Winter 2024 Edition

SCIENCE HOLIC 10th Edition

February 2024

Note From EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR Dear ScienceHolic Readers, I just wanted to say a huge thank you for your support, especially as we hit our big 10th edition! In every issue, we try our best to bring you thought-provoking articles and insightful perspectives, hoping they add a little to your understanding of the STEM world. Getting to this 10th edition has been quite a ride, with its ups and downs, but knowing that someone is out there reading and engaging with us has kept us going.

As we celebrate this milestone, it's incredible to think about the impact of our community of past and present SH members. I truly have to emphasize that I couldn’t have done this without YOU! To every member, your excitement for STEM not only makes our magazine better but also contributes to the innovation and development of other projects that support passionate STEM students.

It makes me immensely proud that our first graduating class of ScienceHolic 4 years ago will be graduating college this May. Again, I have to thank all of our alumni and alumnae for your support of the organization, and also for providing different members with guidance in the college application process.

Thank you so much for being such a vital part of our journey. We're excited to keep bringing you awesome content in the editions ahead! As one of our new projects for 2024, we are also excited to create an “Alum Hub” to connect all graduating SH Alums, and support each other with their future careers ahead.

Warm Regards,

Joyce Hai

Note From MAGAZINE BRANCH DIRECTOR Dear ScienceHolic Readers, I hope everything is going well! We have welcomed 2024. Over the past few months, we have been working hard to present our amazing work. Now we're thrilled to share with you the 2024 February Edition. I still can't believe we have made it to the TENTH edition. Thank you so much for all of your support and patience!

This Edition covers intriguing topics, including the exploration of life on other planets, the Giant Panda’s removal from the endangered list, and the latest developments in organ transplantation. In the past month, we also had a webinar with a Rice Graduate, Joyce Guo, who talked about her career paths and discussed her research on computer science. Feel free to browse through the highlights of the sessions on our Instagram and also find the recordings of these sessions on our YouTube Channel.

I have to thank our partner organization, AmSTEA, for their patience and support for our magazine. Moreover, we have partnered with a new organization called STEAM IC, where students will get hands-on experience to explore their passionate STEM field more deeply. We will be hosting a webinar series in March, focusing on marine science, and they will also support us through the development of ScienceHolic Review this year! Stay tuned for more information Anyway, we couldn't present this amazing piece without all of our members and directors. I am very proud of them and looking forward to seeing our future work.

College acceptances are coming. Who's ready to receive their dream school acceptance? While waiting for that, let's sit on the couch and enjoy our February 2024 Edition!

Sincerely,

Hanni Yang

Collaboration

AmSTEA is a 501(3) certified non-profit organization dedicated to building an educational platform with videos and articles that explore unconventional topics in STEAM. AmSTEA consists of a selective team of high school students who deeply care about the future of the world. Through informative publications, we hope to spark interest in STEAM across generations of people and inspire more individuals to pursue this field. With our easily-accessible materials, we also aim to provide knowledge and contribute back to our community.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Health & Medicine Scope into the Controversial of Abortion Revolutionizing Vision Correction: Innovations in Intraocular Lenses Exploring the Gut-Brain Connection: Unraveling the Surprising Link Between Gut Microbiome, Substance Abuse, and Addiction Why Poverty Makes Illnesses Worse How to Achieve Immortality Revolutionizing Healthcare: Advancement and Challenges in Organ Transplantations Unravelling the Cognitive Symphony of Caffeine Consumption

The Human Mind Unveiling the Layers: Women’s Mental Health Through History and Science How Does Childhood Abandonment Affect Future Parenting Styles?

How do Vendors Upsale People?

The Power of Believing in Yourself: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Placebo Effect What Happens When We Dream?

Planet Earth and Beyond Exploring the Possibilities of Life on Other Planets The Ecological Impact of Acid Rain The Influence of Solar Winds on Earth’s Atmosphere The Perplexing Path of Hurricane Ian The Comeback of Giant Pandas Why Birds Swallow Stones

Health & Medicine

SCOPE INTO THE CONTROVERSIAL OF ABORTION Author: Cici Zhang Editor: Flynn Ma, Sophia Chen, and Chiara Chen Artist: Tracy Xu The topic of abortion has been widely discussed, creating conflicts and arousing protests in the public. However, if abortion became illegal throughout the world, this policy would push women into unsafe and unregulated methods, which would result in serious future complications for the mother.

This practice, driven by a myriad of reasons, falls into two primary categories: medical and surgical abortions. The former employs medication such as Mifepristone (RU-486) or Misoprostol, primarily during the early stages of pregnancy. Surgical abortion, in contrast, encompasses minor procedures to remove the pregnancy from the uterus. Additionally, the term "abortion" also encompasses the natural loss of pregnancy through spontaneous abortion, more commonly known as miscarriage. This natural process can arise due to various causes, including genetics, hormonal imbalances, and underlying medical conditions.

The World Health Organization's records serve as a sobering reminder of the global scale of abortion. Annually, over 73 million abortions are performed worldwide, reflecting the diverse reasons driving individuals to opt for this choice.

Within this statistic, 61% of unwanted pregnancies result in abortion, and 29% of all pregnancies are unintended. A stark

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imbalance is highlighted in the prevalence of unsafe abortions in Asia, particularly South and Central Asia, where over half of these dangerous procedures are performed.

Alarmingly, unsafe abortions contribute to an annual toll of 4.7% to 13.25% of maternal deaths, shedding light on the urgent need for safe and accessible abortion services. More specifically, in Central and South Asia, less than 50% of abortions are safe. Outside of southern Africa, less than a quarter of abortions in Africa are safe. This is highly dangerous for women, as it results in an increased risk of maternal death.

Apart from the pressing issue of restricted access to abortion care, concerns emerge regarding the potential violation of women's human rights and the associated physical health risks. The right to bodily autonomy and reproductive choice is at the heart of the abortion debate, with advocates asserting that the decision to

Health & Medicine terminate a pregnancy lies with the pregnant individual. Restricted access to safe abortion care can infringe upon these rights, leaving women with limited options and potentially forcing them into risky and unsafe procedures.

Inadequate abortion services also pose significant physical health risks.

Without proper medical supervision, individuals may resort to unregulated and dangerous methods. Illegal abortions, often performed because of restrictions on safe and legal procedures, can pose significant risks. These methods are often performed under unhygienic conditions, which can result in severe complications, including infections, damage to the genital tract and internal organs, hemorrhage, incomplete abortion, preeclampsia, or severe infection, all threatening a pregnant woman's physical and mental health. If these medical problems are not addressed promptly, they can result in long-term health complications or irreversible damage to vital organs. Additionally, the psychological toll of facing a potential health crisis intertwined with an unplanned pregnancy can worsen stress and anxiety, affecting an individual's overall mental health. The absence of proper medical care can worsen these risks, leading to longterm health consequences that could have been avoided with adequate access to safe abortion services.

In addition, economic and cultural factors also profoundly influence the landscape of abortion decision-making.

Economic disparities play a key role in determining access to safe and legal abortion services. Low-income individuals often face barriers that can lead to unsafe procedures due to financial constraints.

Furthermore, cultural attitudes toward sex,

family planning, and gender roles influence perceptions of abortion. Social norms and expectations regarding women's roles in the family and society also influence the decision-making process.

Recognizing the intricate interplay between economic circumstances and cultural values ​i s critical to developing nuanced and effective reproductive health policies that address the diverse challenges faced by individuals within their respective economic and cultural contexts.

In response to these challenges, advocates for comprehensive reproductive healthcare emphasize the importance of ensuring women's access to safe and legal abortion services. This includes not only the provision of accurate medical information but also creating an environment where women can make informed decisions about their reproductive health without facing judgment or legal repercussions. By prioritizing access to safe abortion care, societies can uphold women's rights, reduce maternal mortality, and empower individuals to make choices that align with their circumstances and beliefs.

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Health & Medicine

REVOLUTIONIZING VISION CORRECTION: INNOVATIONS IN INTRAOCULAR LENSES Author: Hanni Yang Editors: Jaylen Peng, Angela Pan, and Kevy Chen Artist: Serena Yung

Envision a world where the brilliance of your vision isn’t constrained by age or medical conditions—a world where you can immerse in the exquisite beauty around you, liberated from the hindrances of blurred vision. This vision of a brighter, clearer future is not a fantasy; it’s a reality thanks to the remarkable advancements in Intraocular Lenses (IOLs). These tiny yet powerful optical wonders have revolutionized the field of ophthalmology and transformed the lives of countless individuals, young and old.

An intraocular lens is an artificial

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lens inserted into the eye for patients who have cataracts or myopia. A cataract is a lens of the eye that becomes progressively opaque, resulting in blurred vision. Myopia is a medical condition that results in nearsightedness, making it difficult for patients to focus on their surroundings.

Usually, elderly people have a higher chance of getting cataracts, but younger children can also get cataracts at birth or from other medical conditions.

Ophthalmologists discovered that intraocular lenses could cure cataracts through eye surgery to improve eye vision.

Health & Medicine How does the intraocular lens work?

Ophthalmologists will put an intraocular lens implant made of clear plastic about a third the size of a dime in the patient's eyes. There are several different types of implants, each with different functions and side effects selected depending on patients’ needs: Monofocal IOL: This is the most common intraocular lens ophthalmologists use for patients.

Compared to a person’s natural lenses, mono-focal IOLs can stretch or bend to help a person's eye focus. This implant remains focused at a fixed distance.

For example, a person concentrating from a distance may still be able to see objects that are far away but would need glasses to read or see up close.

Multifocal IOL: Multifocal intraocular lenses feature regions that let patients

see things at various distances, similar to glasses with bifocal or progressive lenses. However, the brain may need a few months to adjust before the patient’s eyesight looks normal.

Compared to a monofocal lens, it occasionally produces larger halos or glares around lights.

Accommodating IOL: Accommodating intraocular lenses are like a person’s natural lens and focus at many distances, making them a flexible option for many. For elders, it can act as an alternative to reading glasses.

Toric IOL: Toric intraocular lenses are for patients who have astigmatism or whose cornea is closer to a football shape than round. The distorted shape blurs the entire field of view, not just up close or far away. This lens will reduce astigmatism, so glasses are unnecessary after surgery.

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Health & Medicine

Many can afford cataract surgery because it is typically covered by medical insurance. However, uninsured cataract surgeries can cost between $3,500 to $5,500 for each eye depending on the quality of the lens the patient selects.

Patients could be paying over ten thousand dollars for both eyes, so the procedure could still be expensive for low-income families.

High-quality lenses, often encompassing advanced technology and superior materials, contribute to the upper range of this cost spectrum due to their precision, durability, and added functionalities. The quality of the lenses used profoundly affects the outcome of vision correction. Premium lenses not only provide greater clarity and a wider focal length range but can also address specific vision problems such as astigmatism.

While more economical mono-focal lenses exist, their ability to enhance vision overall is less effective than premium lenses, emphasizing the significance of investing in higher quality lenses during intraocular lens implantation surgery to achieve superior vision correction and decreased reliance on corrective aids.

Moreover, the surgical procedure does come with potential risks and side effects. Prior to the surgery, patients will receive detailed information from

ophthalmologists regarding the potential risks such as ocular bleeding, infections, inflammation, or eye swelling. Among the more severe complications include retinal detachment, progressive vision loss, lens displacement, or the development of posterior capsular opacification (PCO), leading to visual blurring due to lens capsule clouding. However, to address PCO-related blurriness, ophthalmologists employ a non-invasive laser technique.

They use lasers to target the lens capsule, where PCO thickening forms to create a hole. This hole allows light to pass through to the patient's retina, allowing them to see better.

Intraocular Lenses have revolutionized ophthalmology, reshaping vision correction. These small yet impactful devices offer tailored solutions for cataracts and myopia, providing personalized care. While they promise enhanced clarity and functionality, their transformative impact is not without risks.

However, innovative solutions, like noninvasive laser techniques, address postoperative complications. Ultimately, IOLs signify a future where visual barriers diminish, promising a brighter, clearer outlook for those seeking improved vision and a richer experience of the world’s beauty.

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Health & Medicine

EXPLORING THE GUT-BRAIN CONNECTION: UNRAVELING THE SURPRISING LINK BETWEEN GUT MICROBIOME, SUBSTANCE ABUSE, AND ADDICTION Author: Joanna Xu Editors: Misha Wichita, Kyra Wang, and Kevy Chen Artist: Kevin Lin

In the first three years of your life, the library of microorganisms populating your intestines, your gut flora, undergoes rapid development, quickly growing to resemble its adult form. As you continue to grow, every habit you pick up, whether healthy eating or smoking, will be reflected in the biodiversity of your gut microbiome. With this in mind, why do so many people risk their gut health despite all the warnings from health advisors? We must improve our habits to reduce the risks of the many health problems associated with the gut microbiome. This is even more significant given that recent studies suggest that the gut microbiome may play a role in developing addictive behaviors, such as substance abuse.

Due to the lack of technologies necessary to study the area, many are unaware of the gut microbiome’s role and functions despite its prevalence in human health.

However, with recent innovations and improvements in DNA sequencing, researchers can now closely observe the various microorganisms in the gut microbiome to study its relationship with the rest of the body.

Through their studies, it has become evident that a healthy gut microbiome is crucial for people’s overall health. Not only is the gut microbiome involved in fighting off invasive pathogens, but it also aids in nutrient and drug metabolism. As such, it is obvious that the gut microbiome also plays a role in developing diseases. So far, researchers have found evidence suggesting that the gut microbiome is associated with various diseases, such as inflammatory bowel

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Health & Medicine

disease, obesity, and some neurodevelopmental illnesses.

Unexpectedly, research has found that the gut microbiome may also be associated with drug addiction.

Known to be one of the biggest problems plaguing society today, drug abuse affects not only the user but also everyone around them. According to a 2020 National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics (NCDAS) study, 13.5% of Americans aged 12 and older had used drugs within the past month. The statistics regarding high school students and younger children were even more alarming.

According to the NCDAS, 47% of young children had used an illegal drug by the time they graduated from high school.

Unless regulations are put in place to prevent illegal drug use by adolescents, we may be closing in on a drug crisis. As drug usage continues or increases, these students become highly susceptible to drug addiction. It was reported that children who used an illegal drug at or before the age of 13 were over 2 times more likely to develop a substance abuse disorder than those who used drugs after the age of 17.

Yet, you might ask, how does this relate to the gut microbiome?

Well, the gut microbiome is directly associated with the brain; the health of the gut microbiome impacts brain function, mood, and behavior. Simply put, the gut microbiome sends metabolic signals that can induce stress and anxiety and make you feel happy and relaxed by releasing serotonin and dopamine. When one is under the influence of substance abuse, the brain releases large amounts of dopamine that results in the user experiencing feelings of pleasure that they soon find themselves addicted to. What many don’t know is that when these drugs are inhaled, consumed, or injected, the composition of their gut microbiome starts to change.

First, there is a decrease in healthy microbes such as Gram-negative

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Health & Medicine Bacteroides responsible for carbohydrate fermentation, a metabolism process necessary to help the host reach their daily energy requirement. These microbes also play a role in gut immune homeostasis, metabolism, and gut microbiome composition. Even worse, there is a significant increase in harmful inflammatory microbes such as Proteobacteria, and important microbial metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAS), which are necessary to maintain gut barrier integrity/permeability.

Intestinal inflammation, common in patients experiencing substance use disorder (SUD), weakens the gut barrier and allows microbes to interact with immune cells. When this happens, the immune cells produce cytokines that can enter the circulation and even cross the blood-brain barrier, resulting in neural inflammation, influencing responses, and drug tolerance. Specifically, this change in the composition of the gut microbiome because of drug usage alters the regular

release of metabolic signals along the gutbrain axis. These signals, those meant for the brain’s reward pathway, are altered to make the body more tolerant of the abused substance. Therefore, substance abuse users start to ingest the drug in greater quantities, which leads to addiction and often overdose.

The issue of drug abuse globally, especially among adolescents, is becoming an increasingly large issue. As more and more adolescents and children are exposed to drugs, there is a higher chance of them becoming addicted, in large part due to the effect that drugs have on the gut microbiome. As more drugs are introduced, gut inflammation will soon develop into neural inflammation, changing the user's behaviors and tolerance to drugs. This cycle continues, repeating until the user is completely addicted. As such, it is important to take necessary measures to prevent the exposure of addictive substances to the younger generation, educating them about the not-so-obvious connection that is the Gut-Brain Axis.

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Health & Medicine

WHY POVERTY MAKES ILLNESSES WORSE Author: Nikki Jiang

Editors:Angela Pan, Peggy Yang, and Sumire Sumi

Twenty-six-year-old Alec Smith from Minnesota died from diabetic ketoacidosis due to rationing his insulin. Alec died from an avoidable condition as a result of the exorbitant healthcare expenses that come with being an American with a chronic illness. All over America, access to quality healthcare is often treated as a privilege rather than a fundamental right. The United States ranks number one in the world for the most expensive health care system, yet consistently ranked last amongst eleven industrialized nations in health care system performance. The issue of healthcare in the U.S. is frequently discussed in political debates and the news, but poor healthcare is not just a hot topic — it is a reality.

The reality is that many Americans face significant barriers to accessing quality healthcare due to their economic circumstances, despite having a greater need for healthcare services.

Socioeconomic disparities in the United States have resulted in a significant gap in healthcare quality. Individuals of lower socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely to experience worse healthcare outcomes and face restricted access to quality care.

For example, poverty has been linked to a higher incidence of diseases such as type 2 diabetes, lung cancer, and heart disease, as well as an increased severity and mortality rate. As a result of social and economic barriers, patients with low SES tend to delay seeking medical care. This increases the severity of their conditions and the cost of medical treatment. In addition, distance

Artist: Lalita Ma

from medical care, lack of transportation, and long waits for appointments also discourage patients from seeking necessary care. These factors increase disparities in health outcomes and contribute to a decreased life expectancy in low SES populations. Addressing such disparities requires changes in government policies to promote healthcare access and healthy lifestyle habits.

Environmental and housing factors determine low-income Americans’ health outcomes. For instance, exposure to water and air pollutants is much higher among individuals with low SES, increasing their susceptibility to pollutant exposure-related diseases.

Although addressing such environmental issues is challenging and complex, it is still crucial for policymakers to take the first steps by increasing funding for programs to address environmental threats to human health. Additionally, policymakers should avoid building housing near heavily polluted areas to minimize human exposure to such risks.

Poor housing quality is another significant factor that disproportionately affects low-income individuals and increases their risk of adverse health conditions such as mold, poor air quality, and overcrowding. Preserving affordable housing units is a step that can be achieved by redeveloping older properties rather than building new, expensive houses.

Renewing affordability agreements is another step toward preventing affordable

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Health & Medicine Passing food policies that raise the standard for food regarding sugars, hydrogenated oils, and other known contributors to chronic diseases would lower the economic requirements to make healthy lifestyle choices. Another aspect of lifestyle choices is access to exercise–which can be achieved by increasing low-income neighborhoods’ walkability and building social networks that promote exercise. Studies have demonstrated that people are more likely to engage in physical activity when they have a social network.

Through implementing these solutions, we can work towards redistributing access to healthy goods and opportunities to exercise in lowincome communities, ultimately improving the health outcomes of low-income populations.

housing loss. If left unchecked, housing stock is set to lose affordability agreements, resulting in the loss of approximately 176,000 affordable units.

By providing incentives such as tax credits and low-interest loans to property owners, the government can encourage them to maintain the affordability of housing units and prioritize investments in building new affordable housing units in low-income areas that meet basic health and safety standards.

Addressing the food crisis and lack of exercise access in low-income communities is another crucial factor in improving overall health outcomes. One solution is to implement policies to promote healthy food options.

Despite progress towards increased healthcare access and community health promotion, disparities in healthcare outcomes among Americans persist due to SES. The root causes of such inequality are complex and multifaceted and often involve environmental and housing factors, access to healthy foods, and motivation to exercise. By raising food standards, increasing safety in low-income communities, building social networks, and increasing funding for environmental issues, it is possible to take significant steps toward addressing healthcare disparities in the U.S. The federal and local governments must work together to implement individualized solutions to achieve a fair healthcare system for all.

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Health & Medicine

HOW TO ACHIEVE IMMORTALITY Author: Ellie Wang Editors: Hwi-On Lee and Rishika Tellamsetty Artist: Susan Wu Immortality — such a fabled, impossible feat only found within myths and legends. Many throughout history have searched for the key to everlasting life, from tales of the Fountain of Youth to rumors of the alchemical philosopher’s stone. But after so long, has humanity made any progress toward this endeavor?

Let’s start by taking a look at what nature has already accomplished. To put the following examples into perspective, we can set the average human lifespan to 80 years — the approximate average lifespan for those living in first-world countries. The bowhead whale holds the record for the longest-living mammal, thought to live for over 200 years or 2.5 human lifetimes. The longest-living animal, a North Atlantic clam named the ocean quahog, clocks in at a 500-year lifespan, or 6.25 human lifetimes.

However, if we include the genetically identical colonies of polyps that make up corals, their constant regeneration easily puts the previous two to shame. Today’s deep-sea corals have lived for over 4,000 years or 50 human lifetimes.

Plants are an entirely different matter, though. Sometimes, seeds can stay dormant until the proper environmental conditions stimulate them to germinate. This protective seed stage has even allowed Russian scientists to examine a living Ice Age flower. In 2012, they successfully revived some 31,800-year-old Serbian

seeds. They grew a narrow-leafed campion from a time so distant that they were genetically distinct from modern descendants found in the same region.

Those seeds were dropped into the ice nearly 400 human lifetimes ago. Now, the actual oldest organism in the world is a 10mile-long stretch of seagrass called Posidonia oceanica, coming in at anywhere from 12,000 to 200,000 years of age, or 150 to 2,500 human lifetimes — though it’s most likely at least 100,000 years or 1,250 human lifetimes old. Such a feat is only possible because it reproduces asexually and generates clones of itself — something that sexually reproducing organisms like humans can’t do yet. revived some 31,800-year-old Serbian seeds. They grew a narrow-leafed campion from a time so distant that they were genetically distinct from modern descendants found in the same region.

Those seeds were dropped into the ice nearly 400 human lifetimes ago. Now, the actual oldest organism in the world is actually a 10-mile long stretch of seagrass called Posidonia Oceanica, coming in at anywhere from 12,000 to 200,000 years of

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Health & Medicine age, or 150 to 2,500 human lifetimes — though it’s most likely at least 100,000 years or 1,250 human lifetimes old. Such a feat is only possible because it reproduces asexually and generates clones of itself — something that sexually reproducing organisms like humans can’t do yet.

The longevity of the aforementioned organisms is impressive, but the one with the closest claim to immortality has to be the immortal jellyfish or Turritopsis dohrnii. It’s the only organism that can be classified as biologically immortal or unaffected by senescence, which is the “state of gradual deterioration of normal function” where “cells stop dividing, and they eventually die.” For most jellyfish, once they reach the medusa stage, the reproductive adult form, they don’t develop or change any further. They would only be able to mate and produce gametes to give rise to the next generation. This little jellyfish’s secret to immortality? It can turn back the clock and revert to an earlier life cycle stage in response to environmental stress. This is its very own Fountain of Youth. Imagine facing starvation or terminal illness and being able to transform into a blob of tissue, returning to infancy to increase your odds.

That is the life-altering power that the immortal jellyfish possesses.

So far, humans have very few concrete methods to elongate their lifespans past their natural ends significantly. We have gradually pushed them to the limits with modern medicine, but the best chance we have today is cryonics, the use of cryogenics to preserve a body after death in order to one day revive it, once science has advanced enough to do so. Cryogenics is defined as the practice of freezing gasses into liquids at temperatures below about 120 Kelvin, or -153oC. Efficient heat exchangers are often required to reach that point. Cryonics hold a similar promise as seed coats do for their respective organisms— that they can bloom in once the time is right. However, it’s not currently an accepted scientific utilization of cryogenics. For now, biological applications of cryogenics are limited to cryosurgery, or freezing parts of the body to destroy abnormal or malignant tissue, in treating cancers and conditions of the skin, cervix, uterus, prostate gland, and liver.

A more realistic approach to slow aging could involve antioxidants, which are chemical substances found naturally within many of the foods we eat. One theory as to why we age is the Free Radical Theory of Aging, which proposes that unstable substances produced by oxidative reactions with oxygen called free radicals can damage biological systems. The accumulation of this damage that comes naturally with the body’s constant metabolism could lead to its eventual decline. Some research indicates that antioxidants could combat the effects of free radicals, but more investigation is required in order to say definitively that antioxidants can grant longer lives.

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There technically has been only one human that achieved a kind of immortality, should you think Henrietta Lacks’s cancer cells remain a part of her. In 1951, Johns Hopkins Hospital doctors took samples of 31-year-old Henrietta Lacks’s cervical tumors without her consent and conducted research using them. They found that her cells could do something no other human cells could do up until then — they could grow and divide infinitely, allowing researchers to take an individual cell, multiply it, and start a cell line. These cells, named HeLa cells, violate the Hayflick limit, which dictates that a cell line can divide only 40 to 60 times before undergoing apoptosis or programmed cell death. Her cells never stopped dividing because they mutated into cells that could preserve their telomeres, which are the protective caps of repetitive DNA at the end of every chromosome. Many animals have the enzyme telomerase to repair telomeres after DNA replication to prevent them from getting too short. Still, that

amount falls too low past the embryonic stage to effectively prevent senescence, except in the case of one type of species: lobsters. Lobsters are unique in that they retain enough of their telomerase to possibly never die if only they could overcome the energy drain of growing bigger shells and the numerous consequences that follow. If humans could gain a similar ability to both that of the lobsters and the HeLa cells, they could possibly find the path to everlasting life.

Since Henrietta Lacks died at the age of 31 on October 4, 1951, her HeLa cells became the only remaining part of her.

Does this mean she is still alive? Legally, no, but biologically, those cells continue to live on, sporting a legacy of being cited in over 110,000 publications from 1953 to 2018. Having led to many medical breakthroughs already, they may be the key to unlocking immortality. All we can do for now is look toward what the future will bring.

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Health & Medicine

REVOLUTIONIZING HEALTHCARE: ADVANCEMENT AND CHALLENGES IN ORGAN TRANSPLANTATIONS Author: Cici Zhang Editors: Hwi-On Lee, Jaylen Peng, and Flynn Ma Artist: Acey Li Organ transplantation is the surgical removal of organs from one person, the donor, and transferring them to another person, the recipient, who has damaged or non-functional organs.

The most commonly transplanted organs are the heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, and pancreas.

As reported by the Global Observatory on Donations and Transplantation, an analysis of the 2010 transplant activity for 95 countries stated that about 106,879 solid organ transplants were performed worldwide, including 73,179 kidney transplants, 21,602 liver transplants, 5582 heart transplants, 3927 lung transplants, 2362 pancreas transplants, and 227 small bowel transplants. Meanwhile, the United States has also performed a majority of organ transplants. The United Network for Organ Sharing has also published that 41,354 organ transplants were performed in the United States in 2021, a 5.9 percent increase from 2020.

In addition to the large amounts of donors, organ transplantation is a complex and highly regulated process that requires accurate planning and coordination between professionals in the medical field, organ procurement, and the transplant

community. The transplantation process contains multiple steps: identifying a suitable organ donor, matching the organ with a recipient, performing the transplantation surgery, and providing post-operational care to the recipient.

Organ transplants can treat various diseases and significantly improve the lives of many patients. However, organ shortage has been a significant problem that occurs worldwide. According to the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network, as of January 2023, 88,901 patients are awaiting kidneys, 10,625 for livers, 857 for pancreas, 3,365 for hearts, and 960 for lungs. This shortage creates a conflict since many patients are awaiting transplantation, resulting in long waiting periods and the delay of effective treatment for tens of thousands of patients.

The solution to reducing organ shortage is educating and encouraging people to register for organ donation, creating international collaborations for

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Health & Medicine more equitable and efficient distributions of organs, and developing an alternative source to human organs, such as xenotransplantation —a procedure involving transplantation into a human recipient from a non-human animal. Pigs are often used in this process because of their physiological similarities to humans and their rapid breeding rates. However, genetic manipulation is critical to minimizing immune response triggers.

Scientists use gene editing methods such as CRISPR-Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) to suppress pig genes and sometimes introduce human genes to enhance organ adaptability. Despite these modifications, recipients often require immunosuppressive medications to control potential rejections. The evolution of genetic engineering technologies from expensive and inefficient methods such as prokaryotic injection to the nowpreferenced CRISPR-Cas9 reflects the relentless pursuit of efficiency and costeffectiveness. The technology combines CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing of somatic cells, direct injection into fertilized eggs, and somatic cell nuclear transfer to provide

a streamlined and efficient method to produce transgenic pigs for xenograft research.

Xenotransplantation may offer a potential solution to the shortage of organs; however, it also raises concerns about the potential infections that the recipient may receive and the subsequent transmission of their infections into the general human population. Although the statistics on the result of xenotransplantation in the human body remain unknown, according to CNN, doctors from NYU Langone have successfully transplanted a pig kidney into a patient who has a brain tumor experiencing brain death. This is an excellent starting point in the medical sector for gaining a deeper understanding of the function of pig kidneys in primates.

The field of organ transplant is a critical medical branch containing both remarkable medical achievements and the persistent challenge of organ shortage.

Collaboration among medical staff, researchers, and the public is critical for establishing long-term solutions and equitable access to life-saving organ transplants for those in need.

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Health & Medicine

UNRAVELING THE COGNITIVE SYMPHONY OF CAFFEINE CONSUMPTION Author: Amirali Banani Editors: Sophia Chen and Jason Zheng Artist: Jade Li Embark on a captivating exploration into the neuro-caffeinated realm, where the alchemical dance of neurotransmitters unfolds, revealing the enchanting question: Can your daily cup of coffee truly be a clandestine key to unlocking heightened cognitive prowess? Caffeine is a natural central nervous system stimulant belonging to the xanthine class of compounds. When ingested, it swiftly traverses the bloodbrain barrier, where it exerts its influence on various neurotransmitters, including adenosine, dopamine, and norepinephrine.

One of caffeine’s primary mechanisms for enhancing cognitive function is its ability to block the action of adenosine, a neurotransmitter responsible for promoting relaxation and sleepiness. Throughout the day, adenosine gradually accumulates in the brain, leading to a sense of fatigue.

Caffeine operates by binding to adenosine receptors, preventing them from receiving the signal to induce drowsiness. As a result, caffeine promotes a heightened state of arousal and wakefulness.

One of the most well-established effects of caffeine is its capacity to increase alertness and improve attention. It is often the go-to solution for combating fatigue during prolonged work or study sessions.

By interfering with adenosine receptors, caffeine helps sustain focus and ward off drowsiness, making it invaluable for tasks requiring sustained attention, such as long drives or intensive cognitive work.

According to a study conducted by researchers at Johns Hopkins University, caffeine can also positively impact memory. The study has shown that moderate caffeine consumption can enhance both short-term and long-term memory, facilitating improved information retention and recall. This can be particularly beneficial in learning and academic settings.

Caffeine’s ability to enhance

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Health & Medicine cognitive processing speed and reaction time is well-documented. This function is helpful in activities that cause quick thinking, such as sports, gaming, or tasks with tight deadlines. Although not a direct cognitive effect, caffeine has also been shown to elevate mood and reduce the perception of effort, making tasks appear less challenging. This mood-enhancing quality of caffeine can indirectly contribute to cognitive performance, particularly when dealing with stressful or demanding tasks.

While caffeine offers many cognitive benefits, it is imperative to understand that excessive or chronic consumption can lead to adverse effects. The ideal dosage of caffeine varies from person to person and hinges on individual tolerance and sensitivity.

Some individuals may experience negative side effects, such as restlessness, anxiety, insomnia, or jitters when they consume excessive amounts of caffeine. To maximize the benefits of caffeine while minimizing potential drawbacks, individuals should consume caffeine in moderation. According to the Mayo Clinic, the recommended daily caffeine intake for most healthy adults is approximately 400 milligrams, equivalent to roughly four 8-ounce cups of brewed coffee. Staying within this range allows individuals to experience the cognitive advantages of caffeine without experiencing excessive stimulation.

The timing of caffeine consumption can also significantly impact its effects.

Consuming caffeine in the morning can enhance alertness during the day, and avoiding it in the late afternoon and evening can prevent sleep disruption.

Understanding your personal tolerance and

sensitivity to caffeine is crucial. Some individuals are more sensitive to its effects, causing adjustments in their caffeine intake. It must be understood that relying solely on caffeine for cognitive performance enhancement is not a sustainable strategy. A balanced diet, regular exercise, and sufficient sleep play more significant roles in sustained cognitive function.

Caffeine’s ability to block adenosine receptors and promote alertness, attention, memory, and reaction time has positioned it as a popular choice for individuals seeking to boost their mental capabilities.

Nevertheless, it is essential to consume caffeine in moderation and be aware of individual sensitivity to avoid potential negative side effects. As with any substance, finding the right balance and integrating it into a healthy lifestyle is key to experiencing the cognitive benefits of caffeine. In doing so, individuals can harness caffeine’s cognitive-enhancing potential while minimizing its drawbacks, ensuring that it remains a valuable tool for optimizing cognitive performance.

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the human mind

UNVEILING THE LAYERS: WOMEN’S MENTAL HEALTH THROUGH HISTORY AND SCIENCE Author: Hanni Yang Editors: Emily Chen and Angela Pan Artist: Carys Chan In a poignant scene, pills, and drugs spill onto the floor, blood forms a pool of red on the ground, and the blaring sirens of ambulances and police vehicles pierce the air. With the rising prevalence of suicide, physicians have discovered various leading causes as to why people are driven to commit suicide. Some common reasons include depression, pressures from work and school, alcoholism, and even hereditary histories of suicide. With this being said, those who struggle with these symptoms experience suicidal thoughts, and their emotional health withers.

Throughout history, the patriarchy has influenced women in countless negative ways, making them feel invalidated for having sad emotions. Under the weight of gender-based oppression, women find themselves ensnared in an inescapable cycle, deprived of their natural freedoms and stripped of the basic right to be treated as human beings. This perpetuates a relentless cycle, leaving them invalidated for experiencing emotions deemed unacceptable by a patriarchal society.

The historical oppression of women takes various forms, including the derogatory label of “hysterical” that has been attached to them for expressing

unhappiness and pessimism. From the eighteenth century to the twentieth century. women who failed to conform to societal expectations or meet the demands of their male counterparts were subjected to punishment. They were incarcerated in socalled “hospitals,” where they endured abusive treatments like water and shock therapy before being sent to mental asylums. Despite the inhumane nature of these interventions and the lack of any demonstrable improvement in women’s mental health, they had no choice but to comply with the dictates of a maledominated society.

The lives of women under the patriarchy were characterized by restricted autonomy and limited opportunities for personal expression. As a result, women often whiled away their leisure time by

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the human mind writing in journals, gazing vacantly at the sky, or engaging in other activities to pass the time. These behaviors, which were employed as coping mechanisms, contributed to the stereotype of women as “hysterical.”

Another critical aspect of women’s mental health is the phenomenon of postpartum depression, a condition that can afflict women after giving birth.

Postpartum depression, a convergence of hormonal shifts, neurotransmitter imbalances, and psychological stressors after childbirth, underscores a complex interplay between biology and environment. In the book, The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the author depicts the narrator, Jane, as a “hysterical” woman who is mistreated by her husband, who locks her in a room to “cure” her mental health. Throughout the book, the author describes how Jane slowly loses her sanity when she starts to visualize a woman in the wallpaper and how she is finally “liberated'' when her husband faints.

Jane’s mental illness had been deeply impacted by her isolation and restricted lifestyle. There were several books, such as, Hysterical: Why We Need to Talk About Women, Hormones, and Mental Health by Eleanor J. Morgan and Unwell Women by Elinor Cleghorn, written during the twentieth century that portray the depression of women, either from the pressure from their daily lives or the pressure after giving birth.

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the human mind Throughout the research and studies, physicians and scientists discovered that there’s a deep connection between suicide and hysteria — a term that includes those with somatic symptom disorders, highlighting the imperative to recognize and address the psychological dimensions of these conditions for effective prevention and intervention strategies. A physician named Carter investigated risk factors in patients who lived at Ashford Hospital who attempted suicide by self-intoxication after a review of their individual medical records. Eighty of these patients were teenage girls, and forty-eight were diagnosed with hysteria. Patients who have hysteria will show higher levels of anxiety, hypochondria, insomnia, and loss of appetite for food. As women were historically confined to their homes and stripped of agency, these symptoms could escalate, leading to severe mental health disorders, and to suicide as a means of escape. Fortunately, the concept of hysteria was officially expunged from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders III in the 1980s.

The removal of hysteria marked a significant shift in psychiatric understanding and acknowledging the outdated and gender-biased nature of the diagnosis. The evolving recognition of diverse psychological conditions and the critique of gender-specific diagnoses propelled the removal of hysteria, paving the way for more inclusive and nuanced approaches to mental health. This change reflects a broader reassessment within the medical community to provide a more accurate and fair understanding of mental health

conditions that are no longer beholden to historical misconceptions and biases surrounding women’s experiences.

A resource from the National Library of Medicine highlights the profound link between women’s mental health challenges, specifically symptoms like anxiety and hypochondria associated with conditions such as hysteria, and the heightened risk of suicide thoughts. The findings emphasize the urgent need to recognize and address these psychological aspects, offering crucial insights for effective prevention strategies amid alarming rates of suicide among women affected by these conditions.

Understanding the complex relationship between women and mental health requires exploring multiple factors.

Biological factors, such as hormonal fluctuations that affect neurotransmitters, can predispose women to conditions such as depression and anxiety. However, social pressures, gender roles, and systemic inequalities exacerbate these challenges, creating a unique landscape for women’s mental health. Postpartum depression exemplifies this intersection, where hormonal changes intersect with social support, personal coping mechanisms, and economic circumstances.

Tailored interventions must address this convergence of biological predispositions and environmental stressors, emphasizing culturally competent mental health care and initiatives to address gender-based health care disparities. By recognizing this complex interaction, more effective strategies can be developed to support and enhance women’s mental health.

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the human mind

HOW DOES CHILDHOOD ABANDONMENT AFFECT FUTURE PARENTING STYLES? Author: Qinghao Ma Editors: Eric Lin, Kyra Wang, and Emily Yu Artist: Kyra Wang Childhood abandonment – the act of betraying or leaving a child permanently – is a phenomenon seen worldwide. This distressing reality raises several questions: Why do parents abandon their children?

How do young children cope with abandonment? And crucially, how does this experience influence their future parenting styles?

Exploring the roots of this tragedy, many parents abandon their children early on. According to Bourbon County High School, common reasons include but are not limited to, unwanted pregnancies, a desire for a fresh start, and financial struggles.

Focusing on unwanted pregnancies, a 2019 World Health Organization (WHO) study reported that adolescents aged 15-19 years experience an estimated 21 million pregnancies annually, approximately half of which are unintentional. Moreover, 55% of these unintended pregnancies end in abortions, leaving the rest of these young individuals likely facing parenthood. Often, the parents of these teenagers opt to leave, avoiding an escalating situation. Childhood abandonment can also stem from parents seeking a new beginning, triggered by factors such as long-distance relationships, infidelity, divorce, or child support issues.

Lastly, financial constraints can force

parents into making the heartbreaking decision to abandon their child due to an inability to afford education or healthcare.

Abandoned children often display similar patterns in personality development. As noted by Good Therapy, long-term mental health issues like persistent anger or severe mood swings are common among individuals abandoned in childhood. These individuals may live in constant fear of experiencing abandonment again, which can manifest in their intimate relationships or friendships. A lack of parental support can significantly impact a child's self-esteem. They can develop an abundance of insecurities or even face extreme difficulties in handling failure. In any case, parents are an essential part of a child’s development. Facing abandonment

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the human mind at such a young age may lead them to seek relationships that reaffirm these negative beliefs. Trust is another major issue; abandonment can make it extremely difficult to feel worthy of intimacy or trust others.

So, how does childhood abandonment affect their parenting styles in the future?

There are four main parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. Authoritative parents are nurturing, responsive, and supportive while maintaining household rules. Children raised in this environment often grow up to

have low self-esteem and seek inappropriate role models to fill the parental void.

Abandoned children may become authoritarian parents, seeking control due to a lack of nurturing. Others might become permissive, attempting to provide what they lacked but failing to guide their children adequately. In rare cases, they adopt an authoritative style, although this is less common due to the absence of such nurturing. Alternatively, these individuals might emulate the uninvolved parenting they experienced.

be friendly, energetic, self-reliant, and cooperative. In contrast, authoritarian parents set high expectations without being nurturing, leading to children who may suffer from emotional and behavioral problems, poor social skills, and depression or anxiety. Permissive parents are warm but lax, often raising children who are impulsive and low in self-control.

Uninvolved parents are unresponsive and detached, resulting in children who may

It's a challenging task for those who were abandoned as children to assume the role of a parent. As each individual's life story is unique, it is difficult to predict which parenting style they will adopt.

Childhood abandonment is a tragedy that necessitates proactive efforts. Resources and interventions should be provided to address the emotional and psychological needs of abandoned children, ultimately aiming to break the cycle of abandonment and promote healthier family dynamics.

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the human mind

HOW DO VENDORS UP-SALE PEOPLE? Author: Eric Zhu Editor: Viola Chen Artist: Sonia Su

The left digit effect, also known as the leftmost digit bias or the power of the first digit, is a cognitive bias where people tend to focus more on the leftmost digit in a number than on the digits that follow.

This bias can lead to people overvaluing the significance of the first digit and underestimating the importance of the following numbers. This method is useful, but it cannot be blindly utilized for every product. For the public, a one-cent difference, where the reduction is from $3.00 to $2.99, is negligible. However, for companies, a minute difference could cause them to lose drastic profits. If the reduced margin is not offset by an uptick in sales, the method can backfire, requiring retailers to delicately apply price adjustments.

The anchoring effect is a cognitive bias that describes how individuals are influenced by an initial, arbitrary number known as an "anchor", which can impact how consumers make their subsequent judgments or decisions. In marketing, this bias can be leveraged to manipulate customers' perception of value. By presenting an initial number or price point,

such as a higher-priced item, a marketer can "anchor" the customer's perception of value, making the subsequent options appear relatively more affordable or reasonable in comparison. For example, a retailer may first show a high-end product with a premium price point to establish a reference point for the customer.

Therefore, a less expensive product may be presented as a "deal" or "discount" relative to the high-end product, creating the impression that the lower-priced option has more value in comparison. However, the effectiveness of the anchoring effect can vary depending on the context and the individual's level of expertise or experience. In some cases, consumers may be able to recognize and disregard irrelevant anchors, while in other situations, the effect may be more pronounced. Thus, while the anchoring effect can be a powerful tool for marketers, it is important to use it judiciously and with an understanding of its limitations.

The endowment effect is a cognitive bias that occurs when individuals attribute more value to items they own or possess than to identical items that they do not own. In marketing, this bias can be leveraged by marketers to increase the perceived value of their products or services, improving their revenue. For example, researchers found that consumers who were given a gift, such as a coffee mug, valued the gift higher than those who

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the human mind were not given the same item as a gift.

Additionally, consumers who received a product as a gift valued the product higher than those who purchased the same thing for themselves. These findings demonstrate the influence of the endowment effect in marketing, as consumers ascribed higher value to items they possessed, even if the items were functionally identical to those they did not possess.

Moreover, the endowment effect has been observed in various product categories and situations. In an experiment conducted, students were asked how much they would be willing to sell or buy a mug for. Students who were gifted mugs did not want to sell them for less than $5.25 on average, while students without mugs were only willing to buy them for $2.25- $2.75 on average. On another instance, a study conducted by Morewedge et al. (2010) found that consumers assigned more value to an ice cream cone they had chosen for themselves than to an identical ice cream cone chosen by someone else, demonstrating the effect in the context of experiential goods.

Overall, the endowment effect is a well-established cognitive bias in psychology and marketing that can be leveraged by marketers to

influence consumer behavior and increase the perceived value of their products or services.

The decoy effect is a phenomenon in which the introduction of a third option, or "decoy", in a choice set influences the preference towards other options.

Consumers use new options as reference points for comparison, so “decoy” options can compel them to purchase an item they previously would not have considered. For example, customers may be more willing to purchase an item they would not have purchased if it were stand-alone, simply because a “decoy” option makes it look more appealing. In a famous study, participants were presented with a choice between two subscriptions to The Economist magazine: an online-only subscription for $59 or a print-only subscription for $125. When a third option was introduced - an online and print subscription for $125 - participants were more likely to choose the print-only subscription, even though it was more expensive and did not include the benefits of the online subscription. The presence of the decoy created a reference point for comparison that made the print-only subscription seem like a better value. The decoy effect has been widely studied in

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the human mind marketing and consumer behavior and is effective in various settings, such as pricing, product design, and branding.

However, there are also limitations and potential ethical concerns associated with the use of the decoy effect in marketing.

The SPIN technique is a popular sales method that has been used in marketing for decades. The technique is based on four types of questions: Situation, Problem, Implication, and Need-payoff.

The technique is highly effective in increasing sales and closing deals.

The first category of question is the situation. Salespeople will start by asking questions to understand the customer's current situation. These questions are designed to gather basic information about the customer's business or personal circumstances. For example, one could ask questions such as "What industry are you in?" or "How many employees does your company have?" By asking questions about the customer’s situation, the salesmen can get a better understanding of the customer's needs and tailor their approach on a case-by-case basis, rather than presenting a generic solution. Therefore,

the salesman has a general impression of what their customer wants and doesn’t need to make assumptions, which more likely compels them to purchase their product.

Afterwards, the second group of questions is problems.

Once the salespeople have an understanding of their customer's situation, they ask questions to identify any problems or challenges they are facing, also known as pain points. For example, they could ask questions such as "What challenges are you currently facing?" or "What problems have you experienced in the past?" By asking questions about the customer's problems or challenges, the salesperson can demonstrate empathy and show that they understand the customer's pain points. This helps build rapport and trust with the customer, which is essential for successful sales.

Furthermore, the third category is implication. Once the salespeople have identified the customer's problems, they ask questions to help them understand the implications of those problems. These questions are designed to help the customer see the negative consequences of their current situation. For example, one could ask questions such as "What impact is this problem having on your business?" or "What are the consequences of not addressing this issue?" By asking questions about the implications of the customer's problems, the salesperson can help the customer see the negative consequences of not addressing those problems. This helps the customer realize the urgency and importance of finding a solution, which can increase their motivation to buy.

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the human mind Finally, the last group is need-payoff.

The salespeople ask questions to help the customer see the benefits of their solution.

These questions are designed to help the customer see the positive outcomes that could result from solving their problems.

For example, they could ask questions such as "How would your business benefit from addressing this issue?" or "What positive outcomes would you like to achieve?" By asking questions about the benefits of the salesperson's solution, the salesperson can help the customer see the positive outcomes that could result from solving their problems. This helps the customer envision a better future and see the value in the salesperson's solution, which can increase their willingness to buy.

Several studies demonstrate the effectiveness of the SPIN technique. The first is a meta-analysis conducted by Rackham and colleagues (1991). The study analyzed the results of 35 different sales training programs and found that the SPIN technique consistently produced the best results. Specifically, the study found that

salespeople who were trained in the SPIN technique were able to close significantly more deals than those who were not.

Another study by Wilson and colleagues (2002) examined the effectiveness of the SPIN technique in a specific industry: insurance sales. The study found that salespeople who used the SPIN technique were able to increase their sales volume by 20% compared to those who did not use the technique. In addition, a study by Wrenn and Mansfield (2001) found that the SPIN technique was highly effective in complex sales situations. The study found that salespeople who used the SPIN technique were able to generate more revenue per sale than those who did not use the technique.

Overall, these studies provide strong evidence for the effectiveness of the SPIN technique in marketing. The technique has been shown to increase sales volume, improve revenue per sale, and be particularly effective in complex sales situations. Thus, it is highly recommended for salespeople to incorporate the SPIN technique into their sales strategies.

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the human mind

THE POWER OF BELIEVING IN YOURSELF: UNRAVELING THE MYSTERIES OF THE PLACEBO EFFECT As many kids’ TV shows have once said, “You’ve just gotta believe!” The idea of pure willpower acting as the cushioned carriage carrying us to the golden pot containing all our wishes and desires makes most of us scoff in mockery. If positivity were the only thing we needed to thrive, then surely medicine and its lucrative industry would be rendered utterly useless, replaced by the power of faith. However, this seemingly childish fantasy of altering reality with the mind cannot be immediately dismissed.

The placebo effect is described as a psychological phenomenon where a person's health is found to have improved despite receiving remedies that are supposed to have no impact. One of the most influential researchers on this effect is Ted Kaptchuk, who oversees Harvard’s program in Placebo Studies. He says, “The placebo effect is more than positive thinking—believing a treatment or procedure will work. It's about creating a stronger connection between the brain and body and how they work together."

The effect cannot cure diseases, but it does affect how the symptoms are presented outwardly. One such external factor they can influence is pain. After taking a placebo pill, patients often state

Author: Winnie Mok Editors: Angela Pan, Hwi-On Lee and Jaylen Peng

that their symptoms go away, even though there should be no effect biologically. This circumstance can be explained in that the action of taking the pill itself creates an expectation that the discomfort should go away, triggering internal processes that ease the pain. This act releases neurotransmitters such as endorphins and dopamine, which are both chemicals associated with pleasure.

A 2012 study of the placebo effect demonstrates how it relies on the patient’s expectations. In this experiment, subjects consumed a sweet drink and a pill with an immune suppressant effect for a couple of days. Without informing the participants, the pill was replaced with a placebo, yet the subjects’ bodies still indicated a weakened immune response. Over the course of the trial, their bodies had come

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the human mind to associate the drink with reduced interleukin production.

Another key factor in administering the placebo effect is the interaction between the physicians prescribing the medication and the patient. In a study that Kaptchuk did in the early 2000s about patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 260 test subjects were divided into three groups: one where the acupuncturists were sympathetic towards the patients and performed sham acupuncture, one where the physician talked only needed with the same treatment, and a last one where the patients received nothing. The first group with affable physicians resulted in the most benefits—the patients reported that their symptoms were better relieved. While there are some who question its effectiveness, the placebo effect has been increasing in efficacy: studies conducted

from 1990 to 2013 found that the difference between the placebo drug and the actual drug’s results decreased to 9 percent from its original 27 percent—an entire 66 percent reduction in a matter of 23 years.

Given that the experiments conducted showed positive results from the placebo effect, does this mean it can replace medicine? Kaptchuk believes this should never happen, especially if the medication is more effective. His warning does not mean that the research is futile, though, as placebos might be used along with opioid treatments to lower the dosage since the medication could be harmful. Kaptchuk wrote in his IBS paper, “It seems that if the mind can be persuaded, the body can sometimes act accordingly.”

So, sometimes, maybe you’ve just gotta believe.

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the human mind

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE DREAM? Author: Madison Corliss Editors: Angela Pan and Emily Yu Artist: Jennifer Huang A question that begs answers from everyone is, “Why do we dream?” What allows our brains to fabricate dreams to keep our consciousness entertained and slip little details from real life into our dreams, allowing us to believe that they’re completely rational? No matter how unrealistic our dreams may seem, they somehow feel right.

So, what is a dream? Well, it is a universal human experience that has fascinated philosophers and scientists for thousands of years. Dreams can elicit specific emotions from the dreamer that feel as if they are in their current reality, ranging from sadness to love. To be more specific, it is a state of consciousness characterized by internally generated sensory, cognitive, and emotional experiences during sleep. The emotional features in dreams are related to the activation of the amygdalar complexes, orbitofrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex. Activation of our mesial-temporal areas accounts for the memories found in dreams, providing that sense of rationale.

According to neuroscientist Pierre Maquet

from the University of Liege, Belgium, dreams mainly occur in the REM phase of sleep, where our eyes make rapid movements and our brain’s activity is very high, paralleling that of being awake. In a study to show the correlation, researchers surveyed 182 commuters at Boston train station on flight scenarios and inquired about what they would do in those scenarios. Under the scenario of a national threat level indicating a high risk of a terrorist attack, they consciously thought of the plane crashing. Subsequently, while en route, they dreamed about a crash or a plane crash. The dream and data from an actual crash had relatively similar levels of anxiety.

Have you ever wondered why your reality is incorporated into your dreams?

Well, a study by Yvette M. Graveline and Erin J. Wamsley of the University of Massachusetts and Furman University took into account that it is a mechanism of memory processing both recent and old memories. People you briefly glance at as they walk past may appear in your dreams.

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the human mind The mind’s ability to turn pure information into a dynamic, multidimensional reality is truly an inexplicable wonder.

Since dreams could be an extension of our waking experiences, then how does our behavior influence our dreams? For that matter, suppressing thoughts before sleep can lead to dreaming of that thought, or, as found by the National Library of Medicine, even suppression of thoughts under cognitive load can lead to greater dream rebound. Your inner subconscious mind now controls the waking stream of thought. It no longer uses just words but also images, experiences, and emotions.

Your thoughts have turned into dreams and often lead to much interpretation as to the “meaning” of that dream. But what about how a dream can influence our decisionmaking? Dreams have helped produce many things, such as art, music, novels, films, mathematical proofs, and more.

Thinking in another neurophysiological state has aided in solving problems that awake minds could not, as high brain activity in areas associated with vivid visualizations personified by dreams allows us to isolate ourselves from the constricts of our reality.

With over 1.26 billion typed search results on Google from people trying to ascertain the message of their dreams, it presents the belief that dreams might

reveal something within ourselves that we could not deduce while awake, or even a yearning to know something more. This is understandable, as there must be an explanation for the bounds of reality that dreams reject. Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams suggests that they represent unconscious desires and thoughts.

Referring to a study conducted by Michael Norton, an assistant professor at Harvard Business School, an overwhelming majority of students from different cultures believed that their dreams reveal something about themselves and the world around them. In another study done by Norton, 270 men and women across the US were asked to fill out a survey on a dream they had about someone they knew.

Participants tended to associate pleasant dreams about someone they liked with more significance than ones about someone they disliked. However, they did consider unpleasant dreams about someone they disliked meaningful, suggesting people might associate their dreams with what already reassures their current views.

The beauteous nature of our subconscious makes us question our metaphysical reality and amplifies that natural urge of humans to explain the unknown. It opens the windows into a world of our minds, where the 100% subjectivity of dreams eradicates the defining objectivity of truths in science.

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planet earth and beyond

EXPLORING THE POSSIBILITIES OF LIFE ON OTHER PLANETS Author: Cici Zhang Editors: Aanya Ram and Rachel Chen Artist: Leo Li The question of whether humans are the sole beings in the universe has always intrigued the human imagination. The hunt for extraterrestrial life incorporates many aspects such as planetary science, biology, and chemistry. The exploration of the possibility of life on other planets is now more exciting and hopeful than ever as scientists travel deeper into space and develop cutting-edge technologies.

The search for alien life has focused on Mars, which is frequently called Earth's neighbor. Numerous missions, such as the Mars Science Laboratory and Mars Rovers, look for indications of life on Mars' surface. Although concrete proof is still scarce, curious hints have surfaced. Mars's ancient riverbeds and water ice have recently been found, meaning microbial life could have once flourished there.

Extremophiles, such as the bacteria that thrive in acidic hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents, demonstrate life's ability to adapt to extreme environments.

The idea that similar extremophiles might exist on Mars adds a tantalizing dimension to the search for potential alien life, suggesting that life may indeed adapt and persist in the Red Planet's seemingly inhospitable environment.

In addition, the finding of thousands of exoplanets, planets that are outside of

our solar system, has widened the quest for extrasolar life. In the habitable zone of its parent star, where temperatures may allow the existence of liquid water, it is considered a necessary component of life.

Extensive data has been produced by exoplanet missions like Kepler and TESS, revealing variety within planetary systems.

Even though Earth's twin has yet to be discovered, scientists get closer to identifying possible livable planets with each new finding.

Scientists are also interested in Jupiter’s moon, Europa, and Saturn’s moon, Enceladus, because they have underground oceans.

These cold, mysterious worlds offer unique possibilities for life underground. The presence of groundwater and ice on these moons is of particular interest because they serve as a protective barrier against harmful radiation and provide a stable environment for microorganisms. NASA’s Europa clipper mission is poised to explore these interesting environments, focusing on

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planet earth and beyond Europa’s icy surfaces and subsurface ocean. The spacecraft is equipped with an array of advanced scientific instruments, including cameras, spectrometers, and icepenetrating radar, specifically designed to characterize the composition of Europa's surface and study the properties of its vast subsurface ocean. The mission has the potential to produce critical data for assessing Europa's habitability, with a particular emphasis on identifying regions where conditions favorable to microbial life may exist. Just as scientists eagerly await the insights Europa Clipper may provide, these missions underscore humanity's ongoing quest to unlock the mysteries of extraterrestrial environments and the potential for life beyond Earth.

Although conclusive proof has yet to be discovered, the search for intelligent life remains an important element of the investigation of the universe's possibilities.

While the quest for microbial life is critical, the search for sentient alien life has its own field of study—SETI. Radio telescopes and advanced signal analysis tools are used to search the universe for potential signals from alien civilizations.

Powerful algorithms and machine learning approaches are required to filter through the massive volumes of data collected by radio telescopes.

These tools help scientists differentiate between natural cosmic phenomena, man-made interference, and signals that may bear the signature of intelligent communications. The use of artificial intelligence in SETI is becoming increasingly important, allowing

researchers to efficiently process large data sets and identify potential signals worthy of further study.

Astrobiology researchers use an integrated approach to understand the many possibilities of life beyond Earth, from the exploration of microbial species to the contemplation of complex civilizations.

This interdisciplinary approach emphasizes the dynamic and evolving nature of astrobiological research and humanity's ongoing efforts to decipher the mysteries of extraterrestrial environments and the potential for life in the vastness of the universe. The prospect of one day detecting signs of life on exoplanets depends on an improved understanding of the complex interactions that may reveal the presence of biospheres to advanced spectrometers. As technology advances and our knowledge deepens, astrobiology remains at the forefront of scientific inquiry, providing a window into the mysteries of the universe and the potential diversity of life forms that may exist beyond our planet.

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planet earth and beyond

THE ECOLOGICAL IMPACT OF ACID RAIN Author: Lucy Chen Editors: Kyra Wang, Yanxi Chen, and Misha Wichita

Artist: Acey Li

Acid rain is a critical environmental issue that has devastating consequences for waterways, such as rivers and lakes.

Waterways are vital components of ecosystems, and their well-kept conditions are key to the survival of the plants and animals that rely on them. Furthermore, acid rain is caused by human activities, such as the combustion of fossil fuels, when pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere. These pollutants react with water molecules to create acids, which are then carried by the wind and deposited into bodies of water.

Acid rain has extensive and welldocumented biological consequences to

streams. Acidic precipitation can drain aluminum from soil-clay particles as it passes through the soil and into streams and lakes. As increasing amounts of acid are distributed into the ecosystem, more aluminum is released. Some plants and animals can survive in acidic water with low levels of aluminum, but other species are acid-sensitive and will die as the pH plummets. In addition, young animals are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. For example, most fish eggs will not hatch at a pH of 5 or lower, which at times leads to acidic lakes devoid of fish. Even if a species of fish or animal can tolerate moderately acidic water, the animals or plants it eats may not. For instance, frogs can tolerate a critical pH level of around 4, but the mayflies they eat are more sensitive and cannot survive a pH below 5.5.

The impact of acidic rain on waterways can extend beyond plant and animal life. In areas seriously affected by acid rain, dead and decaying trees are common. Moreover, aluminum is leached from the soil by acid rain, which can be detrimental to plants as well as animals.

Additionally, acid rain divests minerals and nutrients away from the soil that trees need to grow. At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds may also strip nutrients from tree foliage, leaving them with brown, dead leaves and needles. Weakened trees can no longer absorb sunlight as well

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planet earth and beyond

which not only makes them weak but subjects them to withstand freezing temperatures without their necessary defenses.

Due to soil's ability to neutralize the acidity of rainwater passing through it, many forests, streams, and lakes that undergo acid rain do not receive negative effects. Yet, in places with thin soil, like the mountainous Northeast in the United States, the acid in the rainwater cannot be sufficiently neutralized. Due to these region’s vulnerability, acid and aluminum can accumulate in the soil, streams, or lakes in these places. In China, rapid industrialization has resulted in severe air pollution, which has led to acid rain that pollutes rivers and lakes across the country. One notable example is Taihu Lake, where it experiences rainfall with a pH of less than 5.0 or the usual pH for rainfall. Increased acidity has disrupted the delicate balance of aquatic ecosystems, leading to other significant impacts such as causing harmful algal blooms and decreasing overall water quality.

While there is no doubt on the harmful effects of continuous acidification,

there are also considerable effects from episodic acidification.

Episodic acidification is a condition in which lakes that do not typically have high acidity levels may experience a temporary increase in acidity when melting snow or rain brings higher levels of acidic deposition that the soil cannot buffer. This brief period of increased acidity can cause shortterm environmental stress, resulting in harm or death to various animals.

In particular, the effects of acid rain on waterways like rivers, streams, and lakes are severe and widespread. Acid rain impacts the entire ecosystem: occasionally leading to the extinction of plants and animals as well as a decline in the quality of the soil and water. To ensure the protection of these vital resources for future generations, crucial action needs to be taken. This can include conserving energy usage at home to decrease acid rain production and reducing the amount of nitrogen oxides through public transportation use. The amount of pollutants discharged into the sky must be decreased and the impact of acid rain subsided on these precious waterways.

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planet earth and beyond

THE INFLUENCE OF SOLAR WINDS ON EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE Author: Lucy Chen Editors: Sophia Chen, Jaylen Peng, and Eric Lin Artist: Emily Hu How do the invisible forces surrounding our planet change our atmosphere? Solar winds are streams of charged particles constantly emitted by the Sun, a major energy source. These winds, consisting of electrons, protons, and alpha particles, are accelerated to extremely high speeds due to the Sun's powerful magnetic fields. Upon reaching Earth, solar winds interact with the planet's atmosphere and magnetic field, resulting in various atmospheric phenomena.

Solar winds significantly influence the state of the atmosphere. Earth’s magnetosphere is a region that acts as a protective shield from harmful particles and radiation from space. Geomagnetic

disturbances caused by the interaction of solar wind particles with Earth's magnetosphere generate electric currents in the ionosphere. These currents, in turn, impact the temperature and composition of the upper atmosphere. The fluctuation of solar winds also plays a role in the development and intensity of auroras in the polar regions. Furthermore, variations in atmospheric circulation patterns, such as the polar vortex and jet streams, are known to be correlated with solar wind intensity.

Comprehending how solar winds affect atmospheric dynamics is essential for improving space weather forecasting and establishing early warning systems.

Solar wind disturbances, in the form of

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planet earth and beyond geomagnetic storms, can disrupt navigation systems, electrical grids, and satellite communications. Further research is necessary to understand how solar winds affect Earth's climate system, possibly contributing to long-term temperature fluctuations. Studies by Henrik Svensmark and Eigil Friis-Christens on solar-climate relationships suggest that solar winds traveling far from Earth modulate the cosmic ray flux and cloud cover, impacting the temperature.

In addition to the aforementioned effects, solar winds have been found to impact atmospheric chemistry. Solar wind particles' modulation of cosmic ray flux can affect cloud formation. Cosmic rays, high-energy particles originating from space, collide with atmospheric molecules, leading to ionization. Cloud condensation nuclei, necessary for cloud droplet formation, can result from this ionization.

Consequently, changes in solar wind activity may indirectly shape cloud cover and alter global climate patterns.

The interaction of solar winds with Earth's magnetosphere can also generate intense geomagnetic storms, affecting both the upper atmosphere and Earth's technological infrastructure. During

geomagnetic storms, energy from solar winds is transferred to the magnetosphere, inciting disturbances in the ionosphere.

These disturbances can interfere with satellite communications and disrupt radio signal transmission.

Additionally, increased ionization and heating in the upper atmosphere during geomagnetic storms can alter atmospheric dynamics and composition.

Another area of scientific interest revolves around the impact of solar winds on atmospheric circulation patterns. Svetlana Veretenenko’s study on the stratospheric polar vortex has demonstrated that variations in solar wind activity can affect the strength and location of the polar vortex, a significant cyclonic circulation in the polar regions. Changes in the polar vortex can impact the distribution of cold air masses and the intensity of mid-latitude weather systems. Fluctuations in the jet streams, high-altitude winds that steer weather systems, have also been observed.

These fluctuations can influence the paths and intensities of storms, consequently affecting local weather patterns.

Solar winds significantly impact Earth's atmosphere and weather patterns with their charged particle streams.

Through their interactions with Earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere, solar winds influence a range of atmospheric phenomena, including geomagnetic disturbances, temperature and composition changes, and aurora development.

A thorough understanding of these interactions' mechanics is crucial for improving space weather forecasting and devising strategies to mitigate the repercussions of solar wind disturbances.

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THE PERPLEXING PATH OF HURRICANE IAN Author: Jean Claude, Ted Isidor Editors: Peggy Yang, Hwi-On Lee, Angela Pan, and Flynn Ma Artist: Carys Chan

For many Floridians, the news of getting hit by a hurricane means losing power for a couple of days and hearing about the wild things people have done during the storm, such as surfing the roads.

Typically, a hurricane hits Florida once a year, but it has been a while since the Sunshine State had to brace for one, nearly four years since the state was last hit.

According to Click Orlando, some factors for the four-year hiatus were good fortune and a lack of La Nina conditions, a phenomenon where a change in the Pacific Ocean’s temperature results in drastic weather effects. The strange thing about Hurricane Ian breaking this hiatus in 2022 was how fast it all happened and how unpredictable the storm was, causing unforeseen damage to the state.

Making predictions, whether about the weather, future events, or even the score you got on your math test, is challenging. A good prediction involves using data and current or prior knowledge to reach a conclusion, and when it comes to weather, the amount of data is huge.

Take, for example, a rain forecast.

Consider all the factors that come into play when predicting the chances it might rain.

Information such as the area's geography, wind speed, cloud formation, and a multitude of other factors all affect something as simple as predicting the chances of rain.

Now, think about the information needed to predict a hurricane. Hurricanes typically start as a “disturbance,” such as a tropical storm that picks up both speed and heat as it moves through warmer tropical areas. Within these hurricanes are clouds, thunderstorms, and speed. Hurricane Ian was a force to be reckoned with, being a nearly Category five hurricane(five being the highest on the scale) with clouds stretching all the way to Canada.

Predicting hurricanes is no joke; not everyone using data to predict hurricanes gets the same results. The U.S. uses the Global Forecasting System (GFS) model.

For hurricanes, most of the predictions of their paths are typically represented as either a “cone of uncertainty” or “the ramen model” to be more descriptive. A

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planet earth and beyond cone of uncertainty is a representation of a possible path a hurricane might follow for the next couple of days. The “Ramen model” is another way of outlining possible paths of a hurricane, but instead of showing one large path, it shows multicolored squiggly lines for possible paths that could occur.

In the case of Hurricane Ian, the cone of uncertainty showed the hurricane going straight through the Tampa Bay region when, in actuality, the hurricane was further south than what the GFS predicted.

This missed calculation caused huge problems, one of which was unpreparedness. Many people in Southwest Florida thought they would be safe because they thought they weren’t in the hurricane's predicted path, so they didn't prepare. By the time the public knew the actual trajectory of the hurricane, it was too late, and billions of dollars and many lives were lost in the region. Furthermore, many residents of the Tampa Bay region spent lots of money preparing to get hit by

one of the worst storms of their lives, and although this isn't necessarily a bad thing, it is a financial sucker punch.

One of the Global Forecasting System's failures when it came to modeling Ian, was that air temperature played a major role in causing uncertainties in predicting Ian’s path. While warmer air increases the chances of flooding and disasters, drier air reduces the strength of the hurricane. Another issue with many forecasting systems is the inaccuracy when it comes to predicting the intensity of a storm. Although meteorologists knew the hurricane would pick up speed and intensity, Hurricane Ian grew stronger at an unprecedented rate.

Hurricane Ian tells us that uncertainty is a pain to deal with. With the many factors that come into play when it comes to making hurricane paths and climate change causing these factors to fluctuate more rapidly, it’s hard to predict something as big as a hurricane. Yet, with this, the importance of being prepared for uncertainty to strike is seen.

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planet earth and beyond

THE COMEBACK OF GIANT PANDAS Author: Nikki Jiang Editors: Ken Saito, Eric Lin, and Viola Chen Artist: Lalita Ma

The loveable and cuddly species of the Giant Panda have made a comeback from the brink of endangerment. The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is native to the bamboo forests of China. Decades of human activities, including deforestation, urbanization, and poaching have flattened the once vast bamboo forests, and the wild giant panda population diminished along with it. As their natural habitat of the bamboo forest dwindled, giant pandas were confronted with a lack of living space, food source, and safety. Today, these beloved symbols of wildlife conservation are no longer classified as endangered species, and their rapid population growth is proof of the power of conservation efforts.

Along with environmental challenges, giant pandas also face unique evolutionary disadvantages, making them particularly susceptible to the impact of habitat destruction. Their solitary nature and limited mobility make them biologically reliant on large home ranges with abundant

food sources. They are also limited to a strictly herbivore and very specialized diet almost entirely consisting of bamboo. The bamboo, while preferred by giant pandas, is difficult to digest and contains little nutritional value. The giant pandas’ dependency on one plant source makes their population directly tied to the bamboo population. Giant pandas also face reproductive challenges, furthering their vulnerability to population challenges.

Female pandas have a very short reproductive window and on average, only mate 1-3 times annually. Additionally, most pandas give birth to one offspring at a time, unlike many other wild animals that give birth to litters. However, in captivity, twins are much more common due to artificial insemination techniques and careful monitoring. As of 2022, the population growth rate of captive giant pandas has increased to 12.2 percent. This slow reproductive rate, combined with a low survival rate in the wild, has made it difficult for their population to increase.

In the face of human-induced environmental threats and evolutionary disadvantages, a global effort was launched to save the giant panda from extinction. China, the panda’s native home, has played a central role in conservation efforts through protected reserves and national parks to provide safe havens for the population. Today, more than 60% of the panda’s natural habitat is under national park protection in order to prevent

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planet earth and beyond further human-induced damage. There has also been the restoration of bamboo forests and the construction of bamboo passages, created to connect bamboo forests.

Furthermore, global efforts in research and breeding programs have also contributed to the panda’s resurgence. These programs have generated valuable data on giant pandas' biology and behavior in order to optimize conservation efforts. Through GPS tracking and camera traps, the Chinese government in conjunction with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), has tracked giant panda activity and built bamboo corridors to connect panda populations under protected lands. In doing so, the government has also implemented strategies in nearby villages to transition towards a more sustainable lifestyle that reduces disruption to natural panda habitats. Lastly, the iconic status of the giant panda has rallied efforts for public support of conservation and environmental protection, demonstrating the important impact of everyone's support in facing global challenges and defending those who are unable to defend themselves.

Efforts have led to a magnificent

recovery of the giant panda population.

Over the last decade, the giant panda population has increased by an astonishing 17 percent– a significant improvement– from a total of ~1,000 pandas worldwide in the 1970s. Although giant pandas are no longer classified as endangered, they remain a vulnerable species. To continue the success of their conservation, it is essential to address underlying threats and engage local communities by promoting sustainable living amongst pandas.

Addressing climate change is also vital for the well-being of pandas and all life on Earth. It is important to be eco-conscious, especially when in nature. Public awareness campaigns and educational programs should continue to garner support for panda conservation efforts. To contribute directly to protecting giant pandas, the WWF has many channels of donations utilized to conserve pandas and their habitats. The giant panda’s journey from endangerment to resurgence exemplifies the power of human dedication in preserving the earth’s biodiversity, offering hope and inspiration for the future of wildlife conservation.

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WHY BIRDS SWALLOW STONES Author: Winnie Mok Editors: Rishika Tellamsetty, Jason Zheng, and Aanya Ram Artist: Jenny Luo Birds. They’re all around us, yet not many people have spent enough time observing them to notice that they occasionally swallow stones. Now, you might be trying to recall all the times you’ve seen a pigeon (that is, if you live in New York City) but only seem to conjure images of it walking around funnily with its neck in a constant pendulum swing.

Before we start on why these creatures do what comes across as incredibly stupid and wonder how the rock is digested, we must learn about a bird’s digestive system.

Starting from the beginning of the digestive tract, the mouth, we can already see differences between how our bodies process food and how their bodies absorb nutrients. If you’ve never noticed, birds don’t have teeth, although it would be rather terrifying if they did. Our teeth aid us in mechanical digestion, which, as its name suggests, is mechanically breaking down food into more easily digestible pieces. And this, their lack of teeth, is the main reason why birds need to swallow stones. However, birds have beaks that

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planet earth and beyond allow them to tear their food down before swallowing.

Instead of one stomach, birds have a two-part system consisting of the crop and gizzard. The crop is similar to a temporary resting place for the food before it goes to the gizzard. The crop's liquids help soften the nutrients before they are digested in the gizzard, analogous to the stomach in our digestive systems. Our stomachs have digestive juices that aid in the chemical breakdown of our food, alongside enzymes that break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. The gizzard is made up of thick walls of muscle that crush the contents inside of it. Here, rocks are needed to help grind against the food as the gizzard tightens, squeezing the food into

smaller particles.

But what happens after a rock is swallowed? Does it stay inside the bird forever and eventually form a pile of stones inside of the bird, like what the hunter did to the Big Bad Wolf? No, that would be extremely ineffective on nature and evolution’s part. When the gizzard pebble is no longer needed, it is either excreted or thrown up by the bird. Birds excrete indigestible material, including stones, through the cloaca, which serves as the opening for both excretion and reproduction.

Despite the fact that birds have no teeth, their muscular stomachs make up for it, along with a helping hand from some stone they find off the street.

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