T HE CORAL CORA L C R I SI S THE
sierra johannes
T HE CORAL CORA L C R I SI S THE sierra johannes bachelor of architecture thesis california polytechnic state university, slo dale clifford 2020-21
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c ris is background threats impact why this matters restoration strategies
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re s ea rc h
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de s ign pro p o s a l
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environmental indicators environmental monitors generators
mapping analysis plan
overall view data buoy module design section
re fe re n c e s text citations image citations
A bstract Coral reefs are the world’s most biodiverse ecosystems, providing unquantifiable services to our planet and its people. However, due to anthropogenic circumstances, such as rising temperatures and an increase in acidity, our oceans are becoming hostile environments for coral, which are on track to disappear by 2050. Scientists and marine biologists are monitoring the changes above and below the water and working to rebuild reefs with the help of dedicated designers. However, the focus is currently on restoration as a solution and needs to shift to prevention in order to avoid the devastating aftermath of our negligence. To create a precautionary line of communication between coral reefs and humans, analysis of carbon levels in the atmosphere and ocean, coral construction methods and the function of protection and conservation systems are necessary aspects to understand. This project identifies hazardous conditions on the forefront and communicates the need for change, while simultaneously restoring degraded reefs. Through a future system of environmental data collecting buoys, ecological harvesters, and research efforts, coral reefs and their connected communities are protected and revitalized. This system and its counterparts compile, analyze, and convey crucial environmental data to the public. Existing coastal infrastructures comprised of interactive, educational public spaces create an inherent connection to the ocean and its inhabitants.
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01 “We need to respect the oceans and take care of them as if our lives depended on it. Because they do.” -Sylvia Earle
cr i s i s
background 5 impact 7 threats 9 why this matters 11 restoration strategies 13
b a ckgrou n d Covering less than 1% of the ocean floor, coral reefs support nearly 25% of marine species, making them some of the most vibrant and diverse ecosystems on earth. With around 6,000 species of corals that range in size, shape, and color they form four main categories of reefs- atolls, fringing reefs, barrier reefs and patch reefs. These reefs provide food, shelter, and breeding grounds for marine species while also providing food, medicine, tourism, jobs and countless ecological services for humans.
Coral reefs form due to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of individual coral polyps that attach to rock and hard surfaces on the ocean floor and secrete a skeleton of calcium carbonate. An energy intensive process, corals rely on their symbiotic relationship with an algae called zooxanthellae to produce energy for construction. The zooxanthellae live within the polyp’s tissue, removing its waste to be used in photosynthesis while also providing the vibrant colors of the reef. In order to access ample sunlight for photosynthesis, corals prefer to grow in shallow, clear water and build their skeletons upwards.
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i m pact The increase in sea surface temperatures causes corals to expel their zooxanthellae due to stress, leaving them bleached and at risk of starvation and disease. Bleaching events do not immediately kill corals, however a full recovery from such an event can take up to 10 years. When first recognized in 1983, bleaching events were occurring around an average of every 25-30 years. However, with mass events observed in 1998, 2010, and 2014-17, rates are noticeably accelerating to nearly every 6 years [5] . The increase in frequency and intensity of bleaching events is denying corals the time they need to recover, and may cause irreversible damage. As the ocean is absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, our oceans are becoming more acidic and their pH levels are dropping which has negative effects on marine life. The rapid change in the ocean’s pH caught 7
scientists’ attention in 2003, and the term ocean acidification was coined [6]. Even very slight changes in pH drop can interfere with chemical communication, reproduction and growth. In corals, the production of calcium carbonate is crucial for their growth, and more acidic water makes this chemical production very difficult and extremely energy intensive. On top of that, more acidic water weakens and degrades already built structures. When the structure of a reef is weakened, it is more susceptible to damage and breakage during storms This degradation also hinders new growth because new coral have less area to attach to.
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th reat s
These climate change driven environmental factors, in combination with anthropogenic factors, such as water pollution, coastal development, and exploitive fishing practices, are putting immense stress on coral reefs. Currently, 75% of all coral reefs are threatened by either local or global stressors and about 20% have been determined to be degraded past the point of recovery [5]. 9
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The mean global sea level has risen 8-9 inches since 1880, and the rate of rise has been accelerating- more than doubling to 0.14 inches per year in the last 15 years [4].
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Sea surface temperatures have risen 1.5℉ since 1901, rising at an average of .13 degrees every decade. [3].
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The ocean’s pH level has decreased by 0.1 units since the Industrial Revolution, representing a 30% increase in acidity, the fastest known change in the last 50 million years [2].
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atmospheric CO2 (parts per million)
Climate change is directly linked to human actions that contribute to the greenhouse effect and is wreaking havoc on our oceans. 90% of heat trapped by greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere and 30% of atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean. This leads to a rise in ocean acidity, sea surface temperatures, and global sea levels.
IUCN
El Niño
8%
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31%
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El Niño
50%
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90%
CITES UNEP
IPCC Montreal Protocol
UNFCCC
Kyoto Protocol
The Climate Group
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2090
2080
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ure
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CAN
Sunrise Movement March People’s Climate Moving Planet Friday’s for Fut
Global Work
350.org
2010
MPAs
2070
2060
2050
2040
2030
2020
2010
2000
1990
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EPA
“Ocean Acidification”
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1960
WWF
“Global Warming” the Earth Greenpeace Earth Day 1980
Friends of
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7.0 1910
1900
yrs.
ocean pH levels
fastest known drop in last 300 millions
Paris Agreement
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w hy t his m att e rs
Coral reefs provide habitat, food and breeding grounds for 25% of all marine life Approximately 850 million people live within 100 km of a coral reef and are like people live within 30-10 km of a reef and heavily depend on them and the resou reefs provide amounts to $375 billion per year . Some of the key contributers are:
biodiversity Coral reefs are believed to be the most diverse ecosystems on earth and are often referred to as ‘the rainforests of the sea’ due to the sheer number of species that inhabit them. Scientists estimate that nearly one million species are associated with coral reefs and that there could be millions of species still left undiscovered.
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tourism Vibrant, healthy reefs attract snorkelers, scuba divers and sunbathers alike- supporting local and global economies. 70 million trips are made annually to visit coral reefs and in turn support hotels, airlines, shops, restaurants and supply chains, estimating an economic value of $36 billion. Almost 100 countries directly benefit from the tourism generated from reefs, and their disappearance would result in a major
food Reefs are hom 4,000 species of which cont global seafo COral reef valued at $6. year globally. regions, the supply up total fish cat supply half o consumed tropical regio
e and are a source of food, livelihood, and medicine for people all over the world. ely to benefit from some of their ecosystem services, and more than 275 million urces they provide [X]. It is estimated that the ecological goods and services that
me to around s of fish, many tribute to the ood supply. fisheries are .8 billion per . In many reef reef fisheries to 25% of tch and they of the protein in coastal ons.
coastal protection Coral reefs can absorb 70-90% of wave energy, defending shorelines from currents, waves and storms. With the increase in storm frequency and intensity, this protection is vital for coastal communities [X]. Coral reefs are also home to sediment producing species that generate sand, silt and clay to build up shorelines. [X]. Together these services protect nearly 200 million people.
medicine The unique chemical processes and production found in coral reef organisms create chemical compounds that are used in medicinal research for treating a range of human complications and diseases such as cancers, HIV/AIDS, bone grafts, inflammation and bacterial diseases. The ability to explore coral reefs allows the potential for new drug development, and the inability would limit exploration to the remaining 5% of terrestrial biodiversity. 12
res t orat io n s t rat e gie s Reef B al l s engineered marine concrete forms + available in variety of sizes and styles + simple and inexpensive construction and deployment + protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy
M.A . R . S . 3D printed ceramic modular structures + unique geometries based on site specificity + efficient, affordable, and accessible construction
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Coral Ta b l e s metal tables with plastic mesh + located in shallow waters + overcrowding of new coral growth is a concern + deterioration and rusting of metal tables over time
Coral Tre e s floating structures made from PVC pipe + protects growing coral from seafloor predators + can be raised or lowered based on desired temperature zone to avoid bleaching events + danger of marine life and boat entanglement
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re s earch earc h
environmental indicators 17 environmental monitors 19 generators 2 1 zooxanthellae 25
env ironm e n t a l in d ic at o r s b i o l og i c a l
Bioindicators are naturally occurring organisms that have the ability to monitor the health of ecosystems and signal changes in the environment. Microbrial organisms, plants and animals can all be monitored through their morphology, physiology and behavior to understand and detect changing ecological conditions. The response to changes in the environment are traced to either anthropogenic or natural stressors and indicate their positive or negative impacts. Utilization of bioindicators allows for prompt natural diagnosis of environmental health. Bioindicators are nature’s way of communicating when something is wrong. The use of bioindicators dates back to 1911, when canaries were brought into coal mines to detect dangerous levels of carbon monoxide to protect miners. Since then, lichen has been used to indicate air quality, frogs for water quality, bacterium for pollution, and many more. Recently, foraminifera, a single-celled protist, has been used to monitor benthic environments and their capability to support algal symbiotic relationships, similar to that of coral polyps and zooxanthellae.
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env ironm e n t a l mon it or s ant hro po g e n ic
In order to better understand our environments, monitoring systems have been created to collect observational, quantative data that can be analyzed and accessed as valuable information. The data collected by these systems can indicate overall environmental health and provide evidence of change. By understanding environmental conditions and trends, predicting and preventing future impacts is more likely to be precise and successful. Current collection methods use technical devices such as weather balloons and data buoys, to measure environmental factors such as water and air quality, wind, waves and currents, and weather. Their ability to collect and send data in real time is critical for immediate action and safety from short term conditions, and is important for long term analysis to predict regional and global events and climate change. Currenly, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is leading in data collection and compilation across the globe due to their deployment of buoys and stations.
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g e ne rat o r
e n viron me n t al in dicat or The presence of membranipora membranacea on kelp indicates the imbalance in water quality. Individual zooids grow radially on the kelp, and can fully encrust the entire organism with their calcium carbonate exoskeleton. The growth of zooids effects the entire kelp plant, and the forest ecosystem. The growht on kelp leaves blocks sunlight for photosynthesis and causes them to become brittle and break easily in currents. When the zooids spread to the air bladders, the equilibrium of gases is hard to maintain, making it difficult for the blades to stay afloat and reach sunlight.
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e n viron me n t al in dicat or Kelp forests are rich ecosystems that provide food and shelter for thousands of species above and below water. To stay balanced, the forests depend on sea otters, a keystone species, to maintain the sea urchin population. Sea urchins feast on kelp and when unregulated cause immense damage to the entire ecosystem. Sea otters can eat up to 25% of their body weight everyday, and with urchins being their favorite meal they regulate the urchin population.
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zo ox a nthe lla e
as an e n v iro n menta l indicato r Coral reefs form due to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of individual coral polyps that attach to rock and hard surfaces on the ocean floor and secrete a skeleton of calcium carbonate. An energy intensive process, corals rely on their symbiotic relationship with an algae called zooxanthellae to produce energy for construction. The zooxanthellae live within the polyp’s tissue, removing its waste to be used in photosynthesis while also providing the vibrant colors of the reef. In order to access ample sunlight for photosynthesis, corals prefer to grow in shallow, clear water and build their skeletons upwards.
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03 “Habitat destruction, pollution and climate change are threatening coral reefs around the world, and the Coral Triangle is no exception.” -LiveScience
site
site mapping site analysis site plan
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The Coral Triangle
this bioregion is the epicenter of marine biodiversity on our planet. Containing 29% of the world’s coral reefs, it supports more marine species than anywhere on the planet, contains 76% of all coral species, supplies the global fishing industry, and is home to over 120 million people who rely on coral reefs for food, income, and protection.
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th e coral t ria n gle nat u ra l f a c t o r s
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wind speed + direction located within the Intertropical Convergence zone, winds have a major impact on weather patterns and sea surface currents. Changes in wind patterns due to climate change have caused severe monsoons and droughts.
surface currents the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) supplies a constant flow of warm water from the Pacific to the Indian Oceans. This region’s variation in depth, temperature, salinity, and size of passage ways effects the global climate. monsoon currents the monsoon currents transfer heat and water from the Pacific ocean to the Indian ocean and changes the regional climate in Southeast Asia.
50 mph 40 mph 30 mph 20 mph 10 mph 0 mph
NEC: North Equatorial Current NECC: North Equatorial Countercurrent KC: Kuroshio Current MC: Mindanao Current ITF: Indonesian Throughflow SEC: South Equatorial Current EGC: Eastern Gyral Current
December-February June-August
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th e coral t ria n gle nat u ra l f a c t o r s
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coral reefs at risk around 95% of reefs are at risk by local threats, with around half being in the high and very high risk categories
very high risk high risk medium risk low risk
sea surface temperature corals are living close to their maximum temperatures and just an increase in 1°C for short periods of time could have detrimental consequences for their survival
30-32° C 28-30° C 26-28° C 24-26° C 22-24° C 20-22° C
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th e coral t ria n gle ant hro po g e n ic fa cto rs
population more than 138 million people live within 30 km of a coral reef within this densely populated region and are likely to rely on the reefs for their livelihood
tourism reef tourism is rapidly growing in the coral triangle region, accounting for a significant portion of these countries’ GPDs
seafood trade countries in this region contribute 14% of the global total of exportations of fish and fishery products. Overfishing threatens 85% of reefs and destructive fishing threatens 60% of reefs
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10 million 5 million 1 million
up to $4,000 $4,000-$44,000 $44,000-$92,000 $92,000-$172,000 $352,000-$908,000 >$908,000
major port city boat transport air transport
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th e coral t ria n gle ant hro po g e n ic fa cto rs
ecoregions the regions are separated based on species diversity, habitat type, oceanography, bathymetry, geomorphology, sea level fluctuations, and river discharge for conservation assessment.
marine protected areas 14.7% of reefs are within the coral triangle’s nearly 2,000 MPAs. Less than 1% are effectively managed and only 5% are partially effective.
NOAA Reef Watch this program uses satelite based measurements to provide data on current reef environmental conditions and detect the likelihood of coral bleaching.
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East Philip. Pala./No.Bor. Lesser Sunda Sula.S/MSt. Halmahera
Bis. Sea Solo. Sea Solo. Arc. Banda S Papua
mpa
station coverage
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Dumaguete, Negros Oriental Philippines While this system can be implemented anywhere coral reefs are in danger, this particular instance occurs in Dumaguete, Negros, Philippines. This coastal city relies heavily on the surrounding reefs for food, tourism, and livelihood. According to recent trends in sea surface temperature and ocean acidity, this region’s coral reefs is under immense threat.
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design p ro p o s al overall view data buoy module design section
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o vera ll v ie w
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data b uoy
as an e n v iro n menta l mo nito r The implementation of an environmental data buoy allows information about environmental conditions to be communicated in real time. This specific data buoy includes a temperature monitor that can be raised and lowered to measure temperatures at a multitude of depths, an pH level monitor, and atmospheric collectors. These factors are the main contributors to the health of our oceans, and directly impact the livelihood of coral reefs. With this information being constantly monitored and communicated, the data can be understood immediately and trends will be apparent. Knowing the threats alongside current conditions will give the best understanding for preemptive caution and protection.
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m odul e de s ig n c o ral i s olat io n la b
This module is designed as a floating coral nursery that rescues endangered and fragmented coral. The small tank is regulated and monitored to maintain ideal temperature, ph level, and water flow to best suite the regrowth of coral. The module is equipped with water management strategies that collect and filter rainwater along with upwelled ocean water to yield optimal conditions for coral regrowth. The module also harnesses solar energy through pv panels to be transmitted through a steel grid as electric currents that facilitate calcium carbonate production.
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m odul e de s ig n o b se r v atio n l a b
This module is designed to increase awareness while also facilitating research on coral conditions. Open to the public, these small modules allow underwater viewing of coral reefs. By submerging themselves into these environments, the public not only gains a visual connection, but also a visceral experience. Still contributing to research, the module collects data on the health of the reefs and transmits information to surrounding stations.
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m odul e de s ig n
c o ral re in tro d u ctio n la b This module is designed to transition coral fragments that have regrown in isolation lab and now have the strength to survive in the unregulated ocean water. The lab still uses electric currents through a steel grid to support calcium carbonate buildup. The corals have the ability to be detached from the steel reef base and be replanted on the ocean floor. The module increases awareness and education on the process of coral reintroduction
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ref e re n ce s
text citations image citations
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ref erences t ext [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]
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US EPA, OAR. “Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature.” Reports and Assessments. US EPA, June 27, 2016. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-seasurface-temperature. “Ocean Acidification | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.” Accessed November 13, 2020. https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/oceanacidification. “Participatory Monitoring | Reef Resilience.” Accessed November 19, 2020. https://reefresilience.org/monitoring-and-assessment/designing-amonitoring-plan/participatory-monitoring/. Ocean Health Index. “Sea Surface Temperature.” Accessed November 13, 2020. http://www.oceanhealthindex.org/methodology/components/sea-surfacetemperature. selfstudyias.com. “Bioindicators – Mechanism, Uses, Advantages and Examples.” Accessed November 6, 2020. http://selfstudyias.com/bioindicators-mechanism-uses-advantages-andexamples/. “Bioindicators: Using Organisms to Measure Environmental Impacts | Learn Science at Scitable.” Accessed November 2, 2020. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/bioindicators-usingorganisms-to-measure-environmental-impacts-16821310/. NexSens. “Environmental Monitoring Buoys,” May 7, 2019. https://www.nexsens.com/blog/environmental-monitoring-buoys.htm. Hallock, Pamela, Barbara H. Lidz, Elizabeth M. Cockey-Burkhard, and Kelly B. Donnelly. “Foraminifera as Bioindicators in Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring: The FORAM Index. Foraminifera in Reef Assessment and Monitoring.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 81, no. 1–3 (February 2003): 221–38.
[9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16]
National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI). “Coral Reef Temperature Anomaly Database,” April 8, 2020. http://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/coral-reef-temperature-anomalydatabase. Asaad, Irawan, Carolyn J. Lundquist, Mark V. Erdmann, Ruben Van Hooidonk, and Mark J. Costello. “Designating Spatial Priorities for Marine Biodiversity Conservation in the Coral Triangle.” Frontiers in Marine Science 5 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00400. Moberg, Fredrik, and Carl Folke. “Ecological Goods and Services of Coral Reef Ecosystems.” Ecological Economics 29, no. 2 (May 1, 1999): 215–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00009-9. “Exploring Threats to Coral Reefs.” Accessed October 28, 2020. https://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0112/exploring-threats-to-coral-reefs. html. “Importance of Reef Fisheries | Reef Resilience.” Accessed November 19, 2020. https://reefresilience.org/coral-reef-fisheries-module/coral-reef-fisheries/ importance-of-reef-fisheries/. Burke, Lauretta, Katie Reytar, Mark Spalding, and Allison Perry. Reefs at Risk Revisited, 2011. https://www.wri.org/publication/reefs-risk-revisited. “Unprecedented 3 Years of Global Coral Bleaching, 2014–2017 | NOAA Climate. Gov.” Accessed November 12, 2020. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/ unprecedented-3-years-global-coral-bleaching-2014%E2%80%932017. “Value of Reefs | Reef Resilience.” Accessed November 18, 2020. https://reefresilience.org/value-of-reefs/.
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ref erences i m ag e s [1.1] [1.2] [1.3]
Brian Zgliczynski, 100 Island Challenge “Animal Tracks: Coral.” Accessed November 9, 2020. http://www.whalematch.org/coral.php. NormileMar. 29, Dennis, 2016, and 12:45 Pm. “El Niño’s Warmth Devastating Reefs Worldwide.” Science | AAAS, March 29, 2016. https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/el-ni-o-s-warmth-devastating- reefs-worldwide. [1.4] Cave, Damien. “Great Barrier Reef Is Bleaching Again. It’s Getting More Widespread.” The New York Times, April 6, 2020, sec. World. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/06/world/australia/great-barrier-reefs- bleaching-dying.html. [1.5] Eschner, Kat. “The Story of the Real Canary in the Coal Mine.” Smithsonian Magazine. Accessed September 28, 2020. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/story-real-canary-coal mine-180961570/. [1.6] “Environmental Monitoring Buoy.” Accessed September 28, 2020. https://www.elscolab.com/en/products/environmental-monitoring-buoy.
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