2023 Biology Edition

HOLIC

EXECUTIVE

DIRECTOR

Dear ScienceHolic Readers,

I am so excited to present the third-themed magazine edition and the second edition in 2023. This Biology-themed magazine issue continues the exploration of life science after the 2021 Biology Conference where we invited four amazing guests from Harvard University. They are Dr. Amy Tsurumi, Dr. Angela Schmider, Dr. Jennifer Fonda, and Dr. Robin Haynes. Please feel free to go to our website or our YouTube channel to view the recording of those sessions. In addition, we have partnered with Grow Your STEM, Our Say On Science, STEM To Go, and The STEAM Boat to bring a more holistic review of the matters in biology. In this edition, we are super excited to present topics ranging from the environmental to the molecular side of biology. Hot topics such as climate change and possible HIV cures are articles that we should definitely read about!

To our readers: thank you so much for your support over the past three years! I can’t believe that our third-year anniversary just passed. We appreciate your support and feedback throughout the years All of our accomplishments can’t be achieved without YOU! Of course, I have to mention the incredible ScienceHolic team~ We can’t possibly publish magazine issues, post social media posts, or host webinars and conferences without the hard work of our team members and team leaders Again, if you are interested in joining this amazing team, please visit our website and fill out an application! I hope you are enjoying this lovely spring weather! I am so excited to go on a nature walk ; ) Without further ado, please enjoy the 2023-themed BIOLOGY edition

Yours Truly,

Note From Your Joyce

Collaborations

The STEAM Boat is a student-run organization full of passion-driven youth doing their part to make a mark on our world. The STEAM Boat is building our future leaders in STEAM fields. We believe that by equipping people with the best tools to solve their own problems, we can tackle the world's problems better, together. We aim to provide the resources students need to succeed in STEAM-related fields. We are enabling students to explore STEAM careers.

Grow Your STEM is a youth organization dedicated to spreading STEM in our community through growing high schoolers’ interest in STEM & planting seeds of curiosity in young minds. We believe it is crucial for children to be exposed to STEM topics at a young age in a fun, interactive way. Many STEM topics like math and coding are often presented as difficult, challenging topics, even at a young age, which intimidates many people from ever learning more about them. Thus, we organize and host fun, hands-on STEM activities with youth to encourage interest in science-related fields. We also strive to provide volunteer opportunities for high schoolers, from working on STEM activities with kids to writing informative articles to educate the public about various science-related topics and discoveries!

Collaborations

STEM To Go is a student-led 501(c)(3) international nonprofit organization that is focused on promoting STEM education by providing free and reliable STEM resources to the public. What makes STEM To Go unique is that the resources are written and created by high school and college students, so the audience can have the chance to see the STEM world from a high school and college student's point of view. All of our resources are separated into age categories, so everyone is able to find their interest and content appropriate for their age! Our amazing team of over 130 members from 10 different time zones is working on numerous projects such as a blog, YouTube channel, infographics, e-magazine, tutoring, penpal, workshops, webinars, and so much more!

Our Say On Science is a student-run, independent organization that aims to inform and explore science topics for everyone. Our goal is to expand interest in the sciences as well as find opportunities that students can benefit from! We plan to start writing articles on our blog, and hopefully hold workshops and invite guest speakers in the near future that students can listen to and learn from!

T A B L E O F C O NT E NT

IMMORTALITY:ENDLESSVITALITY

Immortal Organisms: The Science of Species that Live Forever

How do Axolotls Regrow Amputated Limbs?

How Does The Body Heal Itself?

THEMASTERORGAN:OURWRINKLYBRAIN

How Genes Affect Depression

Neurons: Our Own Electrical Wires

Scene Perception in The Human Brain

How the Human Body Perceives Beauty

THEHUMANBODYBLUEPRINT

The Replication of Cells

How Do Organelles Grow?

The World of Bacteria in Our Guts

Allergies in the Human Body

How is Spiciness Defined and Measured in Scientific Terms?

Terrific Tennis

Research Paper: Delaying School Start Times for Sleep

ADVANCINGLIFE:BIOMEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

How is RNA Bacteriophage Being Used for Further Discoveries in Microbiology?

HIV and Its Possible Cure?

Can Gene Therapy Cure Type 1 Diabetes?

A Small Look Into MRI and CT Scans

Linkage and Gene Mapping with Molecular Markers

Synthetic Biology: Methords and Implementations

THRIVINGTOGETHER:BIOLOGYAND ENVIRONMENT

Unlocking the Power of Genetic Engineering: The Future of Medicine and Agriculture

Can Tree Rings Predict Climate Change

immortality: endless vitality

Immortal Organisms: The Science of Species that Live Forever

Author: Alssandra Faith Tan

Editors: Benetta Wang and Saniya Chaudhari

Artist: Serena Zhou

The lifespan of an average human being ranges from 70-80 years of age, and with current technological advancements, scientists believe that the number could go higher. For years, the secret to immortality was actively sought out by countless individuals across time. Who wouldn’t want to take a dive into the fountain of youth? Unfortunately, according to National Geographic, humans can only live up to 125 years even with longevity interventions Some believe in the effectiveness of cryogenics, cell regeneration, and other forms of selfpreservation. For now, a person’s life will continue to be fickle, but unbeknownst to a few are certain species that completely deviate from this predisposed transience.

You may have heard of the Jellyfish, Turritopsis dohrnii, a sea creature known for being biologically immortal This small creature is in fact capable of living for an indefinite amount of years due to its ability to reverse its aging process In every instance, a fertilized egg stands as the

basis of a new jellyfish's life and develops into the planula stage of development

During a swim, the planula attaches to a surface, where it grows into a polyp, a tube-shaped structure with a mouth at one end and a kind of foot at the other. It stays fixed in place for a while, developing into a little polyp colony that shares feeding tubes.

Subsequently, one of these polyps will develop into a protrusion known as a bud, or create independent segments stacked on top of one another This later breaks away from the rest of the colony depending on the kind of jellyfish. The ephyra, a little jellyfish, and the medusa, an adult stage that is fully developed and capable of sexual reproduction are the next phases of the jellyfish life cycle; they are both produced through this procedure. This stage tends to mark the end of the line for the majority of jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, however, has a clever trick up its sleeve Under certain conditions, such as starvation or injury, it can revert to being a

immortality: endless vitality

tiny blob of tissue, which then transforms back into the sexually immature polyp phase of life. It is synonymous to the metamorphosing of a butterfly that turns back into a caterpillar instead of dying. This is how the immortal jellyfish is able to regenerate itself endlessly and what makes scientists sure that this species has the capacity to live forever

Another species considered to be immortal is the Flatworm, otherwise called a planarian worm This animal is able to surpass the aging processes through a constant, limitless regeneration method. In order for flatworms to regenerate, neoblasts, or stem cells, must be present throughout the organism. These cells are dispersed throughout the body and are activated to grow back the tissues that have been severed when a portion of the worm is removed If it were cut in half, it can immediately restore its missing body part and in some cases, form two separate organisms. Scientists from Britain's University of Nottingham are attempting to thoroughly study the mechanisms of limitless cell regeneration and utilize the flatworm’s functions as a basis for research to develop the longevity of human beings

The tardigrade, also called the water bear, is said to potentially be an immortal animal and is the most indestructible creature known to man. Although having the word “bear” in its name, it is a

microscopically sized creature, usually between 0 1-1 5 millimeters long As early as the middle of the Cambrian Period, over 500 million years ago, this creature has been discovered in fossil records. There are more than 1,000 different species of tartigrade, which can be found everywhere on the earth from high to low altitudes, encompassing moderate to extreme locations For instance, scientists have discovered tartigrades at the highest point of the Himalayas and at ocean depths of over 10,000 feet, and even in the Antarctic. These organisms have the ability to live for tens of thousands of years or quite likely permanently through the means of entering a condition of cryptobiosis, in which their metabolism ceases. All metabolic processes halt in the cryptobiotic state, preventing growth, development, and repair The tardigrade can almost eternally survive in cryptobiosis while it waits for the environment to improve Desiccation, or drying out, is the most typical type of cryptobiosis.

All of these are organisms that have developed their own distinct regenerative mechanisms over time This aided in the preservation of their species and a great stretch of their lifetime Even if humans will be unable to attain a similar level of longevity, our transient body will always be a great blessing. At the very least, we are able to marvel at the capabilities of these animals and possess the ability to accomplish countless things, all thanks to our complex body systems. At the end of the day, it is important to appreciate the biology of immortal animals by accepting our finite life and making the most of the time we have left

immortality: endless vitality

How do Axolotls regrow amputated limbs?

Author: Alicia Ma

Editors: Emily Chen and He-Hanson Xuan Artist: Serena Yung

Legend has it that the axolotls are descendants of an ancient Aztec god. These incredible creatures are found exclusively in Lake Xochimilco outside of Mexico City, near the ancient Aztec city of Tenochtitlan The axolotl has many biological superpowers, ranging from never aging out of its juvenile tadpole form to being able to regrow limbs, organs, and even parts of its brain. How is it biologically possible for this to happen?

To understand how the axolotl regenerates its amputate limbs, it’s necessary to understand the regeneration

process itself. Regeneration is actually a fairly common process that occurs throughout many species, including humans In humans, regeneration is limited to skin or scar tissue However, for many invertebrates, regrowing an entire limb, or even its whole body is not unusual The axolotl, and a few other salamanders, are the only vertebrates that have the ability to regrow limbs and organs throughout their whole life.

The secret to this unique vertebrate’s ability to regrow limbs centers around its ability to transform mature bone, cartilage,

immortality: endless vitality

and muscle cells back into stem cells

When an axolotl loses a limb, a blood clot will rapidly form over the injured area, creating a thin protective layer. This process is similar to how humans and other vertebrates heal similar wounds. However, unlike humans, the axolotl will grow new cells from the cells underneath the epidermis (i e the outermost layer of skin) over the next few days to form the blastema The blastema, also known as a regeneration bud, is a cone-shaped structure that grows over the area where the limb was last. Inside the blastema, a fascinating phenomenon occurs. The axolotl’s normal bone, cartilage, and muscle cells go through a dedifferentiating process, transforming back into stem cells From here, these stem cells will divide and reform the lost bone and tissue This process is similar to how an animal first develops in an embryo or egg

As the cells in the blastema continue to multiply, existing nerves and blood vessels start to connect the newly formed areas to

the rest of the body

The axolotl’s incredible regeneration abilities do not end with limbs. Contrasting all other known processes of life, the axolotl is also able to regrow parts of its brain. The brain is composed of neurons, which normally only grow in embryonic stages for mammals and vertebrates. Thereafter, the neuron enters a G0 phase in which cell division is permanently paused, making nerve growth and repair impossible However, this salamander’s capacity to de-differentiate various cells back into stem cells allows it to grow back neurons, and thus, parts of its brain. Perhaps the most intriguing fact is that the axolotl has no special genes that allow it to regenerate its limbs and brain. The axolotl merely regulates its genes differently Therefore, scientists hope to one day be able to uncover the secrets behind the axolotl’s ability to dedifferentiate cells, and recreate its biological superpowers in humans where millions of lives could be saved or improved.

How Does The Body Heal Itself?

Author: Winnie Mok

Editors: Yanxi Chen and Angela Pan

Artist: Susan Wu

Have you ever wondered how our bodies have the ability to recover? Our bodies have this inborn ability that is designed to heal themselves In fact, all living things are able to do this!

At some point in our lives, we were injured Whether it be a paper cut, a slip with the kitchen knife, or a burn from the stove, our bodies get damaged in one way or another; and usually, like magic, the damaged area seems to be intact again after some time. But how does that work? Well, here are the four main stages of healing:

The first action is preventing further blood loss Blood rushes to the wound and clots, protecting the wound and averting more blood from spilling out These clots eventually form scabs by utilizing platelets, a type of blood cell Fibrin, a protein, is responsible for creating the structure that keeps the clot stationary.

Next, inflammation occurs. Although this stage may seem outwardly as if the wound is getting worse, it is actually there to help the wound avoid infection and manage the bleeding Blood vessels expand a little to increase oxygen and nutrient flow to the injury site for faster healing

An essential factor in this process is the amount of blood-borne oxygen. An excess or a lack of oxygen will not heal the wound. During this stage, the immune system dispatches three types of cells to aid healing Neutrophils clean the injury of foreign bacteria and cellular debris Macrophages trigger pro-inflammatory proteins and dispose of dead cells, and lymphocytes assist in scar formation as well as shielding the wound from infection. After that, the body finally begins creating new tissue. In the beginning, there is a cluttered layer of collagen, a protein that functions as structural support, and new blood vessels formed so that the nutrients can extend to the new flesh All of this is constructed from blood cells The outcome of this is a scar that is pink that eventually fades away.

The last stage of this process is reinforcing the new tissue. You might see the scar stretching or wrinkling here. The disorganized collagen is now a neat layer of interwoven strands. This process may take a couple of years to fully heal, depending on the wound and external factors such as a lack of sleep, exercise, or nutrients, which can all stagnate the injury from healing

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

HOW GENES AFFECT DEPRESSION

Author: Jaycie Nguyen

Editors: Emily Chen and Hwi-On Lee

Artist: Carys Chan

Depression is a major depressive disorder that negatively influences a person’s cognitive abilities As a result, every component of the person is negatively affected. This includes but is not limited to their physical body, mental health, and personality. The symptoms are categorized by sadness, hopelessness, and lack of interest in common activities. It is common to believe that depression is heavily dependent on external environments and circumstances, such as childhood experiences and life events (Mind, 2019) However, there are many causes of developing depression that many people are unaware of. For example genetics.

As an article by Harvard Health Publishing suggests, there are multiple ways depression can develop. Stressful life events, faulty mood regulation, and genetic vulnerability all result in a person developing depression (2022)

As with most diseases, genetics increase the risk of acquiring certain diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. However, when it comes to depression, the nature versus nurture debate only heightens.

For context, the nature versus nurture debate is a debate among psychologists

estimating the impact and influence that either side has on a person’s biological makeup. Nature refers to innate biological factors such as genetics, while nurture refers to life experiences.

As it turns out, genetics do not play as big of a role in depression as it does with most other diseases. It is true that genetics is a factor in developing depression However, the influence that genetics has on developing depression is still unclear, and there is no single “depression gene” that would cause a person to automatically have depression, even if they had a family history of depression.

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

MedlinePlus notes that people with a first-degree relative who has been diagnosed with depression have a two to three times greater risk of developing depression than the general public (2018) Douglas F Levison and Walter E Nichols from Stanford Medicine further support this statistic by presenting that a person with a parent or sibling diagnosed with major depression has a two to three times greater risk of developing depression compared to the general public (n.d.). genetics influences a person to develop traits such as the tendency to worry and pessimism, then the person would be more likely to develop depression than people without those traits and risks Genetics cannot directly impact the development of depression. However, genetics can influence depression through different factors, such as personality. This creates a predisposition to depression which therefore increases the likelihood of developing depression. Another way genes can affect depression would be through other medical illnesses Serious medical illnesses would most likely cause stress and worry daily, which creates a predisposition to depression and increases the likelihood of developing depression. Although there are no specific genes that cause a person to automatically develop depression, there are specific genes that do cause a person to develop specific illnesses

For example, BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes greatly increase a person’s risk of developing breast cancer and ovarian cancer Other genetic disorders include sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis liver disease, Huntington’s disease,

Hirschsprung's disease, Klinefelter Syndrome, etc. Most genetic conditions are life-long and often cannot be cured. This can create a stressful environment, which is the ground for depression to develop So although genes cannot affect depression directly, genetics can cause genetic disorders that could lead to stress for the person with disorders, making them more susceptible to developing depression. Even if genetics cannot influence depression directly through a “depression gene”, there are multiple ways that genetics can still increase the risk of a person developing depression, such as personality and genetic disorders Family history of depression greatly contributes to the development of depression, from two to five times greater than the general public depending on certain factors surrounding a person’s circumstances. It is true that external circumstances and events play a greater role in the development of depression. However, being aware of your

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

Family history and informing yourself of any potential risks allows you to take action first before it is too late. In the case that you have a family history of depression or any other risk factors that can influence the development of depression, it would be better to seek aid right away in order to maintain a healthy mindset and lifestyle for yourself

However, according to Levison and Nichols, the numbers get a bit more complicated when analyzed further If the parent or sibling has recurrent depression (repeating periods of depression) starting early in life, then the risk increases to four to five times greater than the general public.

It is important to remember that having a family history of depression is not the determining factor o developing depression H statistics demonstrate t provides a leeway to depression. Essentially, gene a predisposition to depressio cannot cause a person depression on its own. Ther combination of internal ( external factors if a person history of depression Oth perfectly normal for some family history of depressio depression

Depression stems from of different factors, as s BeyondBlue notes that f (genetics), personality, ser illness, drug and alcohol us and changes in the brain ar affect the development o

Here is a list of personality traits in people who are more prone to developing depression:

Tendency to worry, anxiety

Low self-esteem

Perfectionism

Sensitivity to personal criticism

Self-criticism and negativity

Now, upon further analysis of data and information, personality can be greatly influenced by genetics As stated in another article by MedlinePlus, scientists estimate around 20 to 60 percent of temperament is defined by genetics, although there is no clear pattern of inheritance (n.d.). Similarly to depression, there is no specific “personality” gene that would automatically cause someone to acquire the same personality as their

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

NEURONS: OUR OWN ELECTRICAL WIRES

Author: Daniel Zhou

Editors: Hwi-On Lee and Peggy Yang

Artist: Guanxin (Acey) Li

With personalized signaling pathways in each human, it becomes much more complicated than just figuring out “what triggers which” within the human body. As a result, neurons, the carrier for these signals, become much harder to understand after a basic understanding of their pathways

The human brain is made up of many little messengers in the brain called neurons as well as the physical support for neurons called glial cells. Billions of these individual neurons communicate together to help coordinate all the necessary functions of life, essential to every function in the human body

A neuron has 3 parts: dendrites, an axon, and a soma (cell bodies). First, the dendrites are where the neuron receives input from other neurons. Second, the axon is the output of the cell, where a neuron sends an electrical message called an action potential throughout the entire axon Finally, the soma is where the nucleus resides and where proteins are made to be transported throughout the axon and dendrites

Neurons communicate via action potentials and chemical neurotransmitters. Action potentials are nerve impulses or

spikes. In the synapses, or spaces, between neuron cells, action potentials cause neurons to release chemical neurotransmitters This process of releasing neurotransmitters between the synapses is called neurotransmission. These chemicals then travel a tiny distance between the synapses of the neurons before reaching other neuron cells. Once the chemicals are received by the dendrites of another neuron, this neurotransmitter can either help excite or hinder the other neuron from discharging its own action potential Anytime a neuron spikes, these neurotransmitters are released from hundreds of its synapses resulting in communications between hundreds and thousands of other cells.

In the spinal cord, neuron cells can be further divided into three types: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

Sensory neurons are nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment, meaning that the inputs that activate these neurons can be physical or chemical This corresponds to all five of our senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) These types of neurons are mostly pseudounipolar, meaning that they have one axon that splits into two branches

The second type of neuron cell in the spinal cord is motor neurons. These neurons are a part of the spinal cord and are therefore a part of the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the

spine. Motor neurons connect to muscles, glands, and organs throughout the body, and they control all muscle movement by transmitting inputs from the spinal cord to the skeletal and smooth muscles Motor neurons can be further split into two types: lower motor neurons and upper motor neurons The lower motor neurons transmit signals from the spinal cord to the muscles while the upper motor neurons transmit signals between the brain and the spinal cord. These cells are multipolar, meaning that they each have one axon and several dendrites.

Finally, the last type of neuron cell in the spinal cord is the interneuron These neuron cells are the neuron cells between the motor neurons and sensory neurons They transfer signals to both types of neurons to help them communicate, as well as communicate between themselves. Like the motor neurons, these cells are also multipolar.

Despite what science has already discovered, our knowledge of neurons is still very limited There are tens or hundreds of other different neuron types in the brain that cannot be neatly categorized unlike those in the spinal cord They are much harder to classify due to how specialized the brain is compared to the spinal cord, but researchers are still trying to find a neat way to categorize all these cells.

For now, what we do know is that our neurons communicate through action potentials and chemical neurotransmitters Furthermore, there are many different types of neurons that are unique in their own way, but the three types that can be found in the spinal cord are sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

Author: Hiba Zwaine

Editors: Yanxi Chen and Angela Pan

Artist: Serena Zhou

What is perception in the human brain? Perception relies on 4 senses–visual, auditory, gustatory, and olfactory. Each of these is grouped together, sending signals to the brain. Read this article to find out more about how our brain responds to scene depictions.

"More than half of the cortex, the brain's interface, is dedicated to visual processing," explains Williams, the William G. Allyn Professor of Medical Optics. How our brain interprets scenes visually and neurally is a concept that science is still developing, but recent studies have begun to make breakthroughs. Humans are strikingly capable of recognizing and comprehending intricate real-world scenarios A prime goal of vision science is to discover the cognitive foundations of this capacity

Henderson and Hollingworth definitively view scenes as “semantically coherent (and often namable) views of a real-world environment comprising background elements and multiple discrete objects arranged in a spatially licensed manner.”

Scene perception, according to this conception, can be advantageously compared to object perception: whereas objects are physically condensed entities upon which one acts, scenes are spatially scattered things within which an individual behaves It is not surprising that humans

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

are extraordinarily adept at scene perception: we grasp landscapes, cityscapes, and rooms just as easily as we understand faces, bodies, animals, and equipment People desire to navigate the spatial aspect of a situation so that they may carefully prepare how they will deal with its presence

Psychological work has been supplemented over the last 20 years by a growing line of neuroscience research, which was sparked by the discovery of the parahippocampal place area (PPA), a ventral pathway region that responds strongly in FMRI studies where participants view scenes (landscapes, cityscapes, and rooms), but less strongly when they view objects (faces, bodies, and artifacts). Subsequent research discovered two more brain areas with a sceneselective response: one in the medial parietal/retrosplenial region and one in the dorsal occipital lobe. Therefore, according to neuroimaging research, three cortical areas respond preferentially to scenes: the parahippocampal place area (PPA), the retrosplenial complex/medial place area (RSC/MPA), and the occipital place area (OPA) which is the brain region’s most important for scene perception. All of these regions have significant research potential.

The PPA is the first scene responding locus or region and appears to be a component of a medial substream that varies operationally from more lateral features on a range of scales (e g , medial vs lateral preference for inanimate vs living items, large vs tiny objects, and

places/scenes vs. faces/bodies). The second scene-responsive region or locus is the Retrosplenial Complex/Medial Place Area (RSC/MPA). The retrosplenial complex area of the brain supports a variety of cognitive operations such as memory recall, guidance, ideation, and decisionmaking The Occipital Place Area (OPA) is the third scene-responding region or location The existence of a retinotopic structure is one of the fundamental properties of the visual cortex: neighboring spots on the cortex respond to stimulation from nearby places in visual space. The functional properties of all the regions aforementioned (PPA, RSC/MPA, and OPA) have yet to be explored and most likely have properties beyond what research has shown us till now

Regardless of the fact that the scene

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

regions are established by a study of scene vs. non-scene categories, several low-level visual features differ between these categories and have been proven to affect reflexes in these locations Additional visualizations that impact reactions in visual areas include rectilinearity and the overall orientation distribution, with pictures with cardinal rather than angular orientations evoking stronger responses. These areas must extract representations of higher-level features of scenes, such as spatial configuration, scene category, place identification, spatial position, and direction, in order to fulfill such duties

Naturalistic experiments yield some information PPA responds most strongly to movie frames representing street views, landscapes, rooms, or hallways when participants are invited to just watch a movie in the scanner. This discovery demonstrates that the preferred reaction to scenes in the PPA i one-image-at-a-time utilized in most Furthermore, eviden regions are most attention to the wo than concentrating o Contrary to po hypotheses claim th brain structure foun lobe, is crucial in sc is, putting together fantasy into a cohes Additionally, studies

hippocampus was more active while watching intact images than when viewing scrambled scenes during the conventional 1-back perceptual matching task, which is commonly employed by vision scientists to identify scene areas A crucial, unanswered question is if scene representations in the hippocampus resemble those in the PPA, RSC/MPA, and OPA.

Much remains to be learned, even though we have learned a lot about scene perception in the human brain over the past twenty years, and future research will need to construct computational models, investigate scene perception under ecologically relevant settings, and comprehend with wider relevance abundance and behav perception

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

How the Human Brain Perceives Beauty

Author: Emily Jiang

Editors: Yanxi Chen

Artist: Susan Wu

Have you ever deemed someone more or less attractive than another? Whether each person has a preference or not, generally speaking, humans can pretty much agree on who is or isn’t attractive. But, what exactly makes them beautiful, or plain compared to each other? There are actually many factors that humans use to judge beauty, for example, facial and body proportions, age, health, and symmetry

The brain uses three modules to determine a face’s desirability, interpretation, identification, and value. Women’s preferences for recognizing beauty differ from men, and there are specific parts of the brain that are responsible for aesthetic appreciation like artwork and music.

In order for a brain to determine a face’s value of appeal, the occipital and temporal parts of the cortex processes face views first The inferior occipital gyrus(IOG) recognizes facial characteristics and sends the information to the fusiform face area(FFA, which processes the placement of facial features and spacing) of the fusiform gyrus(FG) for facial recognition. When judging unknown faces, people have clear eye-scanning movement patterns while engaging the FFA region at the same time The FG very quickly acknowledges prettier faces than ugly ones While determining the interpretation of eye gaze, lip movement,

facial expressions, and other facial movements. The IOG connects to the second module, where the superior temporal sulcus(STS) is included Then the FFA and IOG collaborate with other brain parts, like the occipital face area(OFA) and the ventral anterior temporal lobes(vATLs) for “feature abstraction and assessment, and the amygdala, insula and limbic system for the emotional content of facial expressions and movement.” Then the information from STS is sent to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) along with the nucleus accumbens, to discern beauty and create neurological rewards for finding it

The OFC reacts with more significant activity towards prettier faces than ugly ones. Pretty faces are shown to exactly activate the nucleus accumbens in the caudate region of the brain when men’s brains were scanned by FMRI after being

The Master organ: our wrinkly Brain

shown faces of gorgeous women. And transcranial stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(DIPEFC) increased the recognized attractiveness of faces, though it didn’t affect any other facial judgments like age Proposing that the third module cortical regions decide the value but not the features of the face Human bodies are viewed in the temporal lobes by the extrastriate body area(EBA) and the fusiform body area (FBA) even if they are silhouettes, stick figures, or body representations. The OFC, especially the nucleus accumbens and anterior cingulate cortex, judges the beauty of naked bodies Similar parts of the brain evaluate sculptures and similar posed real human bodies

Men's and women’s brains react differently when judging beauty and appearance. For people who are attracted to the opposite gender, the opposite-sex faces prompt assessment and reward brain systems, like the amygdala, cingulate, and insular cortices, more than the same gender faces Men spend more effort to see pretty women than men’s faces, while women spend less energy and the same amount to see both pretty male and female faces Men display slower response times to pretty faces than women, showing greater cognitive load when processing pretty faces. Male subjects’ ventromedial prefrontal cortex(vmPFC) is more sensitive to youthfulness and gender of faces than female subjects Men are shown pictures of naked women before and after surgery that improve waist-to-hip ratios closer to the ideal and activate the orbitofrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, regions also

used to judge the attractiveness of faces And makeup makes it harder for the brain to do facial recognition, and in order to combat this. The frontal lobe and amygdala are components to detect the deception of cosmetics.

Visual stimuli like paintings of landscapes and music are considered beautiful And what all things perceived as beautiful is that when people see them the medial orbitofrontal cortex (which is a part of the brain that is related to pleasure and reward) has increased blood flow in this area. The amount of activity at the medial orbitofrontal cortex is connected to what you find attractive. Semir Zeki who is a brain expert professor believes that this is a “near-universal response to beauty ” Dopamine (a chemical released in the brain that makes people feel good) is rewarded to them, like rewarding a child with candy for good behavior, and beauty received from both eyes and through ears is rewarded at the same spot.

The brain has many complex components that are used to evaluate and perceive beauty. Though beauty may be subjective to each person, they all still have the same effect on the brain

the human body blueprint

The Replication of Cells

Author: Sanalan Kumar Editors: Benetta Wang and Saniya Chaudhari

G1, S, G2, and M are the four phases of the cell cycle Cells in the G1 stage tend to grow in size, generate protein, and create RNA. This is the most important phase since it prepares the cells for the following phases and ensures that they perform properly. The S stage occurs during the interphase when the cell duplicates its chromosomes by DNA synthesis The G2 phase encourages cells to grow larger and create more proteins In the G2 phase, there is also a checkpoint to see if the cell is ready to divide, which leads to the Mitosis stage (M). Mitosis causes cells to split into daughter cells, which perform a cell's life role. This is necessary because multicellular organisms must expand and repair themselves. After mitosis, some cells go into a resting phase, which is also known as G0 G0 is when the cell is neither dividing or preparing to divide, it is usually checking or maintaining its proper functions But this is not forever, as the cells can “wake up” and start to divide again, which is the case in stem cells. This is why stem cells are gathered from umbilical cords which are donated for research, as they can become any type of cell. Yet, nerve and heart cells never exit

the G0 phase as they can never divide after reaching maturity, this is why if you suffer severe burns to a limb and lose your nerve endings, you can never feel anything in that limb ever again. Some cells also stop developing at the G1 phase. This is called “growth arrest” and it occurs when a cell’s DNA is damaged, after which it will repair the damaged DNA Growth arrest occurs so that the damaged DNA does not replicate itself uncontrollably in the S phase, which will affect the other phases as well. There is also the instance where growth arrest can occur at the G2 phase, right before Mitosis, which is crucial as you do not want 2 new daughter cells that may be defective and start dividing out of control Thankfully, there is a 3rd checkpoint where if a cell has an unrepairable error in its DNA, it will undergo apoptosis, meaning that it self destructs The remains of the dead cell will be consumed by a macrophage, which is a type of white blood cell. This is good news as if these damaged cells did not undergo apoptosis, they would have started to replicate uncontrollably This is the case for many malignant cancer tumours Apoptosis protects the body through removing such damaged cells, as they may affect the developing human embryo and cause birth defects.

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How do Organelles grow?

An organelle is a cellular structure only found in eukaryotic cells. Within these cells, they have one or more specific jobs to perform. Initially, it was a puzzle to biologists as to how cells could control the size and number of organelles. However, recent experiments demonstrate that eukaryotic cells can control the average variation of size in an organelle As these new experiments show that organelle sizes follow a specific general measure that scientists have theoretically predicted, it is

Author: Ashlyn Tsang

Editors: Emily Chen and Hwi-On Lee

Artist: Jade Li

suggested that organelles grow in random bursts from a limiting-pool of building blocks.

Depending on the environments and surroundings, organelles must adapt to allow cells to shrink or grow The size changes of an organelle must be maintained with certain limits Previously,

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biologists had pinpointed certain microscopic factors that managed organelle fluctuations. Recent studies have revealed new insights into quantitative concepts emphasizing organelle size control. Organelles grow in random bursts to supply the cell with a widespread biophysical mechanism which then allows it to maintain reliable organelle sizes The list of organelles includes lipid droplets that store fat, and mitochondrias that generate chemical energy

As the size of an organelle strongly affects how molecules circulate across its barrier, eukaryotic cells must accurately regulate the size and number of organelles. To support the theory of organelles growing in random bursts, Shankar Mukherji and his colleagues at Washington University in St Louis constructed a “limiting-pool model” simulation, along with two alternative models to demonstrate how organelles grow by the joining of basic components. In the simulations, organelles could increase in number through the fusion of a new organelle or through the splitting of one or two existing organelles. For each model, a relation was identified between the average size and number of organelles The two alternative models focused on predicting the constant organelle size, while the limiting-pool model focused on predicting how the size should slowly lessen with increasing numbers of organelles. Mukherji and his colleagues then compared these model results with real life measurements of organelles, while using a fluorescent protein to mark the organelle membranes While inspecting the images of three different organelles, it was found that the

limiting pool model worked best in predicting the relation between average size and number of organelles. However, with a closer inspection of these models, a disagreement between the theory and their experiment over organelle size variation was revealed In the measurements of the real cells, researchers found that alterations were constant, which was always around 50% of the average organelle size. This result conflicted with the limiting-pool model, which predicted that the correspondent size of variations should be greater in cells with smaller organelles

To account for the inconsistency, the team adjusted the limiting-pool model using inspiration from earlier work Their new model assumed that organelles grow from a pool of building blocks in occasional bursts rather than at a steady rate. With a series of new simulations of the edited model, it was still found that the average size of an organelle decreased with increased numbers, which takes into consideration the limiting-pool growth It was also found that the growth dynamics led to smaller versions in organelle size, also seen in real cells. Therefore, this new model can explain how cells maintain organelle sizes and numbers while also regulating size fluctuations.

The World of bacteria in our guts

Author: Cici Zhang Editors: Yanxi Chen and Angela Pan Artist: Serena Zhou

Microbiomes are made up of microorganisms that can happen in the oral cavity, intestinal tract, and skin. The general parts of a microbiome include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses In a more specific example: the gut microbiomes When considering the gastrointestinal system (gut), gut microbiomes are generally known as bacteria, microbiomes, and viromes.

Bacteria are the primary constituents of Bacteriomes; however, due to the highly acidic nature of gastric acid located in the stomach (pH range of 1.5 - 3.5), most bacteria are unable to survive Specific bacteria with a developed resistance to acidic environments can still stay in the stomach However, gastrointestinal bacteria, including cocci and bacterial rods, further inhabit the human intestinal tract. Gastrointestinal flora and humans have a symbiotic relationship. It is certainly possible for people to survive without gastrointestinal bacteria. However, such bacteria carry out several valuable functions, such as the fermentation of energy substrates

Microbes generally include fungi and protists. Some benefit the human body, but many are harmful. An example of these would be parasitic protists, which can cause highly deadly diseases like malaria.

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Viromes are found in and on humans, including both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells In eukaryotic cells, viruses have a significant impact on human health and could lead to infections in the human body Whereas in prokaryotic cells, viruses are targeting the structure, and function of different bacteria in their community, that’s inside human microbiomes

Gut microbiomes help the immune system, such as digesting food, developing the brain, strengthening immune system

functions, and protecting the host from pathogenic invasions The gut bacteria community is made up of several different factors, such as chemical condition, pH value, and mucus On the other hand, antibiotics prevent biodiversity.

Gut microbiomes can cause complications such as kidney diseases, weight gain, gastrointestinal disorders, cancer, etc., from an imbalance of healthy and unhealthy microbiomes. It’s essential to the human system and contributes to good health, and prevents obesity

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ALLERGIES IN THE HUMAN BODY

Author: William Tsay

Editors: Peggy Yang and Jasleen Matharu

Artist: Lalita Ma

Allergies are not uncommon and we all either know someone who has an allergy or you may have one yourself. It’s also not uncommon for your body to have rather interesting reactions to the substances you’re allergic to, but sometimes these reactions can be life-threatening Keep on reading to learn more about allergies and the process behind allergic reactions!

We’ve all had the occasional sniffing, sneezing, and itchy eyes. These uncomfortable symptoms are part of our body’s mechanisms to conquer and respond to foreign antigens. The technical term for this is called “an allergy” and is a very common medical condition that affects millions of people worldwide through an overreaction of their immune system The allergen can be caused by numerous products such as drugs, foods, insects, pollen, and even pets While the simple,

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even harmless reaction may seem benign, allergies can be extremely severe and even life-threatening if left untreated.

An allergy occurs when your body’s immune system views a certain substance as harmful and sends the body into fighting mode Once the immune system identifies the substance, it triggers a cascade of immune responses, including the release of immunoglobulin antibodies which binds to immune cells. This process leads to the release of numerous chemicals (most commonly histamine) into the bloodstream, causing common symptoms like inflammation, itching, redness, swelling, sneezing, runny nose, and coughing Oftentimes, the immune system may end up inflaming the skin and digestive system, which can cause discomfort within the individual.

In some severe cases, allergies can cause anaphylaxis, a life-threatening reaction that occurs when the body overreacts to an allergen. Symptoms often occur rapidly and can affect multiple systems of the body including the skin, respiratory system, and cardiovascular system Patients who experience anaphylaxis may have difficulty breathing and major swelling of the face and lips or develop hives. In the worst cases, anaphylaxis can lead to shock and death if immediate medical attention is not sought.

Individuals who are at risk for anaphylaxis must carry an epinephrine injector (EpiPen) and be trained on how to use the device Furthermore, there are several ways to control allergies, including, taking prescription medications and undergoing immunotherapy, in which individuals receive injections of small

amounts of the allergen in order to build up full immunity In addition, keeping windows closed during allergy season and utilizing air filters will reduce the chances of coming into contact with allergens. Moreover, working with a healthcare provider to properly diagnose allergies and create a treatment plan will allow you to enjoy a free and higher quality of life

While allergies may be frustrating and uncomfortable, they are a part of our body’s natural reaction and can be effectively managed with the right actions and lifestyle changes.

How is spiciness defined and measured in scientific terms?

Author: Alicia Ma and Calista Yoo

Editors: Emily Chen and He-Hanson Xuan

Artist: Serena Yung

Sweat and tears drip down your face as you frantically try to gulp down a cup of water. No, this reaction isn’t from the blistering heat of the hot summer sun. It’s from the sweltering heat of the Carolina Reaper pepper you just bit into Ranked the spiciest pepper in the world, the Carolina Reaper measures 2 2 million SHUs

But what exactly is a SHU? From sweet chili peppers to fiery ghost chili peppers, peppers have a wide range of spiciness. But exactly how spicy or wide is this range? To answer this burning question, the Scoville Scale is a scale that was invented to measure the spiciness of peppers in Scoville Heat Units (SHUs) The scale was created by Wilbur Scoville in 1912 in an attempt to find the right pepper for a heat-producing ointment .

The spice in peppers comes from the chemical compound Capsaicin. It is the culprit of the burn you feel on your tongue and the sweat dripping down your face after you eat a spicy pepper

To measure the spiciness of a pepper in SHUs, an alcohol extract of capsaicin from a dried pepper is diluted with a solution of sugar water until its spicy flavor can no longer be tested. From there, it is assigned SHUs based on how much water and sugar are needed to dilute it to remove its fiery flavor. If a pepper has an SHU of 5000, that means it required 5000 dilutions before the piquant flavor was deemed undetectable by taste buds

But exactly how accurate is this measurement? The Scoville test relies on human taste to determine whether a diluted

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pepper is still spicy, so it inherently has some variance. Even though a panel of judges taste the peppers to evaluate their spiciness, the human palette varies greatly from person to person, so spice tolerance is no exception. In more modern times, a high-performance liquid chromatography process (HPLC) can be used to determine the exact amount of capsaicin in a pepper, which eliminates the majority of human error from the process The HPLC measures pepper pungency in American Spice Trade Association Pungency Units. However, SHUs are still commonly used today by food critics and experts alike, so the measurements determined by the HPLC

process are often plugged into a formula that converts them into SHUs.

To better understand SHUs and just how spicy some peppers are, it may be helpful to compare common household peppers and record-breaking spicy peppers in SHUs. For example, the regular jalapeno pepper has a SHU score of 2500-5000 while the “hottest pepper in the world”- the Carolina Reaper- measures over 2 2 million SHUs This means the Carolina Reaper is over 440 times spicier than a jalapeno- one bite of a Carolina Reaper is equivalent to more than 440 bites from a jalapeno pepper. So next time you think your high spice tolerance is high, you can humble yourself with a bite of the Carolina Reaper

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Terrific Tennis

Author: Jean Claude, T Isidor

Editors: Jasleen Matharu and He-Hanson Xuan

Artist: Jenny Luo

Everybody has heard of tennis, some know the rules and maybe have even played in the past, but do you know of the intricacies of a tennis match? This article will explore the minute, but significant, details of tennis, from training to the game itself. Read more to find out.

Every time the Wimbledon Games come around, I can’t help but take a moment and admire how amazing tennis players can be. The ability of these players to not only strike a tennis ball at the perfect moment, but have that same ball flying to their targeted location at 100 miles per hour feels like something out of a Harry Potter movie. In this article, I dig deep into the differences between tennis players and the average person and how they use their biomechanical abilities to achieve spectacular feats.

Laying out the Rulebook:

Before talking about how tennis players use their bodies to play, I want to spend a short moment talking about the rules of

tennis. The game starts off with something called a serve. This is when a player chooses a side of the court (either left or right) and precedes to toss the ball up in the air and hit it with the racket using the other hand (Olympics) The ball must hit a specific area called the serving area for the serve to be considered Keep in mind that all the steps mentioned to produce a serve, must be done in one swift motion in order to start the game off strong. Now, there are 2 main ways you get a point in tennis, either you hit the ball and it bounces on the ground twice on your opponent's side of the net, or your opponent hits either the ball into the net or an area considered out of bounds This means that tennis players have to do a lot of running to stay on top

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of their game. For instance, their opponent makes the sprint forwards because they have done a drop shot and after you return the ball, your opponent now has to run back towards the baseline Now, with all these physical demands on the body, let’s take a look deeper into what your body is actually doing to successfully play tennis.

Lower Body:

Tennis without a doubt trains your legs like crazy and it's for a purpose When I first tried out for my school's tennis team the tennis coach said that footwork is 90% of the game I never understood what he meant until I read this following sentence in an article by ussportscamps: “Footwork in the game of tennis is everything. Intense feet means you recover quicker, get to the next ball faster and have more time to prepare the shot.” Since those tennis balls can go flying at high speeds, being able to use your feet to get your body to where it needs to be plays a tremendous role in tennis In addition, proper use of your lower body can help generate more power in your swings. The more power, the faster you can get that ball moving and the less chance your opponent has to position their return effectively. One such way of generating power is by the use of rotation, where you pivot around a foot to use that rotational energy generated and concentrate it on the racket All this being said, not only do players use their lower body to excel their game but as well their upper body.

Upper Body:

When it comes to the upper body, muscles in your chest, shoulders and arm play a key role in the process of swinging your racket (Sportsver) Tennis players train these muscles heavily to have harder serves and hit longer shots. In fact, the medical term describing what these players train in their upper body is kinetic chain, which is “the interrelated groups of body segments, connecting joints and muscles working together to perform movements,” (Acefitness) Failure to properly train these muscles would result in increased strain during matches since sometimes tennis matches can ramp up to 2 hours or even longer since there is no time limit.

Tennis itself is a beautiful sport like many others. It’s one of those things in life that unites people and brings out the best in them. Additionally, when we see athletes like tennis players train and perform we can witness the untamed abilities of the human body to go beyond what we viewed as the limit

Research Paper: Delaying School Start Times for Sleep

Author: Jai Hao Wu

Editors: Jasleen Matharu and He-Hanson Xuan

Artist: Guanxin (Acey) Li

Sleep deprivation is a common occurrence for teenagers in today’s world. Since fixing sleep schedules is too hard, let’s investigate the remediative solution of delaying start times. Read this research paper-like article to find out why exactly every school should start later during the morning.

Rebecca sleeps only 2 hours before she goes to school. To cope with the decreased attention span and exhaustion caused by the lack of sleep, she consumes coffee to stay awake With a part time job, extracurriculars, homework, and chores that overwhelm her, Rebecca stays up late into the night again This repetitive state throughout the school year leads to chronic sleep deprivation. Since students do not sleep for as long as they should, they resort

to naps and caffeine to make up for the deficiency in sleep. This common phenomenon among adolescents presents a major problem towards their quality of life and education

The majority of students do not sleep enough In a report by the CDC, Short Sleep Duration Among Middle School and High School Students United States, 2015, 72.7% of high school students who participated in the national Youth Risk

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Behavior Surveys reported a short sleep duration, which was defined with teens aged 13-18 years old sleeping less than 8 hours (Wheaton AG, Jones SE, Cooper AC, & Croft JB, 2015). According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, teens should be sleeping between 8 and 10 hours a day; with such a large disparity between expectation and reality, sleep quality is an issue that needs to be addressed (Paruthi, et al , 2014, p 785)

There are many reasons for why teens sleep less than recommended; some factors include a long commute to school, biological changes, and extracurriculars (Judith, et al., 2014, p. e922). Teenagers experience sleep phase delay when they enter puberty, which shift’s their sleep schedule to about 2 hours later (Judith, et al , 2014, p e922) However, the amount of sleep that they must get each night remains the same (Judith, et al., 2014, p. e922). This is often unachievable for most teenagers since most schools start early in the morning and students need to wake up much earlier for the commute. (Heiser, 2019). Moreover, teens also spend time on different activities such as clubs, sports, and other extracurriculars (Richter, 2015) These all contribute to a later sleep schedule for teens because students prioritize these things over proper rest. For some teens, sleeping more on weekends can make up for a “sleep debt” that they built up throughout the week, which can cause even later sleep times (Richter, 2015). With a combination of these factors, teens often sleep less than they should be

Sleep quality is extremely important in the developing bodies of adolescents

Without a sufficient amount of sleep, teens

can suffer from chronic sleep deprivation Sleep deprivation has several negative impacts on a person’s life. (American Academy of Sleep [AASM], 2008). Some observed consequences include struggling to concentrate well, lowered grades, and increased stress levels that can in turn lead to various mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression For high school students who often have responsibilities such as jobs or taking care of younger siblings, sleep quality is paramount to functioning well.

A potential solution to the problem of sleep deprivation among teens is to delay start times for school so that teens can wake up later Some research has already been done; past studies have been completed to determine an association between sleep and grades, as well as the influence on mood In a study conducted on 882 freshmen students, the average sleep reported was 7.6 hours per night, with 48% reporting an average of less than 8 hours (AASM, 2008). This reaffirms the general trend of sleep deprivation among teens. Additionally, the study reported that hours of sleep per school night was significantly associated with grade performance and motivation in school (AASM, 2008) Although the study was unable to claim that poor sleep led to the negative consequences, it was able to demonstrate an association between sleep and grades (AASM, 2008). Another study was conducted in Seattle to explore the effects of moving school start times in a district by 55 minutes later on students (Dunster, et al , 2018) In the results, researchers found an increase in median sleep by 34 minutes, and a 4 5% increase

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in grades; attendance also improved, with the average amount of sleep increased by an hour from 6.5 to 7.5 hours (Dunster, et al., 2018). However, this improvement in sleep was only found during schooldays, and not weekends (Dunster, et al., 2018). This strongly supports the increase in sleep to be caused by the delay in school starts and not by other variables

This paper investigates the benefits of delaying school through a survey on students. By analyzing data on sleep on school nights and afternoon half days, the conditions of delaying school start times are replicated. Additionally, data on

caffeine intake and weekend sleep are analyzed to consider other factors. The conclusion of the analysis of the survey’s various data demonstrates a high rate of sleep deprivation; delaying school start times is a suitable alternative to consider so that students sleep more

To hypothesize if delaying school start times will improve sleep for teens, a survey was conducted on a sample of students in grades 7th to 12th grade in New York City. To obtain this data, the survey was posted on social media and sent to an art class that had students in all 5 boroughs. Anonymously recording data,

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the survey received 42 responses in total beginning from July 23rd to August 13th. To analyze the data better, the google form responses were converted into an excel sheet, where statistical analysis was performed

In this survey, data regarding sleep on normal school nights was compared to that of sleep on afternoon half days. On half days, school is held normally except morning classes are not attended, allowing students to go to school significantly later. By isolating the 2 variables that are in question, an association that links the 2 would indicate that they have significant effects on one another, in this case, it would be the relation of school start times and sleep. To determine association between the amount of sleep and later start times for students, a chi squared test for independence was conducted on the dataset. The null hypothesis (H0) would be that there is no association between the amount of sleep and what day it is, half day or school night The alternative hypothesis (HA) is that there is an association between the amount of sleep and what day it is. The alpha level used is in accordance to standard practice, �� = 0.05.

To be able to implement a chisquared test for association, the samples must be randomly sampled, be less than 10% of the total population, and have expected counts greater than 5 Because the survey was voluntary, the results were not randomly sampled To fulfill the conditions of simple random sampling, 35 samples of all responses were randomly chosen using a random number generator. After reconfirming that expected counts

are larger than 5, the modified data will be analyzed using a high-grade web application for chi-squared test for association.

Data Tables and Graphs:

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figute 3

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The chi-squared test for association revealed a p-value of less than 0.0001. Since the p-value is less than the alpha level, 0 05, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative is accepted Therefore, the test is statistically significant; there is an association between what day it is and the amount of sleep a student gets When conducting a chi-squared test for association, there is the possibility of a type I error, where the null hypothesis was rejected when it should not have been. However, the test is unlikely to have a type I error since the p-value is so small This statistics test supports an association between the sleep students get and the time when school starts for students

Furthermore, the other pie charts also show a significant change between the different days. The chart indicating sleep for a regular school night supports the trend that students don't sleep enough, as nearly half of the responses reported sleeping between 5-6 hours and 14.3% of students slept even less Another significant observation within the chart is that there are no responses for 8-10 hours or more than 10 hours Out of all 42 people who responded, not a single one reported to sleep the recommended amount for teens. This means that every person who has responded does not sleep enough, and

that even sleeping less than 6 hours is the majority of answers. Moreover, the percentage of people who sleep less than 5 hours is nearly the same amount as people who sleep 7-8 hours For those who sleep just an hour or two under the recommended amount, there are just as many who sleep less than 5 hours. The ratio in the chart highlights an underlying concern where the bulk of people sleep 5-6 hours, but even those who sleep more than the average amount balance out with those who sleep much less Ideally, the students who sleep the least should be the overwhelming minority and not on par with those that sleep the most This graph clearly indicates a mass problem among teens that further cements the need for a solution.

However, when comparing the graph on school nights, the graph for half days is much more evenly distributed. There is no dominant section of the pie that significantly overwhelms the other options Moreover, 35 7% of students slept at least 8 hours on average on a half day Compared to none of the students who slept at least 8 hours on average on a school night, this stark contrast suggests that the later start time for students to arrive at school has allowed them to sleep substantially better.

For students who slept more on half days than school nights, 75% reported waking up later with an additional 17 5% also sleeping earlier This shows that for the majority of students, having their day start later would directly give them the additional time needed for sleep since they would go to sleep at the same time as usual. At the same time, students would rather be able to wake up later as opposed

Figure 4

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to having an option to sleep earlier. Looking past the graphs and charts, there were a few noticeable outliers and individual responses These examples showcase how severely sleep deprived they are, as well as the potential lack of sleep other students could develop in the future. For example, one student reported to sleep at around 3:30 a.m on regular school nights. The same student woke up at 7a.m, meaning they only slept 3 and a half hours a day Not only is this student significantly sleep deprived, they reported being at a 1 when asked how tired they felt if they slept less than 8 hours the day before on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being completely exhausted and 5 extremely energetic.) Compared to the majority of answers, which reported that students slept 5-7 hours and slept from the range of 12a.m - 1:30 a.m, these noticeable outliers represent the extreme minority that struggle to sleep enough

the contrary, school becomes an even larger variable in the difference in sleep

The chart above displays the amount of sleep students get on weekends compared to the sleep students get on school nights

Both sets of data trend in different directions and have no replies at the other end. On weekends, nobody has responded less than 5 hours and for school nights, no one has responded more than 10 hours. This large shift in sleep from school nights and weekends shows how students tend to sleep much more on weekends as a whole; the data collected is consistent with previously mentioned trends where students sleep more to “catch up” to their sleep debt. They are able to do this because they are not required to wake up early to go to school.

With over half of students sleeping at least 8 hours on weekends, their sleep schedule is not uniform A continuous shift on sleep schedule makes it difficult for the student to maintain his or her circadian rhythm, which affects how well they sleep

To add on, a significant portion of students reported sleeping at school and throughout the day in the survey Only 35 7% of

To eliminate the possible circumstance that students sleep little, not because of delayed school start times, but for other reasons, students were asked about their sleep on weekends. If students slept more on weekends, there is no underlying reason that affects them everyday that causes them to sleep less. On

Figure 5

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are sleeping at school to make up for the sleep they lost the previous night instead of focusing on studying or other activities they could be doing.

To combat the effects of sleep deprivation, students use energy drinks and other sources of caffeine and sugar to stay awake Popular sources of caffeine include coffee, tea, and energy drinks According to a study conducted on 166 students in grades 9 and 10, 44.6% of them reported drinking coffee one to six times a week while only 4.8% never drank drinks containing caffeine (Turton P, Piché L, & Battram D, 2015) A significant amount of students drink caffeinated beverages to cope with the onslaught of sleep deprivation However, consuming caffeinated beverages over a long period of time leads to more adverse effects; it may lead to insomnia, fidgeting and restlessness, and irregular heart rhythms (Schneider M, Benjamin H, Committee on Nutrition and the Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness, 2011). As a result, consuming caffeinated beverages is not a beneficial solution towards chronic sleep

deprivation and may even worsen sleep quality.

To look at how severe sleep deprivation affects students, one can look at caffeine consumption and sleep throughout the daytime Evidence of a significant portion of students drinking caffeine is paramount in understanding how severe sleep deprivation affects students beyond the raw numbers of hours of sleep. By seeing how many teens consume caffeinated beverages, Additionally, 76.2% of students reported drinking caffeinated beverages when sleeping less than their usual amount on school nights This data supports the trend of students using other ways to make up for the lack of sleep the previous night, either through caffeine or naps

From multiple past studies, it can be reasonably confirmed that a significant portion of students do not sleep as much as they should be. To mitigate the effects of sleep deprivation, students choose to sacrifice time throughout the day to take naps or rely on caffeinated beverages to stay awake A solution that may solve mass chronic sleep deprivation among teens is to move school start times later Through this research survey, a chi-squared test on association between sleep and school start time was conducted. As a result, there is an association between the amount of sleep students get and when school starts for them. In conclusion, the movement to delay school start times is a method that should be thoroughly considered in order to allow students to sleep an appropriate amount and have an overall greater quality of life and education

Figure 6

How is RNA bacteriophage being used for further discoveries in Microbiology?

Author: Chloe Jeon

Editors: Emily Chen and He-Hanson Xuan

Artist: Jade Li

Did you know that bacteria can be infected? It is ironic that bacteria can infect any living organism, but bacteria itself can be infected by a virus called bacteriophage

There are currently two known RNA bacteriophages found from the mid-1900s: Leviviridae and Cystoviridae. Leviviridae is naturally a spherical shape consisting of single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) phages: one of the tiniest viruses that usually infect gram negative bacteria through adsorption. This family of viruses has been used to model virus evolution, RNA and protein interactions, and translation repression

Cystoviridae is unique as it is a double stranded RNA, and is in a spherical shape with a double capsid structure.

Cystoviridae also primarily targets gramnegative bacteria such as Pseudomonas syringae in plants What makes Cystoviridae more complex than Leviviridae is that Cytosviridae consists of a polymerase complex that controls genome packaging, replication, and transcription. These RNA bacteriophages infect bacteria through the lytic cycle, where the virus replicates itself within the host cell, and through the lysogenic cycle, in which viral genome is inserted into that of the host

Deeper studies on RNA bacteriophages have allowed Scientists to discover gene regulation, proving that the Central Dogma of biology – the model that the production of proteins from DNA

Advancing Life: Biomedical Technology

through the utilization of RNA is unidirectional – was not entirely accurate. This is due to the elucidation of reverse transcriptase, which allows for the exact opposite process to occur. Moreover, Scientists were able to gain a better understanding of both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria such as Hepatitis, Influenza, and HIV due to the polyprotein Currently, scientists are using the RNA bacteriophage to find alternatives to antibiotics since superbugs (i.e. bacteria that are resistant to multiple antibiotics) have evolved. Creating the alternative has been put into debate since bacteria create CRISPR arrays when a viral DNA is injected, which allows them to “remember”

and use the Cas9 enzyme to destroy the virus. However, the new genetic engineering method of CRISPR-Cas9 was adapted from bacteria’s immune system. Thus, this new method combined with RNA bacteriophages may be used to create alternatives

There are some debates over ethics regarding both the RNA bacteriophage research and CRISPR-Cas9 research since people are unsure of how far this research can continue and be accessible to create an alternative antibiotic. Despite the concerns, RNA bacteriophages may definitely be important during this 21st century when many antibiotics have lost their efficiency and more research is needed regarding virology to save more lives

HIV and Its Possible Cure?

Author: Hanni Yang

Editors: Jasleen Matharu and He-Hanson Xuan

Artist: Jenny Luo

HIV is one of the most debilitating diseases in modern society, being one of the deadliest STDs in the United States However, despite the attention and resources dedicated to finding a cure, there has yet to be a breakthrough discovery Read this article to find out the status quo on HIV treatment

For the last few decades, HIV has been one of the leading causes of death in the United States. Scientists have been trying to develop solutions based on the research they have gathered, however, they have not come up with a treatment that will completely cure one from the virus. HIV was first discovered in the United States in 1981 Until now, scientists only have drugs to control HIV transmission and prevent further growth/spread

Currently, people can only control HIV with antiretroviral therapy (ART) a combination of drugs to oppress the growth of HIV. It can lower the amount of the virus in their body and people who take ART are at almost no risk of passing the virus to other people. However, taking ART does not mean there’s no virus inside the body The virus may still exist inside a group of cells called the HIV reservoir If a patient stopped taking ART, the virus in the reservoir would increase again.

Since a lot of people cannot afford the cost of antiretroviral therapy, there are

other more cost-friendly treatments for people to choose from including treatmentfree remission and viral eradication.

Treatment-free remission or functional cure signifies that the HIV virus is controlled without using ART drugs, but it needs to be taken everyday. Therapists are doing research to find ways to manage the expansion of HIV without using ART They use antibody therapies and therapeutic vaccines to control it Albeit these treatments don’t prevent infection, they stimulate one’s immune system to fight the virus.

Viral eradication or sterilizing cure involves a two-part treatment to limit HIVs. The first part would involve drugs that would cause the HIV reservoir's cells to proliferate and express proteins that act as signals to your immune system The second part would be to detect those protein signals, then seek out, and kill the virus. There can be other types of drugs that may be able to seek out and kill HIV. This include histone deacetylase (HDAC)

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inhibitors, protein kinase activators, latency securing agents, and immunotoxins

Although there’s treatments and drugs for patients with HIV, there’s a lot of side effects such as nausea, vomiting, weakened bones, higher blood sugar, emotional distress, etc. Currently, scientists have not discovered a treatment which would completely cure the body from HIV or lower the symptoms from present medications.

As stated before, there’s no cure, but drugs to control HIV Scientists are still researching to find a way to completely heal HIV and the following are current obstacles that are hindering their progress:

Scientists do not fully understand how HIV reservoirs work because of its structures and functions, which renders scientists unable to find, measure, and destroy them

Although most HIV clinical trials involve men, roughly half of those who have the virus are female More

research is required to determine whether medicines will be effective for women and girls

Hidden HIV reservoirs This is a significant challenge for scientists because it’s the reason why they can’t fully heal HIV because some of the HIV virus persists inside stable reservoirs, which cannot be detected by the immune system and drugs. Financial restraints for patients will restrict the treatments that can be provided to a larger population as the solution will likely cost much more

Scientists continue to search for a potential cure for HIVs, and with present technologies they have developed some drugs and treatments to control the virus, but none that can rid the body of it. Even with the present medications available, there are many symptoms that can add stress and decrease the quality of life for many individuals, however, as time progresses and funding is secured, researchers will eventually find a solution and help millions around the world

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CAN GENE THERAPY CURE TYPE 1 DIABETES?

Author: Rishika Tellamsetty

Editors: Yanxi Chen and Angela Pan

Artist: Lilian Chen

There is currently no cure for type 1 diabetes, however, it would be a game changer if gene therapy is able to do so But what is this “gene therapy”? Read this article to find out

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When someone has type 1 diabetes, what they first wonder about is whether there is a cure With technological advancements, people are starting to wonder if gene therapy can cure type 1 diabetes But first, what is gene therapy?

Gene therapy is a medical field that focuses on genetically modifying human cells to prevent, treat, or cure particular diseases. This can happen by reconstructing or fixing damaged or defective genetic material in the body. But it can also occur by adding more features to the genetic material in the body This technology is not completely developed yet, as scientists are still working towards its further development What is type 1 diabetes, and how is it incorporated into gene therapy?

Type 1 diabetes or T1D, is a T-cellmediated autoimmune disease where the pancreatic cells in a person fail to produce insulin, causing the consumed glucose in the body (the primary source of energy in all living cells) not to enter cells and accumulate in the blood vessels The accumulation of glucose in the blood vessels causes high blood glucose levels, which can lead to many severe complications, such as hyperglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, and even psychiatric disorders such as retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and cardiovascular disease As of right now, there is no prevention or definitive cure for type 1 diabetes However, the treatment for the disease can only treat the symptoms or prevent the complications of the disease from getting worse.

Gene therapy is tied to type 1 diabetes because the therapy can remodel the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of a person Although gene therapy is only in its early research phases of clinical trials to treat type 1 diabetes in the United States, it has the capability to treat and cure many more conditions and diseases beyond type 1 diabetes. These diseases include but are not limited to, cancer, AIDS, and heart disease. However, for type 1 diabetes, the procedure of gene therapy can be like reprogramming alternative cells and making them perform functions that the original insulin-producing beta cells had the responsibility of performing

A Small Look Into MRI and CT scans

Author: Jefferson Lin

Editors: Hwi-On Lee and Peggy Yang

Artist: Shihan Gao

If you have ever suffered the pain of an infection or broken your bone, your doctor has probably suggested you get scanned. Whether they conduct an MRI or CT scan, these scans allow the doctor to determine where the issue is and the possible treatments to fix the problem. But how exactly do these scans work? How is a machine able to see through skin and map the entire body’s skeletal system?

The Science behind CT scans

The creation of computed tomography (CT) was initially theorized during a vacation trip when the scientist, Godfrey Hounsfieldand, thought of creating images of a closed box. Decades later, the CT is now a vital part of examining the human body to discover diseases which standard

tools and machinery cannot find What was initially a plan to reconstruct the materials within a closed box became the foundation for CT scans. But the glaring question returns how do they work?

Before we understand CT scans, we need to understand the creation of x-rays, the core methodology behind CT scans. Xrays, which were created nearly over half a century before CT scans, are a type of radiation that can pass through the body

Because the body contains a variety of organs (like your liver and lungs), the energy admitted from x-rays, which is ionizing radiation energy, is absorbed differently depending on the organ. This information is collected by multiple detectors which work in harmony by using

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two-dimensional techniques to scan a specific body part before representing the information pixel by pixel

Although CT scans use x-rays to form images, the creation of the images are not computerized Instead, they are turned into slices Slices are cross-sectional images that allow the doctor to piece each slice together to create a 3D image of the body. The x-rays used are motorized x-rays rather than a fixed x-ray tube (standard xray method), which rotates the patient around to gather information from every section of their body

The Science behind MRI

While CT scans use x-rays and multiple detectors to form a 3D model of the human body, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses non-invasive technology to create a 3D model of the body. Rather than using ionized radiation,

which can harm the body after large/multiple doses, the MRI uses strong magnets to create images of the body

Because all protons spin to create a small magnetic charge, the strong magnets from MRI machines can rotate the protons to align with the magnetic field A radiofrequency pulse is then used to force the proton into a 90 or 180 degree realignment with the static magnetic field. After the radiofrequency pulse is removed, the protons will be back to their initial state of being pulled by the magnetic field and releasing electromagnetic energy while rotating Because different areas of the body release different frequencies of this energy, the waves bouncing off of those parts are collected by the machine which allows the MRI to differentiate which parts these come fro and generate an image based off of that.

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LINKAGE AND GENE MAPPING

WITH MOLECULAR MARKERS

Author: Lucy Chen

Editors: Jasleen Matharu and Peggy Yang

Artist: Lalita Ma

Are you interested in the science behind genetics and predicting the genes for future generations of living organisms? If so, this article is for you as it dives deep into the topic of genetics and more specifically, how molecular markers are used in gene mapping. It even includes a discussion over mutations in species. Keep on reading to learn more!

Microsatellites are found in the genomes of all living organisms, from bacteria to plants and humans. They are a type of "molecular marker" used in forensics, population genetics, sickness

diagnosis, and linkage mapping, among other things. For example, if a fascinating new phenotype is identified, the site of the mutation responsible for the phenotype may be mapped to aid in the determination

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of the molecular pathways underlying the phenotype When utilizing microsatellite markers for genetic mapping, there is an attempt to determine the link between a certain microsatellite allele (shown as a band on a gel) and the phenotype of interest.

These tiny markers have two to six tandem base pair repeats that are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs), simple sequence repeats (SSRs), simple sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs), and variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The number of nucleotide repeats in a single microsatellite locus is highly polymorphic, resulting in several alleles (repeat number differences) of a single locus in a population. PCR can be utilized by using primers chosen to flank the microsatellite locus to identify these

alleles When the PCR products are separated using agarose gel electrophoresis, a banding pattern is formed that depicts the microsatellite genotype of each DNA sample.

Mapping often begins by crossing two parental individuals, a homozygous (same allele variant) mutant (changed) and a homozygous wild type (unchanged), to produce a heterozygous F1 population The F1 progeny are heterozygous for the phenotypic locus as well as the microsatellite loci used for mapping. The heterozygous F1 can be used in subsequent crosses to determine whether the newly discovered phenotype (the new mutation) co-segregates with a specific microsatellite locus.

The frequency of parental and recombinant banding patterns will fluctuate depending on whether the new mutation is genetically linked to the specific microsatellite locus. The majority of microsatellite markers demonstrate independent assortment (that is, they are not genetically linked to the mutation and will thus inherit separately), resulting in an equal number of parental and recombinant microsatellite bands in mutant phenotypic F2 plants If a microsatellite marker is genetically linked to the new mutation, F2 progeny with the recessive mutant phenotype are more likely to inherit the microsatellite allele of the parent mutant strain due to the new mutation being on the same chromosome. This results in them inheriting together most of the time. As a result, by analyzing molecular marker data, the gene responsible for the unique phenotype can be identified

Synthetic Biology: Methods and Implementations

Author: Ellie Wang

Editors: Peggy Yang and Hwi-On Lee

Artist: Shihan Gao

At first, you may think that “synthetic biology” is either a contradiction or refers to the flawless cloning found only in science fiction However, in reality, synthetic biology is an innovative field of science that involves engineering organisms to have new abilities and purposes, ranging from environmental cleanup to medicine and even to agriculture.

In order to modify these organisms, scientists use various methods of genetic engineering. These methods differ from genome editing, where small changes are made to the organism’s own DNA In synthetic biology, scientists typically assemble longer stretches of DNA to insert into an organism’s genome. This genetic material can be synthesized from genes in other organisms or include man-made segments. Because there are many variables like DNA bases, genes, and regulatory elements that factor into the outcome of genetically engineering a complex organism, scientists use automated biological design, or bio-design automation, to help By using tools such as computer algorithms, software, and machine learning, they can make the

process easier with visualizations of genetic sequences, predictive components that show products of the elements being modified, and large libraries of available genomic sequences, among other enhancements

One method that utilizes these aforementioned tools is combinatorial library design, which uses them to combine libraries of genetic sequences in different ways. The algorithms are programmed with designated rules that increase the chances of the assembled sequences being biologically functional and can improve those rules using machine learning and statistical analysis This method can also be applied to engineering protein structures, which are essential for many biological processes. Beyond this method are countless others used by scientists to discover new ways to modify organisms and thus, benefit the world.

The new functions possessed by these organisms and the products they can create help solve numerous kinds of problems We can harness microorganisms to clean up environmental pollutants, such as using bacteria modified to break down nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic material

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to treat wastewater entering a treatment plant This bioremediation can directly benefit some of the estimated 842,000 people that die from diarrheal diseases annually and the estimated 2 6 billion people that don’t have any sanitation. More commonplace modifications come in the form of your food. You may not realize it, but some of your food items have already been genetically modified to provide nutrients necessary to stay healthy. For instance, you may be eating rice modified to produce beta-carotene, a yellow-orange pigment usually associated with carrots The body converts beta-carotene into vitamin A, which helps it maintain good vision, a strong immune system, and healthy skin and mucous membranes. This strain of rice could combat the vitamin A deficiency that causes blindness in 250,000–500,000 children every year, which increases their risk of death from infectious diseases Scientists have even engineered bacteria cells for targeted cancer therapy

In the past, they have used bacteria with edited genomes to attack tumors by targeting them and producing anticancer substances. However, this posed the risk of letting the bacteria grow out of control, which led to the creation of “SimCells”

and “mini-SimCells” to directly combat this issue This “simple cell” cancer therapy utilizes bacteria lacking their original chromosomes, preventing them from reproducing Their new gene circuits allow scientists to target tumors displaying certain surface antigens by having the SimCells and mini-SimCells bind to them with surface anti-biomarker nanobodies; then, the cells produce and release the anticancer. The whole process is highly controllable because the gene circuits are inducible regulated by a substance that “turns on” the expression of those genes and “turns it off” when its levels don’t reach a certain amount Thus, even commonly seen pathogens such as bacteria can be reprogrammed to be entirely beneficial for the body.

However, with innovation comes ethical and social implications. As a relatively new field, the regulation of the methods, uses, and products of synthetic biology should be clearly defined in order to ensure the utmost safety of the scientists and the public The field’s history also raises some biosecurity concerns. Although it is difficult to do so, American scientists synthesized an entire viral genome for the first time in 2002. It was the entirety of the polio virus’s genome, which brought up concerns about the misuse of synthetic biology to create biological weapons Since then, more federal regulations have been enacted to prevent such danger from happening While the field has potential to cause harm, scientists and regulators have worked to ensure everyone’s safety and bring much more beneficial results into the world.

UNLOCKING THE POWER OF GENETIC ENGINEERING: THE FUTURE OF MEDICINE AND AGRICULTURE

Author: Ayman Mohammed

Editors: Yanxi Chen and Angela Pan

Genetic engineering is a process that involves manipulating the genes of cells to produce specific traits or characteristics in an organism, often to improve certain features. Through this process, new cells and organisms can be created that possess a unique combination of traits that cannot be achieved naturally While genetic engineering has sparked controversy, it has the potential to bring numerous benefits to society, including improvements in agriculture, environmental protection, solutions to food shortages, the development of new treatments and medications, and more effective organ transplantation.

Genetic engineering is often seen as the next step in the evolution of

agricultural techniques, building upon the traditional methods of selective breeding and crossbreeding of plants and animals. While traditional breeding methods rely on natural processes to combine the genes of different organisms, genetic engineering allows scientists to directly manipulate the genes of cells to create new combinations that would not occur naturally This allows biotechnicians to create a wide range of crops and improve the qualities of plants, such as increasing resistance to drought and pests and reducing the need for fertilizers. It also allows for the development of elite livestock and the cultivation of crops in smaller areas The potential benefits of genetic engineering in agriculture include increased crop yield, improved plant qualities, and greater environmental protection.

One of the main goals of modern researchers is to find ways to increase the production of crops, animals, and plants to address global food shortages and hunger. Through genetic engineering, scientists can modify plants and animals to create ealthier food by removing allergens and improving nutritional value By providing access to healthy, chemical-free food,

Artist: Lilian Chen

Genetic engineering holds the power to save humanity or to kill it But what exactly is genetic engineering?

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genetic engineering has the potential to improve the overall health of people worldwide. In this way, genetic engineering can be seen as a new step in improving the lives of people around the globe

The use of genetic engineering and biotechnology in the medical field has often been the subject of ethical debates. However, one of the most promising benefits of these technologies is their potential for gene therapy to treat or cure genetic diseases, as well as for improving organ transplantation and human DNA. Through genetic engineering, it is possible to use necessary genes to combat certain diseases and to replace or repair damaged genes This has led to the development of effective treatments for a range of conditions, such as genetic diseases, cancer, heart disease, and autoimmune disorders. Biotech-derived pharmaceuticals, such as genetically engineered insulin and human growth hormone, are also superior to their predecessors and have the potential to address global health issues such as diabetes

In addition to their potential for treating diseases, genetic engineering, and biotechnology can also be used to improve reproductive technologies, such as in-vitro fertilization, and to diagnose or prevent genetic disorders during pregnancy. Research is also being done on the use of genetic engineering to create embryos that resemble the desired traits of their future parents Another potential benefit of these technologies is the ability to use lab-grown organs for transplantation, which could increase the availability of organs for patients in need. Finally, the possibility of

human cloning, which has already been successfully demonstrated in mammals, could bring about significant advancements in fields such as healthcare, reproductive technology, and pharmacology

Genetic engineering has the potential to improve the quality of life of people with genetic disorders Through gene therapy, scientists can correct the genetic defects that cause these disorders, potentially providing a cure or improving symptoms. For example, gene therapy has been used to treat sickle cell anemia, a genetic disorder that affects red blood cells

Overall, genetic engineering has the potential to improve many aspects of our lives, from the food we eat to the diseases we treat. While there are certainly concerns and ethical issues surrounding the use of genetic engineering, its benefits are numerous and far-reaching. As the field continues to advance, we will likely see even more exciting developments and applications in the years to come

CAN TREE RINGS PREDICT CLIMATE CHANGE?

How do tree rings work?

Before discussing the interactions between tree rings and climate change, let’s start with how tree rings work Tree rings form based on the growth of trees throughout the years Trees grow outwards, so as they do, they create a “ring” in the trunk (depicted below)

Author: Katelyn Mcphee

Editors: Emily Chen and Hwi-On Lee

Artist: Carys Chan

Mountain, California. It is said to be 5,000 years old.

Scientists have weather records that date back to 1891. But for the purpose of observing general trends in a climate, this amount of data is insufficient. However, if we can use tree rings as weather records; older trees can give us a better idea of what the climate was like hundreds of years ago

In most trees, the light rings come in the spring and summer, and the darker rings come in the fall and winter. The lighter rings tend to be much larger than the darker rings, due to increased growth in the springtime.

The important thing to note here is that the width of each ring can tell scientists a lot about what happened in the area in correspondence to the year

How have we used tree rings to tell time in the past?

The study of past climates is called paleoclimatology; this is mostly what tree rings are used for Cores drilled from Antarctic ice and sediments collected from the bottoms of lakes are also used in paleoclimatology This is the Methuselah (image depicted on right), a bristlecone pine tree in White

Through a method called “cross-dating”, we can also use older wooden objects and compare ring patterns to determine the pattern. Two famous locations that have been studied are the cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde National Park and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which are 1,000 and 1,500 years old, respectively

The use of tree rings is not new to science at the moment, the International Tree-Ring Data Bank (ITRDB) has tree ring data from over 4,600 locations on six continents

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All of this has mostly been collected using an increment borer - a device used to extract the core from a living tree, which causes no long term damage to it. A typical sample from a borer is 4mm in diameter (depicted below).

What are some problems climate scientists have run into?

First of all, this is nature. “If all other factors are held constant” is kind of a really hard premise given the number of factors that can affect tree growth.

Secondly, each species reacts differently While almost every other species will face a decrease in growth if climate change is real, oak populations are expected to increase dramatically

What does this have to do with climate change?

The growth of trees is dependent on the climate While the exact relationship may not be established yet, we know that there is one, and that a consistent climate correlates with consistent tree ring widths (if all other factors are held constant).

Don’t just take this from me take this from an established AMS journal (cited below): “Interpreting conservatively, this study discovered significant statistical relationships between tree-ring widths and seasonal climate for 853 tree populations in the continental United States ”

If we can explain and account for other factors during a time period and the tree rings aren't consistent, then tree rings can predict climate change.

A way to go further with this idea has been to figure out how rising temperatures and humidity affect each tree species by seeing if the tree ring data matches a trend that would match climate change’s projected increased warming and decreased humidity

Thirdly, the only old trees that have survived are the ones who are strong enough to survive. This is a very severe limitation, as we don’t know anything from older trees that didn’t survive the “abuses of time”, as one article puts it.

Trees don’t just predict climate change…

Climate change also affects tree growth a whole lot. Climate scientists have created two different models based on their predictions about climate change: A2 and A1B “A2 and A1B climate scenarios are projected to cause decreased growth rates at 90% and 84% of the sites, respectively” Later in the article, they predict this severe growth decrease to happen before 2050 The Lorax would definitely be disappointed.

CITATION

IMMORTALITY: ENDLESS VITALITY

Immortal Organisms: The Science of Species that Live Forever

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https://invisiverse wonderhowto com/news/tardigrades-are-earths-toughest-almost-immortal-animals-0176752/ https://www.science.org.au/curious/earth-environment/animals-can-live-forever https://medium.com/predict/how-humanity-intends-to-achieve-immortality-ff73212feef3 https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/books/article/could-humans-live-forever

How do Axolotls Regrow Amputated Limbs?

Staff, S. N. (2018, March 1). From stealing genes to regrowing limbs, how life finds a way to survive and thrive. Science. Retrieved March 5, 2023, from https://www.science.org/content/article/stealing-genesregrowing-limbs-how-life-finds-way-survive-andthrive#:~:text=In%20the%20axolotl%2C%20they've,generalist%20stem%20cells%20to%20specialize

How Does The Body Heal Itself?

“How Wounds Heal.” John Hopkins, Hopkins Medicine, 2 February 2023, https://www hopkinsmedicine org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/how-wounds-heal

“Is the Body Designed to Heal Itself” Temecula Center, TCI Medicine, 7 August 2019, Lundquist, Erik. https://www tcimedicine com/post/is-the-body-designed-to-heal-itself

“How The Body Heals Itself.” MSO, 7 October 2021, Sysoeva, Daria, https://sites uci edu/morningsignout/2021/01/07/how-the-body-heals-itself/

THE MASTER ORGAN: OUR WRINKLY BRAIN

How Genes Affect Depression

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Neurons: Our Own Electrical Wires

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“How Do Neurons Work?” Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland, 31 Aug. 2022, https://qbi uq edu au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/how-do-neurons-work

“What Is a Neuron?” Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland, 13 Aug 2019, https://qbi uq edu au/brain/brain-anatomy/what-neuron

“Action Potentials and Synapses ” Queensland Brain Institute - University of Queensland, 9 Nov 2017, https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/action-potentials-and-synapses.

Scene Perception in The Human Brain

N/A

How the Human Body Perceives Beauty

Brown, Steven. “The Neuroscience of Beauty.” Scientific American, Scientific American, 27 Sept. 2011, https://www scientificamerican com/article/the-neuroscience-of-beauty/ Lebwohl, Beth “Semir Zeki: Beauty Is in the Brain of the Beholder ” EarthSky, 2020 EARTHSKY COMMUNICATIONS INC, 15 Nov. 2022, https://earthsky.org/human-world/semir-zeki-beauty-is-in-the- brain-of-the-beholder/ Yarosh, Daniel B. “Perception and Deception: Human Beauty and the Brain.” Behavioral Sciences (Basel, Switzerland), U.S. National Library of Medicine, 29 Mar. 2019, https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC6523404/#B25-behavsci-09-00034

THE HUMAN BODY BLUEPRINT

The

Replication of Cells

https://study com/learn/lesson/g0-phase-cell-cycle-definition-overview html#:~:text=Some%20examples %20of%20cells%20that,stay%20in%20the%20G0%20phase https://medlineplus gov/genetics/understanding/howgeneswork/genesanddivision/#:~:text=If%20a%20 cell%20has%20an,that%20it%20doesn't%20need.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK6318/#:~:text=Damaged%20DNA%20can%20propagate% 20during,avoid%20segregation%20of%20defective%20chromosomes.

https://www britannica com/science/cell-cycle

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How Do Organelles Grow?

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Wallace F. Marshall. “Organelle Size Control System: From Cell Geometry to Organelle-Directed Medicine.” National Institutes of Health, 4 Jul 2012, https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC3670685/ Cohen, Sarah. Valm M. Alex, and Lippincott-Schwartz, Jennifer. “Interacting Organelles.” National Institutes of Health, 2 Jul 2018, https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC6241252/ Chan, Yee-Hung M. and Wallace F. Marshall. “How cells know the size of their organelles.” National Institues of Health, 7 Sep. 2012, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3625396/

The World of Bacteria in Our Guts

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Allergies in the Human Body

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How is Spiciness Defined and Measured in Scientific Terms?

MasterClass (2021, June 7) A guide to the scoville scale: How spicy peppers are ranked - 2023 MasterClass

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Terrific Tennis

Author Dennis Sanchez Contributor Dennis holds a B S in Exercise Science with an Emphasis in Human Performance and Sport from Metropolitan State University of Denver Before joining ACE “What Is the Kinetic Chain?” ACE, https://www acefitness org/fitness-certifications/ace-answers/exam-preparationblog/2929/what-is-the-kinetic-chain/ Team, Sportsver. “Muscles Used When Playing Tennis (the Kinetic Chain...).” Sportsver, 16 June 2021, https://www.sportsver.com/muscles-used-when-playing-tennis/.

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Research Paper: Delaying School Start Times for Sleep

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Paruthi S, Brooks LJ, D'Ambrosio C, Hall WA, Kotagal S, Lloyd RM, Malow BA, Maski K, Nichols C, Quan SF, Rosen CL, Troester MM, Wise MS Recommended amount of sleep for pediatric populations: a consensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine J Clin Sleep Med 2016;12(6):785–786

https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.5866

Richter, R (2015, October 8) Among teens, sleep deprivation an epidemic News Center Retrieved August 18, 2022, from https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2015/10/among-teens-sleep-deprivation-an-epidemic.html Turton P, Piché L, Battram D, Adolescent Attitudes and Beliefs Regarding Caffeine and the Consumption of Caffeinated Beverages Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, Volume 48, Issue 3 (March 2016) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2015.12.004

Wheaton AG, Jones SE, Cooper AC, Croft JB Short Sleep Duration Among Middle School and High School Students United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018;67:85–90. http://dx doi org/10 15585/mmwr mm6703a1

ADVANCING LIFE: BIOMEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

How is RNA Bacteriophage Being Used for Further Discoveries in Microbiology?

Callanan, J., Stockdale, S. R., Shkoporov, A., Draper, L. A., Ross, R. P., & Hill, C. (2018, July 21). RNA phage biology in a metagenomic era. Viruses. Retrieved March 5, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6071253/

Tars, K. (2020, June 30). SsRNA phages: Life cycle, structure and applications. Biocommunication of Phages. Retrieved March 5, 2023, from https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC7322243/ Poranen, M M , Mäntynen, S , & Ictv Report Consortium (2017, October) ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Cystoviridae The Journal of general virology Retrieved March 5, 2023, from https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC5725992/

RNA phage RNA Phage - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics (n d ) Retrieved March 5, 2023, from https://www sciencedirect com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/rna-phage

U S National Library of Medicine (n d ) What are genome editing and CRISPR-Cas9?: Medlineplus Genetics

MedlinePlus Retrieved March 5, 2023, from https://medlineplus gov/genetics/understanding/genomicresearch/genomeediting/ HIV and Its

Possible Cure?

https://www facebook com/WebMD “HIV Cure: Is It close to Reality?” WebMD, 2022, www webmd com/hiv-aids/howclose-to-hiv-cure

“HIV/AIDS - Diagnosis and Treatment - Mayo Clinic ” Mayoclinic org, 2022, www mayoclinic org/diseasesconditions/hiv-aids/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20373531.

Can Gene Therapy Cure Type 1 Diabetes?

https://www health harvard edu/mind-and-mood/what-causes-depression

https://medlineplus gov/genetics/condition/depression/#inheritance

https://medlineplus gov/genetics/understanding/traits/temperament/#:~:text=Scientists%20estimate%20that%2020%20to,t hat%20confer%20specific%20temperamental%20traits

A Small Look Into MRI and CT Scans

“Computed Tomography (CT) ” National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, U S Department of Health and Human Services, https://www nibib nih gov/science-education/science-topics/computed-tomography-ct

“History of Radiography ” Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography, https://www ndeed org/NDETechniques/Radiography/Introduction/history xhtml#:~:text=One%20of%20Roentgen's%20first%20experime nts,box%20to%20show%20his%20colleagues

Imaging, Catalina “History of the CT Scan: Catalina Imaging ” Mobile CT Rental - Mobile Imaging Rental And Lease, 25 July 2022, https://catalinaimaging com/history-ctscan/#:~:text=According%20to%20Hounsfield%2C%20the%20idea,as%20a%20series%20of%20slices

“Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) ” National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, U S Department of Health and Human Services, https://www nibib nih gov/science-education/science-topics/magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri NHS Choices, NHS, https://www nhs uk/conditions/xray/#:~:text=They%20can't%20be%20seen,turns%20them%20into%20an%20image

Radlib “Featured History: Magnetic Resonance Imaging ” UW Radiology, 25 Sept 2021, https://rad washington edu/blog/featured-history-magnetic-resonance-imaging/

Linkage and Gene Mapping with Molecular Markers

Molecular linkage maps Forage Information System (2015, December 30) Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://forages.oregonstate.edu/tallfescuemonograph/genomic tools/techniques/linkage maps

Nature Publishing Group (n d ) Nature news Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mapping-genes-to-chromosomes-linkage-and-genetic-377/ Kho, K H , Sukhan, Z P , Hossen, S , Cho, Y , Kim, S C , Sharker, M R , Jung, H -J , & Nou, I -S (2021, July 27)

Construction of a genetic linkage map based on SNP markers, QTL mapping and detection of candidate genes of growth- related traits in Pacific abalone using genotyping-by-sequencing Frontiers Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www frontiersin org/articles/10 3389/fmars 2021 713783/full

Synthetic Biology: Methords and Implementations

NHGRI “Synthetic Biology ” Genome gov, 13 Mar 2019, www genome gov/about-genomics/policy-issues/Synthetic-Biology National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, et al “Specific Synthetic Biology Concepts, Approaches, and ToolsBiodefense in the Age of Synthetic Biology - NCBI Bookshelf ” NIH, 19 June 2018, www ncbi nlm nih gov/books/NBK535883

Microbiology Society “Bioremediation: The Pollution Solution?” Microbe Post, 8 Dec 2015, sgmblogdotorg wpcomstaging com/2015/12/08/bioremediation-the-pollution-solution

“Beta-carotene ” Mount Sinai Health System, www mountsinai org/health-library/supplement/beta-carotene

Lim, Boon, et al “Reprogramming Synthetic Cells for Targeted Cancer Therapy ” ACS Publications, 8 Mar 2022, pubs acs org/doi/10 1021/acssynbio 1c00631

THRIVING TOGETHER: BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Unlocking the Power of Genetic Engineering: The Future of Medicine and Agriculture

N/A

Can Tree Rings Predict Climate Change

Using Tree Rings to Predict the Response of Tree Growth to Climate Change in the Continental United States during the Twenty-First Century Tree Rings Provide Snapshots of Earth’s past climate Tree Rings and Climate

How tree rings tell time and climate history

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