----------- -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.01A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A 31.9V 0.15A 31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A

[06] 20W 30.9V 0.12A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----30.9V 0.09A 30.9V 0.09A ------ ----------- -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A 30.9V 0.23A 30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A

Time 13.00h 13.00h 14.00h 14.00h 15.00h 16.00h 16.00h 16.00h 17.00h 17.00h 18.00h 18.00h 19.00h 19.00h 20.00h 20.00h 21.00h 21.00h 22.00h 22.00h 23.00h 23.00h 24.00h 24.00h 24.50h 24.50h 25.00h 25.00h 26.00h 26.00h 27.00h 27.00h 28.00h 28.00h 29.00h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments No adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [24h], anode change [01][02] Cold Restart, boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments

P.198

Logbook for Experiment [ 012 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W ------ -----23.8V 1.15A 21.1V 1.00A 22.8V 1.00A ------ -----29.9V 1.00A 24.6V 0.80A 27.8V 0.80A ------ -----30.9V 0.66A ------ -----30.9V 0.41A ------ -----30.9V 0.23A 30.9V 0.72A ------ -----30.9V 0.21A ------ -----30.9V 0.17A ------ -----30.9V 0.12A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A P.199

[02] 20W ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A 31.5V 0.41A ------ -----31.5V 0.12A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.04A ------ -----31.5V 0.03A

[03] 20W ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 1.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A 31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A

[04] 20W ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.01A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A 31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A

[05] 20W ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A 31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A

[06] 20W ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A 30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.03A ------ -----30.9V 0.03A ------ -----30.9V 0.03A ------ -----30.9V 0.01A ------ -----30.9V 0.00A ------ -----30.9V 0.00A ------ -----30.9V 0.00A ------ -----30.9V 0.00A ------ -----30.9V 0.00A

Time 29.00h 30.00h 30.00h 31.00h 31.00h 32.00h 32.00h 33.00h 33.00h 34.00h 34.00h 35.00h 35.00h 36.00h 36.00h 36.00h 37.00h 37.00h 38.00h 38.00h 39.00h 39.00h 40.00h 40.00h 41.00h 41.00h 42.00h 42.00h 43.00h 43.00h 44.00h 44.00h 45.00h 45.00h 46.00h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, [01] not capped Adjustments Photo documentation [36h] Cold Restart, boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 012 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A

[02] 20W ------ -----31.5V 0.03A ------ -----31.5V 0.02A

[03] 20W ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W ------ -----31.5V 0.00A ------ -----31.5V 0.00A

[05] 20W ------ -----31.9V 0.00A ------ -----31.9V 0.00A

[06] 20W ------ -----30.9V 0.00A ------ -----30.9V 0.00A

Time 46.00h 47.00h 47.00h 48.00h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [48h], anodes used [01][02] 3, [03][04][05][06] 1

P.200

P.201

40x Zoom [012-02]

100x Zoom [012-02]

P.202

Logbook for Experiment [ 013 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 13.7V 2.04A 22.0V 1.00A 22.3V 1.02A 22.2V 1.00A 20.7V 1.00A ------ -----20.0V 1.00A 20.7V 1.10A 12.0V 1.10A 15.2V 1.40A 8.2V 1.40A 11.5V 2.00A 8.3V 2.00A 8.5V 2.04A 8.4V 2.04A ------ -----8.4V 2.04A ------ -----7.3V 2.04A ------ -----7.4V 2.04A ------ -----7.6V 2.04A ------ -----7.8V 2.04A ------ -----8.4V 2.04A 9.9V 2.04A ------ -----9.2V 2.04A ------ -----9.5V 2.04A ------ -----9.5V 2.04A ------ -----P.203

[02] 20W 31.5V 5.05A 23.8V 1.00A 19.4V 0.99A 19.8V 1.10A 21.9V 1.10A 21.7V 1.00A 19.3V 1.00A 20.8V 1.10A 19.5V 1.10A ------ -----8.8V 1.10A 14.8V 1.50A 7.0V 1.49A 11.2V 2.10A 6.4V 2.10A 8.2V 2.80A 7.0V 2.80A 7.6V 3.00A 6.2V 3.00A 6.7V 3.30A 7.6V 3.29A 7.3V 3.20A 8.0V 3.20A 7.7V 3.10A 8.0V 3.10A 7.8V 3.00A 8.6V 3.00A 10.4V 3.00A 8.2V 2.75A 8.1V 2.75A ------ -----8.8V 2.75A 8.6V 2.70A 8.7V 2.60A 8.8V 2.40A

[03] 20W 31.6V 3.99A 16.2V 1.25A 19.6V 1.24A 18.8V 1.20A 19.2V 1.20A 18.5V 1.15A 19.0V 1.14A 19.2V 1.20A 7.3V 1.20A 12.6V 1.85A 9.5V 1.85A 10.2V 2.00A 8.4V 2.00A 9.3V 2.20A 8.5V 2.20A 9.4V 2.35A 8.8V 2.35A 8.8V 2.40A 9.7V 2.40A 9.6V 2.30A 11.0V 2.30A 10.0V 2.10A 12.1V 2.10A 11.6V 2.00A 14.2V 2.00A 12.5V 1.75A 15.6V 1.75A 16.9V 1.75A 14.6V 1.60A 17.3V 1.60A 15.3V 1.40A 19.3V 1.40A 17.2V 1.25A 22.6V 1.25A 20.1V 1.10A

[04] 20W [05] 20W 31.9V 1.78A 30.1V 3.03A 19.7V 1.10A 29.7V 0.80A 23.2V 1.10A 31.9V 0.74A 22.4V 1.00A ------ -----20.8V 1.00A 27.8V 0.80A ------ ------ ------ -----18.8V 1.00A 23.7V 0.80A 20.8V 1.10A 26.6V 0.90A 16.8V 1.10A 25.2V 0.90A 18.6V 1.25A ------ ----------- ------ ------ -----18.7V 1.25A 24.6V 0.90A 9.5V 1.25A 23.6V 0.90A 14.0V 1.70A 25.5V 1.00A 8.7V 1.70A 23.7V 1.00A 11.0V 2.10A ------ -----6.5V 2.09A 23.4V 1.00A 7.8V 2.70A ------ -----13.2V 2.70A 22.0V 1.00A 11.2V 2.10A ------ -----12.4V 2.10A 24.6V 1.00A 11.4V 2.00A 23.1V 0.90A 12.9V 2.00A 25.6V 0.90A 12.0V 1.90A 23.9V 0.80A 14.0V 1.89A 27.1V 0.80A 13.0V 1.75A ------ -----20.8V 1.75A 31.6V 0.80A 21.5V 1.75A 31.9V 0.54A 17.7V 1.30A ------ -----22.2V 1.30A 29.7V 0.80A 19.0V 1.10A ------ -----26.9V 1.10A 31.9V 0.76A 23.5V 0.95A ------ -----31.5V 1.25A 31.9.6V 0.75A 30.8V 0.80A ------ ------

[06] 20W 23.5V 2.04A 29.0V 0.90A 30.9V 0.78A ------ -----30.9V 0.76A ------ -----21.3V 0.81A 24.6V 0.95A 18.4V 0.95A 21.1V 1.10A ------ -----20.7V 1.10A 23.6V 1.10A 23.8V 1.10A 24.4V 1.10A 23.8V 1.05A 29.5V 1.05A 25.3V 0.90A 30.9V 0.89A 28.7V 0.75A 30.9V 0.55A ------ -----30.9V 0.39A ------ -----30.9V 0.30A ------ -----30.9V 0.18A 30.9V 0.18A ------ -----30.9V 0.14A ------ -----30.9V 0.13A ------ -----30.9V 0.12A ------ ------

Time 0.00h 0.00h 0.25h 0.25h 0.50h 0.50h 1.00h 1.00h 1.50h 1.50h 2.00h 2.00h 2.50h 2.50h 3.00h 3.00h 3.50h 3.50h 4.00h 4.00h 4.50h 4.50h 5.00h 5.00h 5.50h 5.50h 6.00h 6.00h 6.00h 6.50h 6.50h 7.00h 7.00h 7.50h 7.50h

Notes Start with boiling water, full power [All] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, [01] not capped Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [6h] Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments [05] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 013 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 11.5V 2.04A ------ -----14.4V 2.04A 12.1V 1.90A 12.6V 1.90A 12.5V 1.80A 13.2V 1.80A 12.7V 1.75A 13.0V 1.75A ------ -----14.6V 1.75A 13.5V 1.60A 15.7V 1.60A 14.6V 1.50A 17.0V 1.50A 15.5V 1.40A 18.8V 1.40A 31.5V 3.90A 23.4V 1.00A 18.2V 0.99A 19.1V 1.10A 21.5V 1.10A 20.9V 1.05A 21.9V 1.05A 21.7V 1.00A 12.1V 1.00A 16.8V 1.25A 13.4V 1.25A 16.8V 1.50A 13.2V 1.50A 14.8V 1.60A 11.9V 1.60A 12.8V 1.75A 12.0V 1.75A ------ ------

[02] 20W 10.5V 2.40A 9.6V 2.20A 11.5V 2.20A 11.0V 2.10A 11.9V 2.10A 11.2V 2.00A 15.2V 2.00A 12.5V 1.70A 15.7V 1.70A 14.2V 1.55A 18.5V 1.55A 16.8V 1.40A 21.4V 1.40A 18.5V 1.20A 22.6V 1.20A 20.2V 1.05A 21.3V 1.05A 31.5V 2.36A 24.9V 1.00A 23.8V 0.99A 23.4V 0.95A 27.4V 0.95A 19.4V 1.15A 21.8V 1.15A 20.9V 1.05A 15.0V 1.05A 17.1V 1.25A 13.3V 1.25A 16.0V 1.50A 12.6V 1.50A 14.0V 1.70A 10.7V 1.70A 11.7V 1.90A 11.3V 1.90A ------ ------

[03] 20W 26.8V 1.10A 23.4V 0.95A 29.1V 0.95A 24.8V 0.80A 27.7V 0.80A ------ -----31.5V 0.72A ------ -----31.5V 0.63A ------ -----31.5V 0.58A ------ -----31.5V 0.50A ------ -----31.5V 0.44A ------ -----31.5V 0.42A 31.5V 0.67A ------ -----31.5V 0.21A ------ -----31.5V 0.14A ------ -----31.5V 0.10A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ ------

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W 31.5V 0.59A ------ -----31.5V 0.46A ------ -----31.5V 0.41A ------ -----31.5V 0.34A ------ -----31.5V 0.30A ------ -----31.5V 0.28A ------ -----31.5V 0.25A ------ -----31.5V 0.23A ------ -----31.5V 0.22A 31.9V 0.30A ------ -----31.9V 0.16A ------ -----31.9V 0.11A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.04A ------ -----31.9V 0.04A ------ ------

[05] 20W 31.9V 0.49A ------ -----31.9V 0.39A ------ -----31.9V 0.36A ------ -----31.9V 0.30A ------ -----31.9V 0.28A ------ -----31.9V 0.27A ------ -----31.9V 0.26A ------ -----31.5V 0.24A ------ -----31.9V 0.24A 30.9V 0.36A ------ -----30.9V 0.23A ------ -----30.9V 0.14A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A ------ ------

[06] 20W 30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.70A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A 30.9V 0.14A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.03A ------ -----30.9V 0.03A ------ -----30.9V 0.03A ------ ------

Time 8.00h 8.00h 8.50h 8.50h 9.00h 9.00h 9.50h 9.50h 10.00h 10.00h 10.50h 10.50h 11.00h 11.00h 11.50h 11.50h 12.00h 12.00h 12.00h 12.50h 12.50h 13.00h 13.00h 13.50h 13.50h 14.00h 14.00h 14.50h 14.50h 15.00h 15.00h 15.50h 15.50h 16.00h 16.00h

Notes [04] not capped Adjustments Adjustments, [01] capped Adjustments [03] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [12h], anode change [All] Restart with boiling water, solution renewed [All], full power [All] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments No adjustments P.204

Logbook for Experiment [ 013 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 13.2V 1.75A 13.0V 1.70A 11.9V 1.70A 12.3V 1.75A 12.7V 1.75A ------ -----13.8V 1.75A 13.7V 1.76A 12.5V 1.75A 14.2V 1.75A 13.8V 1.70A 17.7V 1.70A 15.2V 1.50A 11.3V 1.50A 13.1V 1.75A 11.6V 1.75A 12.1V 1.80A 12.8V 1.80A ------ -----13.2V 1.80A ------ -----13.8V 1.80A 13.0V 1.70A 13.5V 1.71A 13.4V 1.65A 14.3V 1.74A 14.3V 1.75A 15.1V 1.75A 13.6V 1.60A 14.0V 1.60A ------ -----14.5V 1.60A

P.205

[02] 20W 11.2V 1.90A ------ -----11.2V 1.90A ------ -----11.5V 1.90A ------ -----12.0V 1.90A 11.5V 1.90A ------ -----11.5V 1.90A ------ -----11.1V 1.90A ------ -----12.4V 1.90A 12.3V 1.90A 12.0V 1.90A ------ -----12.7V 1.90A ------ -----14.3V 1.90A 13.3V 1.75A 14.9V 1.75A 13.6V 1.60A 15.2V 1.60A 14.2V 1.50A 17.1V 1.50A 15.7V 1.40A 18.0V 1.40A 16.3V 1.25A 17.7V 1.25A ------ -----18.8V 1.25A

[03] 20W 31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.5V 0.06A ------ -----31.6V 0.06A 31.6V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 0.09A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.08A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A ------ -----31.5V 0.07A

[04] 20W 31.9V 0.04A ------ -----31.9V 0.04A ------ -----31.9V 0.04A ------ -----31.9V 0.04A 31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.60A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.05A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A

[05] 20W 30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A 30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.05A ------ -----30.9V 0.04A

[06] 20W 30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A 30.9V 0.03A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A ------ -----30.9V 0.02A

Time 16.50h 16.50h 17.00h 17.00h 17.50h 17.50h 18.00h 18.00h 18.00h 18.50h 18.50h 19.00h 19.00h 19.50h 19.50h 20.00h 20.00h 20.50h 20.50h 21.00h 21.00h 21.50h 21.50h 22.00h 22.00h 22.50h 22.50h 23.00h 23.00h 23.50h 23.50h 24.00h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments No adjustments Photo documentation [18h], Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments No adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments No adjustments Photo documentation [24h], anodes used [ALL] 2

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

P.206

P.207

40x Zoom [013-03]

100x Zoom [013-03]

P.208

Logbook for Experiment [ 014 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 25.5V 2.04A 22.8V 0.90A 19.4V 0.90A 20.9V 1.05A 24.7V 1.05A 24.1V 0.95A 21.6V 0.95A ------ -----20.7V 0.95A 21.2V 1.00A 20.4V 1.00A ------ -----20.2V 1.00A ------ -----19.7V 1.00A 20.2V 1.05A 17.4V 1.05A 12.4V 1.05A 15.2V 1.40A 24.5V 1.40A 21.7V 1.00A 23.2V 1.00A 22.1V 0.95A 17.1V 0.95A 20.0V 1.10A 19.0V 1.10A 18.6V 1.20A 28.7V 1.20A 25.0V 0.85A 24.3V 0.85A ------ -----25.2V 0.86A 25.2V 25.0V P.209

0.86A 0.90A

[02] 20W 20.1V 5.25A 20.6V 1.10A 15.9V 1.09A 16.6V 1.30A 16.7V 1.30A ------ -----17.0V 1.30A ------ -----16.7V 1.30A ------ -----16.3V 1.30A ------ -----14.7V 1.30A 15.0V 1.40A 3.5V 1.40A 14.4V 1.40A 3.1V 1.40A 3.2V 1.40A 5.1V 4.20A 7.2V 4.20A 6.2V 3.50A 6.1V 3.50A ------ -----5.7V 3.50A 5.9V 3.75A 5.8V 3.75A 6.3V 3.50A 6.7V 3.50A ------ -----5.5V 3.49A 5.9V 3.80A 5.3V 3.70A 5.3V 3.80A 5.3V 3.70A 5.2V 4.00A

[03] 20W 9.2V 5.30A 14.4V 1.50A 5.8V 1.49A 9.4V 2.30A 5.1V 2.30A 7.2V 3.10A 5.6V 3.10A 6.4V 3.50A 1.0V 3.49A 1.4V 5.21A 1.1V 5.20A ------ -----1.0V 5.20A ------ -----1.0V 5.19A ------ -----0.1V 5.20A 1.8V 5.19A ------ -----1.1V 5.18A ------ -----1.2V 5.18A ------ -----1.1V 5.18A ------ -----11.8V 5.18A 7.6V 3.40A 2.9V 3.40A 7.7V 2.90A 1.8V 2.89A 7.7V 3.50A 2.2V 3.50A 3.2V 5.18A 2.2V 3.50A 5.1V 4.10A

[04] 20W 15.2V 3.19A 21.9V 0.90A 17.3V 0.90A 18.3V 1.20A 19.2V 1.20A 19.1V 1.10A 15.9V 1.09A 17.2V 1.30A 16.4V 1.30A ------ -----11.0V 1.30A 14.3V 1.60A 10.0V 1.60A 13.7V 1.80A 3.6V 1.80A 7.1V 3.00A 20.4V 3.00A 20.2V 3.00A 14.2V 1.60A 2.6V 1.60A 5.0V 3.17A 3.8V 3.17A ------ -----3.7V 3.17A ------ -----3.8V 3.17A 6.4V 3.17A 6.5V 3.17A ------ -----3.9V 3.16A ------ -----3.8V 3.16A ------ -----3.8V 3.16A ------ ------

[05] 20W 13.2V 3.24A 15.4V 1.30A 25.0V 1.29A 6.4V 3.22A 3.6V 3.22A ------ -----1.8V 3.21A ------ -----1.8V 3.21A ------ -----1.8V 3.21A ------ -----1.9V 3.21A ------ -----1.8V 3.21A ------ -----0.2V 3.20A 6.5V 3.20A ------ -----8.0V 3.20A 7.0V 3.00A 3.3V 3.01A 3.5V 3.20A 3.0V 3.20A ------ -----15.4V 3.20A 11.2V 1.90A 15.4V 1.90A 13.7V 1.65A 30.7V 1.65A 21.5V 1.00A 31.9V 0.99A 27.5V 0.80A 31.9V 0.99A ------ ------

[06] 20W 20.0V 2.04A 24.8V 0.90A 20.5V 0.90A 20.9V 1.00A 18.8V 1.00A 19.4V 1.10A 8.8V 1.10A 13.7V 1.60A 8.7V 1.60A 11.1V 2.00A 9.4V 2.00A 9.6V 2.04A 8.6V 2.04A ------ -----7.8V 2.04A ------ -----7.5V 2.04A 10.7V 2.04A ------ -----8.8V 2.04A ------ -----9.2V 2.04A ------ -----9.3V 2.04A ------ -----9.5V 2.04A 11.6V 1.90A 11.2V 1.90A 11.5V 2.00A 12.0V 2.00A 11.5V 1.90A 12.1V 1.90A ------ -----12.1V 1.90A ------ ------

Time 0.00h 0.00h 0.50h 0.50h 1.00h 1.00h 1.50h 1.50h 2.00h 2.00h 2.50h 2.50h 3.00h 3.00h 3.50h 3.50h 4.00h 4.00h 4.00h 4.50h 4.50h 5.00h 5.00h 5.50h 5.50h 6.00h 6.00h 6.50h 6.50h 7.00h 7.00h 7.50h 7.50h 8.00h 8.00h

Notes Start with boiling water, full power [All] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, [02] not capped Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [6h], boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Logbook for Experiment [ 014 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 24.2V 0.90A ------ -----22.3V 0.90A ------ -----22.9V 0.90A ------ -----22.1V 0.90A 23.2V 0.95A 22.7V 0.95A ------ -----22.7V 0.95A ------ -----24.0V 0.95A 22.7V 0.90A 22.3V 0.90A 30.9V 0.57A ------ -----30.9V 0.12A ------ -----30.9V 0.10A ------ -----30.9V 0.09A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.08A ------ -----30.9V 0.15A ------ -----30.9V 0.16A ------ -----30.9V 0.20A ------ -----30.9V 0.30A ------ ------

[02] 20W 5.1V 4.00A ------ -----4.9V 4.00A 5.0V 4.10A 4.7V 4.09A 4.9V 4.20A 5.0V 4.20A ------ -----4.9V 4.20A ------ -----5.7V 4.20A 5.5V 4.00A 5.7V 4.00A ------ -----5.9V 4.00A 31.5V 0.25A ------ -----26.1V 4.03A 19.4V 1.10A 4.8V 1.10A 11.7V 2.00A 5.8V 2.00A 8.0V 2.75A 5.7V 2.75A 6.9V 3.30A 6.4V 3.30A 6.7V 3.40A 6.2V 3.40A 6.5V 3.50A 5.9V 3.50A 6.0V 3.60A 5.8V 3.60A ------ -----5.9V 3.60A ------ ------

[03] 20W 3.1V 4.10A 3.9V 5.17A 3.6V 5.17A ------ -----3.9V 5.17A ------ -----3.6V 5.17A ------ -----4.4V 5.16A ------ -----3.8V 5.17A ------ -----3.5V 5.16A ------ -----3.7V 5.16A 29.2V 5.26A 10.2V 2.10A 17.7V 2.07A 13.7V 1.60A 16.9V 1.59A 15.4V 1.45A 18.4V 1.45A 16.7V 1.30A 22.0V 1.30A 18.9V 1.10A 20.7V 1.10A ------ -----23.4V 1.10A 21.5V 1.00A 25.1V 0.99A 23.0V 0.90A 26.1V 0.90A 24.8V 0.85A 31.5V 0.74A 26.0V 0.85A

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

[04] 20W 3.7V 3.16A ------ -----3.9V 3.16A ------ -----4.1V 3.16A ------ -----4.2V 3.16A ------ -----4.3V 3.16A ------ -----4.5V 3.16A ------ -----4.4V 3.16A ------ -----4.7V 3.16A 31.6V 1.74A 22.0V 1.00A 16.3V 0.99A 12.7V 1.75A 11.0V 1.27A 17.8V 1.40A 7.8V 1.40A 11.1V 2.00A 8.4V 2.00A 9.3V 2.20A 9.0V 2.20A ------ -----9.0V 2.20A ------ -----9.3V 2.20A ------ -----8.8V 2.21A 9.1V 2.30A 21.6V 2.30A 10.1V 2.00A

[05] 20W 31.9V 0.54A ------ -----31.9V 0.45A ------ -----31.9V 0.38A ------ -----31.9V 0.34A ------ -----31.9V 0.32A ------ -----31.9V 0.28A ------ -----31.9V 0.28A ------ -----31.9V 0.25A 31.9V 0.21A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.06A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ ------

[06] 20W 13.4V 1.90A 12.8V 1.80A 14.1V 1.80A 13.4V 1.70A 15.0V 1.70A 14.0V 1.60A 15.7V 1.60A 14.7V 1.50A 16.7V 1.50A 15.5V 1.40A 17.2V 1.40A 16.2V 1.30A 16.7V 1.30A ------ -----18.0V 1.30A 30.9V 0.04A ------ -----30.9V 0.12A ------ -----30.9V 0.20A ------ -----30.9V 0.36A ------ -----30.9V 0.44A ------ -----30.9V 0.48A ------ -----30.9V 0.57A ------ -----30.9V 0.69A ------ -----30.9V 0.78A 29.2V 0.75A 30.9V 0.74A ------ ------

Time 8.50h 8.50h 9.00h 9.00h 9.50h 9.50h 10.00h 10.00h 10.50h 10.50h 11.00h 11.00h 11.50h 11.50h 12.00h 12.00h 12.00h 12.50h 12.50h 13.00h 13.00h 13.50h 13.50h 14.00h 14.00h 14.50h 14.50h 15.00h 15.00h 15.50h 15.50h 16.00h 16.00h 16.50h 16.50h

Notes Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [12h], anode change [02][05][06] Cold Restart, boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments, heater added [06] Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments, [06] not capped P.210

Logbook for Experiment [ 014 ] // Voltage [V] // Current [A] // Time [h] [01] 20W 30.9V 0.47A ------ -----30.9V 0.61A ------ -----30.9V 0.67A 30.9V 0.22A ------ -----30.9V 0.33A ------ -----30.9V 0.28A ------ -----30.9V 0.26A ------ -----30.9V 0.23A ------ -----30.9V 0.20A ------ -----30.9V 0.18A ------ -----30.9V 0.18A ------ -----30.9V 0.17A ------ -----30.9V 0.16A ------ -----30.9V 0.16A ------ -----30.9V 0.15A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A

P.211

[02] 20W 6.2V 3.60A ------ -----6.0V 3.59A 6.2V 3.70A 6.4V 3.70A 8.5V 3.71A 7.4V 3.00A 6.9V 2.99A 7.1V 3.10A 6.9V 3.10A ------ -----6.7V 3.10A ------ -----7.0V 3.10A ------ -----6.5V 3.10A 6.9V 3.30A 7.0V 3.30A ------ -----7.2V 3.30A ------ -----7.2V 3.30A 7.5V 3.20A 8.7V 3.20A 7.3V 3.10A 7.4V 3.10A ------ -----7.6V 3.10A 7.2V 3.00A 8.3V 3.00A

[03] 20W 31.5V 0.63A ------ -----31.5V 0.53A ------ -----31.5V 0.50A 31.5V 0.51A ------ -----31.5V 0.42A ------ -----31.5V 0.39A ------ -----31.5V 0.37A ------ -----31.5V 0.35A ------ -----31.5V 0.31A ------ -----31.5V 0.29A ------ -----31.5V 0.28A ------ -----31.5V 0.28A ------ -----31.5V 0.26A ------ -----31.5V 0.23A ------ -----31.5V 0.19A ------ -----31.5V 0.18A

[04] 20W 5.7V 1.99A 7.8V 2.75A 5.1V 2.74A 5.7V 3.17A 24.0V 3.17A 31.6V 2.70A 21.0V 1.10A 5.0V 1.10A 9.5V 2.10A 5.9V 2.10A 7.8V 2.75A 7.0V 2.75A 7.4V 3.00A 6.9V 3.00A 7.2V 3.10A 7.3V 3.17A ------ -----7.5V 3.17A ------ -----7.9V 3.16A ------ -----8.5V 3.17A 7.3V 3.00A 7.5V 3.00A ------ -----7.6V 3.00A ------ -----7.9V 3.00A 7.5V 2.90A 7.7V 2.90A

[05] 20W 31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A 31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.07A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.08A ------ -----31.9V 0.09A ------ -----31.9V 0.09A

[06] 20W 30.9V 0.65A ------ -----30.9V 0.55A ------ -----30.9V 0.46A 30.9V 0.33A ------ -----30.9V 0.31A ------ -----30.9V 0.26A ------ -----30.9V 0.23A ------ -----30.9V 0.20A ------ -----30.9V 0.16A ------ -----30.9V 0.16A ------ -----30.9V 0.12A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.11A ------ -----30.9V 0.07A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A ------ -----30.9V 0.06A

Time 17.00h 17.00h 17.50h 17.50h 18.00h 18.00h 18.00h 18.50h 18.50h 19.00h 19.00h 19.50h 19.50h 20.00h 20.00h 20.50h 20.50h 21.00h 21.00h 21.50h 21.50h 22.00h 22.00h 22.50h 22.50h 23.00h 23.00h 23.50h 23.50h 24.00h

Notes Adjustments, [03] not capped Adjustments Photo documentation [12h] Anode change [02], boiling water added [All], stir Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Adjustments Photo documentation [24h], anodes used [01][03][04] 1, [05][06] 2, [02] 3

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

Appendix || Logbook // Microscopic images

P.212

P.213

40x Zoom [014-06]

100x Zoom [014-06]

P.214

0 P.215

Climate change South Tarawa, Kiribati BiorockTM technology BiorockTM experiments Concept studies Synthetic fiber reef Appendix

References

P.216

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

08

References

ANZECC & ARMCANZ (2000). water quality guidelines [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.waterquality.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/anzecc-armcanz-2000-guidelinesvol1.pdf

AZquotes (n.d.). What’s old collapses, times change, And new life blossoms in the ruins [Quote]. Retrieved from https://www.azquotes.com/quote/838697 BBC News (2020, January 31). Australia fires: A visual guide to the bushfire crisis. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-50951043 Duhaime-Ross, A. (2016, September 22). The tiny nation of Kiribati will soon be underwater — here’s the plan to save its people. Retrieved from https://www.vice.com/en_us/ article/a39m7k/doomed-by-climate-change-kiribati-wants-migration-with-dignity

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2020, January 30) FAO Fishery Country Profile - Kiribati. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/fi/oldsite/ FCP/en/KIR/profile.htm

Foster, S. & Macdonald, B. K. et al (2019, October 21). Kiribati. Retrieved February 14, 2020 from https://www.britannica.com/place/Kiribati Global Coral Reef Alliance (2009). Biorock™, Mineral Accretion Technology™, Seament™. Retrieved from http://www.globalcoral.org/biorock-coral-reef-marine-habitatrestoration/

Goreau, T. J. (2012, October 17). Marine Electrolysis for Building Materials and Environmental Restoration [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.globalcoral.org/_oldgcra/InTechMarine_electrolysis_for_building_materials_and_environmental_restoration.pdf

Hancock, L. (n.d.). Why are glaciers and sea ice melting?. Retrieved from https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/why-are-glaciers-and-sea-ice-melting Hickey, C. & Crump, M. (2014, March). Water Quality Monitoring Activity in South Tarawa, Kiribati [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.ki/wp-content/ uploads/2016/09/NIWA-water-quality-monitoring-report-landfills.pdf

Hilbertz, W. (1987). ELECTRO-ACCRETION: GROW SHELTERS FROM SEA MINERALS [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.wolfhilbertz.com/downloads/1987/hilbertz_el_accretion_1987. pdf

Iberdrola (n.d.). Kiribati, the first country rising sea levels will swallow up as a result of climate change. Retrieved from https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/kiribati-climatechange

P.217

Jun-Yan Zhu, Taesung Park et al (2021, January 03). Unpaired Image-to-Image Translation using Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks [PDF]. Retrieved from https:// https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.10593.pdf

Jun-Yan Zhu, Taesung Park et al (2021, January 03). Unpaired Image-to-Image Translation using Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks [PDF]. Retrieved from https:// https://arxiv.org/pdf/1703.10593.pdf

Lindsey, R. (2019, November 19). Climate Change: Global Sea Level. Retrived from https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-sealevel

Macdonald, F. (2018, September 8). Elon Musk Warns We’re Living Through The “Dumbest Experiment in Human History”. Retrieved from https://www.sciencealert.com/elonmusk-says-we-re-probably-living-in-a-simulation-and-warns-agains-our-insane-experiment-with-coal

Mosley, L. et al (2004). Water quality monitoring in Pacific Island countries [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255700290_Water_quality_ monitoring_in_Pacific_Islands

National Climate Assessment (n.d.). Extreme Weather. https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/highlights/report-findings/extreme-weather National Geographic Society (2019, July 3). Marine Pollution. Retrived from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/marine-pollution/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2020, February 10). What is Ocean Acidification?. Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification. html

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2017, January). GLOBAL AND REGIONAL SEA LEVEL RISE SCENARIOS FOR THE UNITED STATES. Retrieved from https:// tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt83_Global_and_Regional_SLR_Scenarios_for_the_US_final.pdf

Netflix (2017). Chasing Coral [Documentary]. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/37003-global-warming.html?jwsource=cl Ngatia et al (2019, January 14). Nitrogen and Phosphorus Eutrophication in Marine Ecosystems [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.intechopen.com/books/monitoring-ofmarine-pollution/nitrogen-and-phosphorus-eutrophication-in-marine-ecosystems

Pappas, S. (2017, August 10). What Is Global Warming?. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/37003-global-warming.html Quotetab (n.d.). Concepts differentiate architecture from mere building...A bicycle shed with a concept is architecture; a cathedral without one is just a building [Quote].

Retrieved from https://www.quotetab.com/quote/by-bernard-tschumi/concepts-differentiate-architecture-from-mere-buildinga-bicycle-shed-with-a-co

P.218

realDonaldTrump. (2013, April 23). Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s freezing in New York - where the hell is global warming ? [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/ status/326781792340299776?lang=en

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019). World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights [PDF]. Retrived from https://population.un.org/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2019_Highlights.pdf

Water Pollution Guide (n.d.). Eutrophication and Water Pollution. Retrieved from https://www.water-pollution.org.uk/eutrophication-and-water-pollution/ Way, B. (2013, April). Kiribati - Solid Waste Management [PDF]. Retrieved from http://www.lgnz.co.nz/assets/Uploads/Our-work/55406d1888/PacificTA-Kiribati-Solid-WasteManagement.pdf

Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 14, 2020 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribati Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 15, 2020 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarawa Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 17, 2020 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)#cite_noteworldbank-21

Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia (2020, February 7). Kiribati. Retrieved February 17, 2020 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Tarawa World Wildlife Fund (n.d.). BUSHFIRE EMERGENCY. Retrieved from https://www.wwf.org.au/get-involved/bushfire-emergency#gs.w7074f Young Architects Competitions (2019). Kiribati Floating Houses [PDF]. Retrived from https://www.youngarchitectscompetitions.com/competition/kiribati-floating-houses ZuBlu (2017, September 20). Biorock - The Future of Reef Restoration. Retrieved from https://www.zubludiving.com/articles/zublu-insights/biorock-reef-restoration

P.219

P.220

Figure References [Fig.001] Retrieved on 12.02.2020, https://medialibrary.climatecentral.org/uploads/general/20202019EOYGlobalTemps_Map_en_title_lg.jpg [Fig.002] Retrieved on 12.02.2020, https://nbcnews.shorthandstories.com/disappearing-islands-climate-change/assets/Ge6qAyEKPn/190607-kiribati-al-1213-2500x3750.jpeg [Fig.003] Retrieved on 12.02.2020, https://www.johnenglander.net/wp/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Graph-Englander-9-Box-matrix.png [Fig.004] Retrieved on 12.02.2020, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/328/5985/1517/F2.medium.gif [Fig.005] Retrieved on 14.02.2020, https://cdn.climatechangenews.com/files/2016/08/028-Coral-Bleaching-at-Heron-Island.jpeg [Fig.006] Retrieved on 14.02.2020, https://www.protectourcoralsea.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/image7.jpg [Fig.007] Retrieved on 12.02.2020, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/328/5985/1517/F2.medium.gif [Fig.008] Retrieved on 14.02.2020, https://www.google.com/maps/place/Tarawa/@-5.234793,168.9658207,4617950m/ data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x65645c293bbf5d2d:0x8bfd42d4c3159ec8!8m2!3d1.4518171!4d172.9716617 [Fig.009] Retrieved on 06.11.2019, https://www.youngarchitectscompetitions.com/competition/kiribati-floating-houses [Fig.010] Retrieved on 06.11.2019, https://www.youngarchitectscompetitions.com/competition/kiribati-floating-houses [Fig.011] Retrieved on 17.02.2020, http://www.pacgeo.org/documents/1755/download [Fig.012] Own production [Fig.013] Own production [Fig.014] Retrieved on 17.02.2020, https://www.knowablemagazine.org/sites/default/files/styles/1600_600/public/articles/banner/2017-12/Ken%20weiss%20marine%20plastic%20image. jpg?itok=5kob5MMT [Fig.015] own production [Fig.016] Own production [Fig.017] Retrieved on 18.02.2020, https://worldwide.espacenet.com/patent/search/family/021806469/publication/US4246075A?q=pn%3DUS4246075 [Fig.018] Retrieved on 18.02.2020, https://indonesiaexpat.biz/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Biorock-01.jpg [Fig.019] Own production [Fig.020] Own production [Fig.021] Own production [Fig.022] Own production

P.221

[Fig.023] Own production [Fig.024] Own production [Fig.025] Own production [Other]

All remaining graphics are produced me

Photo | Data References All close up photos of biorock experiments done by Maria Jose Fernandez-Cardin, BSc | www.500px.com/p/mfernandezcardin?view=photos Bathymetric data of Tarawa provided by TCarta Marine LLC | https://www.tcarta.com/

P.222

acknowledgement First of all i would like to thank my parents for always supporting me on all accounts, even throughout â&#x20AC;&#x153;slightlyâ&#x20AC;? increased duration of my studies.

Without them this project would not have been possible.

Special thanks to my supervisors, especially Prof. Claudia Pasquero, for sharing her vast knowledge of the matter at hand with us and for her limitless passion for the subject. I also want to thank Maria Kuptsova for her dedication and help in steering this project in the right direction.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my friends as well, who always were there for me in the time of need. THANK YOU EVERYONE.

P.223

P.224

University of Innsbruck January 2021

unDesired Adaptation This master thesis project focuses on solving issues in low altitude areas caused by global warming while creating new and preserving the existing natural habitats.

Also at the same time maintaining overall sustainability and even improving the social and economic conditions of the region. It does so by creating a synthetic fiber reef structure naturally â&#x20AC;&#x153;grownâ&#x20AC;? with BiorockTM technology, presenting it with exceptional ecological and economical benefits. The design is driven by symbiosis of utilizing the specific Biorock qualities combined with enhancing these through artificial intelligence (machine learning) based composition. For the case study one of the most populated and prolific victims of climate change in the central Pacific Ocean was chosen, the volcanic atoll of Tarawa, Kiribati.