Spetrum Volume 9 Issue 1 Fall 2018

SPECTRUM Journal of Student Research at Saint Francis University

Volume 9 (1) Fall 2018

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SPECTRUM: Journal of Student Research at Saint Francis University Volume 9 Issue 1 Faculty Editors: Balazs Hargittai Professor of Chemistry bhargittai@francis.edu

Grant Julin Associate Professor of Philosophy gjulin@francis.edu

Student Editorial Board: Gabrielle Beck Jacob Boehme Eric Horell ’13 Jonathan Miller ’08 Madison Palmer Rebecca Peer ’14 Hannah Retherford Devon Tozer

Managing Designer: Grace McKernan

Cover: Photo by Balazs Hargittai

Allison Bivens ’12 Kayla Brennan Emily Miller Steven Mosey ‘14 Shaelyn Parry Miranda Reed William Shee ’17 Staci Wolfe

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Table of Contents Lead Extraction Analysis for Household Paint, Soil, and Water in the Local Community Mitchell E. Hogue; Paul T. Kasunic; Samantha A. Radford

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Forward Chaining and Automatic Behavior; Training a Rat to Complete an Agility Course Gabrielle M. Beck; Miranda N. Reed; Taylor M. Scoran; Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg

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The Effects of Canine Companionship on Perceived Stress in College Students Alicia M. Tiberino; Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg

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Call for papers

20

(Student authors’ names underlined.)

8TH ANNUAL SAINT FRANCIS UNIVERSITY RESEARCH DAY Thursday, November 15, 2018 12:30 – 4:00 pm JFK Student Center

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the summary of an interesting point.Analysis for Household Paint, Soil, and Lead Extraction You can position the text box Water in the Local Community anywhere in the document. Use the Drawing Tools tab to change the Mitchell E. Hogue Paul T. Kasunic formatting of Chemistry the pull quote text Department Chemistry Department School of S.T.E.A.M. School of S.T.E.A.M. box.] meh128@francis.edu ptk102@francis.edu Samantha A. Radford Chemistry Department School of S.T.E.A.M. sradford@francis.edu As populations have created and destroyed homes and industries, we have released hazardous chemicals into our environment, particularly in Pennsylvania. This release has subsequently caused several deleterious health effects on people. Most citizens do not realize that several cities in Pennsylvania, including Altoona, actually have a higher children’s lead exposure rate than that of Flint, Michigan, even during their recent water crisis.1 Lead exposure in Pennsylvania is due to multiple sources, including new and old industry, leaded paint in old homes, and the resulting contaminated soil and dust. Locals should be made aware of this problem, because lead exposure is connected to several adverse health and behavioral outcomes, especially in children. Therefore, research concerning lead concentration levels in paint, soil, and water from homes throughout Central Pennsylvania was conducted by the Saint Francis University Environmental Chemistry class. Lead paint samples were collected from eight homes and analyzed by flame atomic absorption (FAA). The maximum level of lead allowed in paint is 90 ppm according to the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Results indicated that 75% of the homes tested positive for elevated levels of lead above the 90 ppm limit. Soil samples were collected from 10 homes and were tested by FAA. The results indicated that 80% of the homes tested positive for elevated concentrations of lead—over the 50 ppm level set as “normal” by the CDC. Water samples were collected from 7 homes and tested by graphite atomic absorbance. All water samples tested had lead concentrations under the EPA limit of 15 ppb. After sampling and analysis, study results were delivered to the residents who participated in the research to inform them of lead levels in their paint, soil, and/or water samples. Participants were also informed of ways to minimize their lead exposures.

Introduction Lead, an element occurring naturally in the Earth’s crust, surrounds us from the soil we walk on to the dust in our homes. Although lead can be useful in some aspects, it is a very toxic substance. Lead is a known neurotoxin, or a chemical or substance that negatively effects the nervous system. No amount of lead exposure is considered safe.

When lead enters our body it does not simply leave. Our blood, bones, and tissues absorb this lead and keep it within our system. This is a problem due

to the fact that when we age, our bones release lead from demineralization and cause a second exposure.

There are many very harmful side effects to lead exposure. Some effects of short term lead exposure consist of abdominal pain, constipation, fatigue, headaches, irritability, loss of appetite, and memory loss. Children, adults, and unborn children can directly be affected by lead poisoning.

Although adults can be affected by lead poisoning, children are at a greater risk. Lead has a greater impact when absorbed by children. A child

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is still growing and developing, which is why they absorb more lead than adults. The brain and nervous system of a child are more sensitive to the damages that lead poisoning can cause.

In 2014-2015, Flint, Michigan received attention after a switch to a different water source and treatment system. Because of poor management and refusal of officials to admit to problems existing with the water treatment, several people were exposed to extremely high levels of lead. Since then, lead poisoning has been an issue focused on by the public. What many people do not realize is that Altoona, Pennsylvania has a higher lead exposure rate than that of Flint during this crisis, largely due to older housing and to industry contributing to lead exposure.1 Therefore, we chose to sample soil, water, and paint in the Central Pennsylvania region (Figure 1). The houses of interest were buildings that were constructed before the 1978 lead-based paint ban. Water, soil, and paint samples were collected from participants’ houses, and the actual lead concentration in each of the samples was found using the atomic flame and graphite furnace atomic absorbance.

5 collections.2 In addition, the US EPA method for tap water collection was used. The water samples were taken from the taps after sitting overnight in the pipes. All of the samples were digested in a CEM Mars 6 Microwave using the US EPA 3015a method. The paint and soil samples were analyzed using a Thermo S4 Flame Atomic Absorption System. The method was set up with a primary wavelength of 217.0 nm and a bandpass of 0.5 nm.

The flame that was used was air and acetylene with fuel flow rate of 0.9 to 1.2L/min. The water samples were analyzed using the Thermo iCE3300 Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption System with an autosampler. During experimentation, the ash temperature was 800°C and the atomise temperature was 1200°C. The cuvettes that were used during the study were electrographite cuvettes.

Results R2

LOD

blank

RSD of samples

precision of duplicates

% recovery of spike

paint

0.9925

3.85 µg/g

under LOD

11%

1.47%

not calculated

soil

0.9959

7.38 µg/g

under LOD

3.3%

not performed

not calculated

water

0.9987

0.788 ng/g

under LOD

8.80%

both <LOD, not performed

113%

Table 1. Summary statistics for data quality.

Figure 1. Map of area where lead analysis was performed (*Loretto marks Saint Francis University)

Methods The samples for the study were collected from participants and participating groups at a local daycare and from the SFU campus community by sending flyers and consent forms to parents and employees/faculty. When collecting and taking the samples, the US EPA’s “Paint chip sample collection guide” method was used for paint chip sample collection. The HUD appendix 13.3 protocols for soil collection were used in several

Lead (µg/g)

200 150 100 50 0

Figure 2. Concentration of lead in paint samples in µg/g.

Samples greater than 200 µg/g are not quantified.

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Lead (µg/g)

400 300 200 100 0

Figure 3. Lead concentrations in soil in µg/g. Concentrations from 10-50 µg/g lead in soil are considered “normal” by the CDC. Levels above 400 µg/g are above the action limit set by the EPA for soil in play areas.

Lead (ng/mL)

20 15 10 5

0

Figure 4. Tap water lead concentrations in ng/mL. The EPA action limit for lead in water is 15 ng/mL.

Discussion Overall, extraction and analytical methods performed well. Coefficients of determination (R2) of all calibration curves were greater than 0.992. All blank samples were under calculated limits of detection (LODs), and duplicates and fortified samples for quality control, when utilized, indicated acceptable accuracy and precision. All LODs were below levels of concern for lead health hazards, indicating that methods used were sensitive enough.

All samples were analyzed on the AA in triplicate, and RSDs were generally under 15%, also indicating acceptable precisions.

Paint samples were obtained from towns surrounding SFU and were tested by flame AA. Figure 2 indicates that 53% of samples had higher than the maximum level of lead permitted in paint, which is 90 µg/g as of 2009. The upper limit of lead in the graph is capped at 200 µg/g as paint samples

6 above this level were drastically over the top concentration of the calibration curve; however, time did not permit dilution and retesting of samples for more accurate results. Acceptable precision was also confirmed by duplicate samples which were within 1.47% of each other. While this is a standard method recommended by the US EPA, accuracy of the method could not be confirmed.

The concentration of lead in digestate from our positive control was above the calibration curve and time constraints did not allow for dilution and re-running of the sample.

Nineteen soil samples were analyzed using flame AA. Of these samples, 74% were above the normal levels (10-50 µg/g) recommended by the CDC.3 While fortified samples were run for the soil samples, they resulted in absorbances less than zero.

These fortified samples occurred at the end of a run, and it is likely that the instrument had begun malfunctioning. Unfortunately, there was not time to re-run samples or spikes to confirm whether the problem was with the instrument or the samples.

Because the action limit for water is 15 ng/mL, the more sensitive graphite AA was used for water samples instead of flame analysis. The tap water samples were analyzed for lead by using the graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometer. Figure 4 shows the concentrations of lead calculated in tap water samples from eight different samples that were collected in various nearby regions. Quality control samples were spiked to a concentration of 10 ng/mL and gave a recovery of 113%. Since the EPA considers spiked recoveries between 80-120% valid, this shows the method has acceptable recovery.

Results from the graphite furnace show that lead sampling from Summerhill had the highest recorded lead concentration in tap water, with a calculated level of 4.03 ng/g. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that the highest concentration of lead is limited at 15 ppb; the levels of lead in Summerhill, and therefore all tested regions, are substantially below the limit established by the EPA.4 While there were some issues with accuracy and precision due to time limitations and QC sample omissions, analyses were still sufficient to inform

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participants whether they should have concerns over lead in their home. For example, while we could not quantify paint samples with concentrations over 200 µg/g, such high concentrations are still enough to elicit a response from home owners. While our study resulted in several homes testing positive for lead, it should be recalled that participants were selfselected and likely knew they lived in homes built before 1978, the year lead was banned from paint.

This group is not meant to be representative of the entire population of the area.

Any houses with levels of lead over 90 µg/g should have actions performed minimize lead exposure, such as professional removal of lead or repainting over surfaces to seal in old paint. Homes of children or pets are of particular concern since lead exposure has more detrimental and long-lasting effects on children than adults.5 If lead is found in soil the most likely route of exposure is ingestion, whether through consumption of produce from home gardens or from children having their hands in their mouths after playing outside.6 Therefore, it is suggested that leadcontaminated soil in high-traffic areas or gardens be covered to a depth of at least 6 inches with lead-free soil. Raised gardens are also recommended in these areas.

Conclusion The eight collected water samples all had a concentration of lead that was below the EPA action level of 15ppb. Out of the nineteen soil samples tested for lead, fourteen of them were above the standard concentration of lead in soil. Adverse health effects can be mitigated by preventing children to play in the dirt or ingest it. Additionally, gardens should be planted away from houses with elevated levels of lead. This precaution reduces the chance of lead contamination from the house spreading to produce. Most of the paint samples had lead concentrations that were above the maximum level permitted in paint. This is a concern since children are at a risk for exposure which can result

7 in severe detrimental health effects. Overall, the main concerns for areas surrounding Saint Francis University are paint and soil. Many of the houses in the surrounding areas were built decades ago which is why lead in paint is such a prevalent issue.

Works Cited (1) Report: 18 Cities In Pennsylvania, Including Pittsburgh, Have Higher Lead Exposure Than Flint http://pittsburgh.cbslocal.com/2016/02/04/report-18-cities-inpennsylvania-with-higher-lead-exposure-than-flint/ (accessed

Oct. 30, 2017).

(2) Lead in Residential Soils: Sources, Testing, and Reducing Exposure (Crops and Soils) http://extension.psu.edu/plants/crops/esi/lead-in-soil (accessed Oct. 30, 2017).

(3) Zimdahl, R.; Skogerboe, R. Behavior of lead in soil (accessed Oct. 30, 2017).

(4) Hazard Standards for Lead in Paint, Dust and Soil (TSCA Section 403) | US EPA https://www.epa.gov/lead/hazard-standards-lead-paint-dust-andsoil-tsca-section-403 (accessed Oct. 30, 2017).

(5) “Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children: Chapter 2.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 Oct. 1991, www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/publications/books/plpyc/chapter2.htm.

(6) “Lead Poisoning - Topic Overview.” WebMD, WebMD, www.webmd.com/children/tc/lead-poisoning-topic-overview#1.

Mitchell Hogue ('19) is a chemistry major with minors in Medical Spanish, Philosophy, and Ethics.

He has been a Resident Assistant for two years, is involved in Greek Life, where he is the President of his Fraternity, and is also the Chemistry Club secretary. After graduation, Mitchell plans to attend dental school.

Paul Kasunic ('19) is a Chemistry major with a PreMedicine concentration. He is the president of the Chemistry Club, has served as the Student Director of the R.O.C.K. program, and has been a Resident Assistant. Following graduation Paul plans to attend an osteopathic medical school to pursue sports medicine.

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Forward Chaining and Automatic Behavior; Training a Rat to Complete an Agility Course [Research conducted for PSYC 303 (Learning)] Gabrielle M. Beck Literature & Languages Department School of S.T.E.A.M. gmb113@francis.edu

Miranda N. Reed Psychology Department School of Health Sciences and Education mnr100@francis.edu

Taylor M. Scoran Psychology Department School of Health Sciences and Education tms128@francis.edu

Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg, Ph.D. Psychology Department School of Health Sciences and Education sfgrinberg@francis.edu

The field of psychology explores many different aspects including development, cognition, emotion, and behavior. Within the field of psychology, the field of learning psychology represents a subset of knowledge, focusing on questions such as how people or animals acquire new skills or knowledge. In learning psychology research, rats are often used to examine the application of learning principles in species other than humans. This particular study aimed to evaluate the ability of a rat to learn to navigate an obstacle course through forward chaining and determine if the rat could become faster at completing the course through the acquisition of automatic behavior. The methods used included habituation of the rat to the experimental environment and obstacles within the course, successive approximation and operant conditioning in teaching the individual obstacles, and forward chaining to link the obstacles together. The quantitative analysis of the acquired behavior included measuring the time it took the rat to complete each individual obstacle as well as the time it took to complete obstacles when they were chained together. The results showed that a rat is able to learn to navigate an obstacle course and increase speed through automatic behavior. The reduction of the time required to complete the course throughout the trials demonstrated the efficiency of learning methodologies in training various species for the performance of complex, chained and automatic behaviors.

A topic that is largely studied in the field of psychology is learning. One of the most influential theoreticians in this field is BF Skinner, who is known as the father of operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning addresses the idea that behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated, while behavior that is not reinforced tends to die out or be weakened. Skinner studied operant conditioning in animals using an operant chamber known as a Skinner box. He demonstrated that positive reinforcement worked by placing a rat into a box with a lever. Once the rat pressed the lever, food was dispensed into the box, and the rat quickly learned to connect the positive reinforcement of

food to the act of lever-pressing (McLeod, 2007). It was later demonstrated that the behavior that animals learn to perform can also be put under stimulus control, so that the organism performs the behavior only in response to a cue. When the cue is given or the stimulus is present, the organism performs the behavior to receive the reinforcement (Pryor, 2010).

Animals are also capable of developing skills which lead to automatic behavior. Because there is limited attention available for information processing in humans and other animals, tasks can be performed more efficiently when they become automatic. Whenever a skill is performed without

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any attention required, it is considered to be an automatic behavior. Automatic behaviors occur on a spectrum—most tasks involve some amount of attention, even if it may be exceedingly small, but some tasks can become more automatic than others.

In fact, most skills are capable of becoming more automatic after practice. In the early stages of learning, the behavior requires significant attention to actively integrate the components of the skill.

However, the attention required for the performance of the behavior becomes less intense with practice.

This effect occurs because the subroutines have been stored in larger memory units or chunks. For example, this occurs when teaching a canine to compete in the sport of agility. Much practice allows the behaviors required to complete the agility course to become automatic, and the canine can complete the course without focusing greatly on the obstacles (Helton, 2007a).

By combining the concepts of operant conditioning and automatic behavior, a new question arises. Can a rat be taught to run an obstacle course using forward chaining (teaching obstacles separately, then combining them in the order in which they are going to be performed) and operant conditioning and then increase its running speed by acquiring automatic behavior through repetition of the behavior? This study was designed to determine whether new behaviors can be shaped by operant conditioning and then become automatic behaviors for a rat through repetition. Previous research was done on this topic in reference to agility dogs (Helton, 2007a), but little data exists on this behavior in rats. Based on the ability of the agility dogs to acquire automatic behavior (Helton, 2007a) and Skinner’s success in using operant conditioning in rats (Pryor, 2010), it is hypothesized that a rat will be able to learn to negotiate the obstacle course and will demonstrate an ability to negotiate an increasingly difficult course through the acquisition of automatic behaviors.

Methods Subjects. The rat used in this study was a male from the Rattus Rattus species. He was approximately 9 weeks old when the study began.

9 He had a white coat with black spots on his back, along with scraggly whiskers.

Apparatus. During this experiment we created an obstacle course that consisted of a hurdle, hoop and a tunnel. The hurdle was made from popsicle sticks and placed inside the box. The hurdle was 2 inches in width and 1 inch tall. The hoop that was used was 6 inches in diameter and was raised to 2 inches from the base of the box. Finally, a piece of piping was used to create a tunnel large enough for the rat to maneuver through. The piece of piping was 6 inches long and had a diameter of 4 inches. The obstacles were placed in a box with a divider in the middle with openings on each end, to create a loop.

The box was 16 inches wide, 35 inches long, and 16 inches high. One set of the three obstacles was set up on either side of the divider. A “set” refers to a hoop, tunnel, and hurdle. One full loop around the box included two sets of the obstacles.

Procedure. For this experiment we used operant conditioning to train a rat to go through a hoop, climb through a tunnel, and jump over a hurdle, in this order. First, we used operant conditioning to train a rat to go through the hoop. In order to train the rat to go through the hoop, we used food and a clicker as reinforcement. Successive approximation was used in order to get the rat to go through the hoop, meaning that each time the rat got closer to going through the hoop he was reinforced. For example, if he placed his head through the hoop we would click and reinforce the behavior. The next time, he would have to place some of his body through the hoop before we reinforced the behavior.

We then used this same successive approximation technique to train the rat to go over the hurdle and through the tunnel individually.

To create an obstacle course, we then had to chain the three obstacles together using forward chaining. First, the rat went through the hoop, but no reinforcement was given until he advanced toward the tunnel. After he reached the tunnel, reinforcement was provided. Next, after the rat successfully went through the hoop and tunnel, we added the hurdle. As before, the rat was only reinforced after he went through the hoop, through the tunnel, and made advancement toward hurdle. In

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the end, the rat was able to go through the hoop, through the tunnel, and over the hurdle with reinforcement only after the whole series had been completed. Once this sequence was achieved, the same three obstacles were repeated to make the course longer. Once the rat was able to complete three full sets of the course, a free operant method was used to allow the rat to practice the course. On three separate days over the course of one week, the rat was allowed to run the course repeatedly for 30 minutes. He was reinforced on a variable ratio 2 (VR2) schedule for running the course, with reinforcement provided after 1, 2, or 3 sets. After a week, five timed trials of two sets were completed to determine if the ratâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s speed had increased with practice, which would indicate the acquisition of automatic behavior.

Data Analysis. In order to demonstrate learning, numerical data was collected. While the obstacles were being chained together, learning was evaluated by recording the time it took to perform the obstacles. A decrease in the amount of time taken to perform the behavior indicated that learned had occurred. The time was recorded over 5 trials of each of the following chained behaviors: hoop and tunnel; hoop, tunnel, hurdle; and hoop, tunnel, hurdle, around corner.

To measure the acquisition of automatic behavior, the time it took the rat to run through the first series of three obstacles, which we called the first â&#x20AC;&#x153;set,â&#x20AC;? was recorded across 5 trials. A second set of the same three obstacles was added, and the time was then again recorded across 5 trials. This process was repeated with a third set of obstacles. The times for each trial were then plotted to demonstrate a trend in the trials and determine if the process of learning to run through the longer course occurred faster as the rat repeated the same three obstacles. The five trials were then repeated after one week of training to determine if the speed increased as the behavior became automatic.

Results Our hypothesis was that our rat would have shown automatic behavior as we added obstacles after he was already familiar with them. We

10 expected that the slope of the graphs showing the time to complete each trial would become steeper, showing faster learning, as our rat repeated the familiar obstacles.

This trend was indeed demonstrated as we used forward chaining to chain the obstacles together. Additionally, the trend continued when the rat learned to complete the first whole set of obstacles and even into the training of the second set. Surprisingly, it was found that during the third whole set of obstacles his behavior became erratic and did not follow a specific trend.

Table 1 shows the raw data for the process of teaching our rat about the obstacles and chaining them together. It can be observed that across the five trials for each series of obstacles, the time it took for the rat to negotiate the indicated obstacles generally decreased. Overall, Table 1 provides a comparison of the data of the five trials completed for each individual set of obstacles throughout the training process. Table 2 shows the times of five trials of two sets after one week of training. See the following video of the rat completing the course: (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KF1uDdEiG4M).

Figure 1 shows trends in the data during the response shaping part of the research. The trends show that generally, as the rat became more familiar with the obstacles, the slope of the line became steeper, indicating faster learning. However, certain series of obstacles contradicted this trend. It was observed that during these trials, the rat became frustrated or confused by a particular obstacle.

Figure 2 shows the trend in the data as the number of sets of the obstacle course that the rat was asked to complete was increased. The trends show that when the repetitions were increased from one to two, the slope increased, showing faster learning.

However, the trend line for three full repetitions did not follow this trend, and it was observed that the rat became frustrated and confused during these trials.

Discussion In this study, our rat demonstrated the ability to learn a series of new behaviors through forward chaining, as well as the ability to demonstrate automatic behavior, and become faster at completing an obstacle course after several practice

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sessions. The rat quickly learned to negotiate a series of obstacles through forward chaining. He was taught to complete each individual obstacle, and then the obstacles were chained together until he was able to run the full course of three obstacles three consecutive times. A general decreasing trend can be seen in the time it took the rat to negotiate the obstacles across several trials, indicating that learning occurred and that the actions required to complete the obstacles became more automatic for the rat. This showed that the rat was able to learn through forward chaining and improve his performance based on automatic behavior.

Time in Seconds 1 set

1

17.69

3.06

31.38

17.22

2

14.47

2.28

27.90

23.37

3

2.38

2.12

12.16

13.72

4

9.31

2.50

12.59

25.10

5

1.91

1.93

8.28

16.94

2 sets

3 sets

Response Shaping Trials

Time (s)

20 y = -3.672x + 20.168

10 y = 0.78x + 1.1

5

y = -0.204x + 2.99

0 1

2

3 5.54 4 6.21 5 7.24 Table 2. 2 Sets After One Week of Training Course Trials 40 30 y = 0.117x + 18.919

20

y = -6.151x + 36.915

10

y = 0.78x + 1.1

1

2

3

4

5

Trial Number

Table 1. Chaining of Obstacles for 3 Sets

15

Time (s) 5.23 4.57

0

Hoop &Tunnel

Trail

Trial Number 1 2

Time (s)

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4

5

Trial Number

Figure 1. This figure shows the trend in the time taken to complete the obstacles for each trial. The blue trend line represents the “Hoop and Tunnel” trials, the orange trend line represents the “Hoop, Tunnel, and Hurdle” trials, and the grey trend line represents the “Hoop, Tunnel, Hurdle, and Corner” trials.

Figure 2. This figure shows the trend in the time taken to complete one, two, or three sets of the obstacle course. The blue trend line represents one full run through the course, and orange trend line represents two full sets of the course, and the grey trend line represents three full sets of the course.

However, when the rat was required to run through three cycles of the obstacle course, he became confused and frustrated. This effect likely occurred because the course was set on a loop, with two sets of the three obstacle course available. To run the course three times, the rat had to run the first set twice - essentially running the first set, then the second set, then the first set again. This arrangement made it difficult to mark the exact behavior that was desired, as the rat would continue to run the course a fourth time or attempt to reverse the course after the second set to avoid repeating the first obstacles.

To prevent our rat from becoming frustrated and stressed, a food bowl was placed at the end of each three obstacle set, and reinforcement was provided on a variable ratio (VR 2) schedule during all subsequent training, so that the rat could anticipate the potential for reinforcement after each set of three obstacles.

After the rat demonstrated the ability to complete the course, the rat was allowed to run the course repeatedly on a loop for 20-30 minutes at a

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time, three times over the course of one week. During this time, the behavior of running the course was again reinforced on a variable ratio (VR 2) schedule. After this training time, the ratâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance over five trials of completing two sets of the three obstacles was measured. Initially, our procedure indicated that this final trial would be completed using three full sets of the obstacles.

However, due to the confusion and frustration that completing three sets caused for our rat, two sets were used for these trials to avoid stressing the rat.

The rate at which the rat was able to complete the course was consistent over the 5 trials. Figure 3 shows that the time it took the rat to run through the course significantly decreased compared to the time it took during the initial training. This showed that through practice, our rat improved his performance and was able to complete the obstacle course faster due to automatic behavior. Additionally, the use of a VR 2 reinforcement schedule may have increased the rate at which the rat completed the course, because each cycle of three obstacles provided an opportunity for reinforcement. Ultimately, our hypothesis that our rat would be able to learn to complete an obstacle course through the process of forward chaining and then demonstrate automatic behavior by running the course faster with practice was confirmed by our results.

From our observations, it is clear that it is possible for a rat to complete an obstacle course consisting of three objects. Due to these findings, it would be interesting to direct this topic to see whether there is a limited number of times that a rat will continue completing a series of the three obstacles, or if the rat will keep going through the course as long as it receives a reinforcement. Future research could also investigate how many different obstacles could be added to the course, as well.

Another interesting topic for potential future research would be to limit the number of times the rat could complete the three object obstacle course to one or two times in a straight line or back and forth rather than a continuous loop to see if the rat would complete the course faster. Due to the fact that our course was set up in a continuous loop, it seemed like our rat began to get tired and slowed

12 down after each completion. Additionally, although we only timed how long it took our rat to complete three runs through the course, we didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have anything to stop him from continuing to run around.

Adding some kind of barrier to indicate when the desired number of trials had been completed could have helped to prevent the frustration experienced by our rat when we asked him to run three sets and then stop.

We can relate our findings from this study to other similar research that has been conducted in the field of learning. One component of learning that we used during this study was forward chaining. One previous study looked into the effectiveness of forward chaining when teaching new skills. In the study, the investigators compared forward chaining techniques (practicing one part alone before gradually introducing the second, but always performing the tasks learned prior to the gradual introduction of a new task) to whole task training (having to learn all aspects of the skill at once) and part-task training (learning parts one at a time and then having to put them all together at the end). This particular study was conducted in humans and therefore differs in the subjects used. However, it does explain the effectiveness of using forward chaining. When compared to the whole-task training and part-task training, those who used forward chaining reduced the amount of hands-on training by 46%, which means that they learned the task in almost half the time it took the other groups. This study also showed that when using forward chaining, participants were better able to transfer the individual tasks to the combined set better than those who were part of the whole task group who repeatedly practiced the whole task each trial. This means that with forward chaining, organisms are better able to accurately complete the task with minimal mistakes (Peck et al, 2000). This study suggests that by using forward chaining in our study we used the most effective mechanism to train a rat to run an obstacle course.

Another relevant study that was conducted looked at canines and agility courses. The study focused on whether it is genetics or learning that factors into the skill a dog demonstrates on an agility

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course. The researchers found that when a dog had a high amount of practice hours (number of hours spent practicing the agility course) they performed the course at a faster rate than dogs who had a low number of practice hours. In addition, this study showed that while genetics play a small role in the performance of dogs, learning is a more plausible explanation for why they improve after deliberate practice (Helton, 2007b). The findings in this study indicate that the more you perform a specific task the faster the task should be performed, which is in line with the results of our study. In our results we see that in most cases the time it took our rat to complete the obstacle course decreased with each trial.

Additionally, after a week of training, the time it took the rat to complete the course decreased significantly. It can be concluded that as he continued to practice the task presented before him, he learned what exactly he was supposed to do and in turn became faster at completing the task.

This research could have important applications in learning psychology and the field of psychology as a whole. With further research on forward chaining and automatic behavior, methods of teaching important life skills to children and special needs people could be improved. For example, one study on forward chaining in children with autism showed that forward chaining could be successfully used to teach an autistic child to serve himself a snack without the assistance of his parents (Shrestha, Anderson, & Moore, 2012). Our research project showed that with practice, the completion of a task learned by forward chaining can become faster and more efficient through automatic behavior. For an autistic child learning important life skills, this information could be applied to help the child become more efficient at completing tasks and better able to function in their daily lives.

Further research into this subject area could lead to a better understanding of forward chaining and automatic behavior, which could lead to the development of more efficient methods of teaching life skills to those in need of assistance.

13 Works Cited Helton, W. S. (2007a). Deliberate Practice in Dogs: A Canine Model of Expertise. The Journal of General Psychology, 134(2), 247-57.

Helton, W. S. (2007b). Skill in Expert Dogs. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 13(3), 171-178.

McLeod, S. A. (2007). BF Skinner: Operant conditioning.

Retrieved September 9, 2009.

Pryor, K. (2010). Reaching the animal mind: clicker training and what it teaches us about all animals. New York, NY: Scribner.

Peck, A. C., & Detweiler, M. C. (2000). Training Concurrent Multistep Procedural Tasks. Human Factors, 42(3), 379.

Shrestha, A., Anderson, A., & Moore, D. W. (2012, October 11). Using Point-Of-View Video Modeling and Forward Chaining to Teach a Functional SelfHelp Skill to a Child with Autism.

Gabrielle Beck (’19) is a Spanish major with a minor in Psychology and a Pre-Medical concentration. She is a member of the honors program and is involved with Habitat for Humanity and the Psychology Club. After graduation, she will be attending Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine for medical school.

Miranda Reed ('19) is a Psychology major with a minor in Neuroscience. She is a member of the Cheerleading team. After graduation she plans on attending graduate school to receive her Ph.D. in Neuropsychology and to someday implement her knowledge and practice at a Children's Hospital.

Taylor Scoran (’18 B.A. Psychology) earned her Bachelor’s Degree with a minor in Social Work. She is a member of Theta Phi Alpha Fraternity and was also a member of the University Bands where she was a majorette. She is also a proud member of Phi Eta Sigma Honor Society and the School of Arts and Letters Honor Society. Upon graduation, Taylor made the decision to further her education at Mount Aloysius College in order to pursue her license in Counseling.

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14

The Effects of Canine Companionship on Perceived Stress in College Students Alicia M. Tiberino Psychology Department School of Health Sciences and Education amt116@francis.edu

Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg, Ph.D. Psychology Department School of Health Sciences and Education sfgrinberg@francis.edu

The field of Psychology explores all aspects of human behavior and development. One fundamental interest of the field is the study of the effects of stress on mental health. Given that many stress disorders begin to emerge in the early twenties, and the high rates of medications prescribed today for stress and anxiety disorder, the current study was designed to assess the effects of a unique intervention strategy, canine companionship, on perceived stress in college students. In order to create a tentative perception of stress, sixteen freshman female college students at Saint Francis University were requested to complete a to-do list of all the urgent assignments that they were required to complete in the near future. They were than randomly divided into two groups which either interacted with a canine for five minutes (experimental group) or were left undisturbed for the same amount of time (control group). The evaluation of perceived stress in both groups after completing the list was compared to stress levels after the experimental manipulation. Results demonstrated that although stress levels decreased due to the passage of time in the control group, the interaction with a canine led to a stronger reduction in stress levels, accompanied by a positive mood. The data suggest that in college freshman students, a group marked by high levels of stress, the presence of canines can be utilized as a mean to improve emotional well-being and academic functioning.

Introduction Between 25%-50% of college students meet the criteria for at least one mental health disorder each year. Data suggest that mental disorders are associated with a range of negative consequences, including lowered academic performance and college attrition. Although effective treatments are currently available, it is estimated that only 1 out of 5 students diagnosed with mental disorders receives adequate treatment (Harrer et al., 2018; Mohr et al., 2014). Given the deleterious effects of chronic stress on health, and its contribution to the development of mental illness (Staufenbiel et al., 2013), the study of the effects of stress on human performance and the search of various novel interventions for stress-related psychological conditions are currently expanding [e.g., (Janssen et al., 2018)].

One of the promising avenues for the attenuation of stress effects on psychological functioning is the use of animal companionship.

The ‘Human-Animal Bond’ is defined as “a

mutually beneficial relationship between people and animals” (“Human-Animal Bond,” n.d.). While this bond spans the physiological, psychological and behavioral well-being of both species, the positive effects of canine interaction on human behavior has been well documented in various populations. For instance, in military personnel diagnosed with PTSD, the presence of a service dog was associated with lower anxiety, anger, sleep disturbance and alcohol abuse, compared to individuals on the waiting list (Rodriguez et al., 2018). In the same population, canine interactions were found to increase assertiveness, improve stress management, communications, morale and emotional regulation (Krause-Parello et al., 2016; Owen et al., 2016). In psychiatric patients undergoing fear-inducing therapeutic procedures animal-assisted therapy was found to decrease fear and anxiety (Barker et al., 2003), and in individuals with physical disabilities animal-assisted therapy was found to increase selfefficacy and self-confidence [(Farias-Tomaszewski et al., n.d.), for review see (Chandler, 2017)]. In the

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general population, pet owners were found to demonstrate significantly lower heart rate and blood pressure at baseline, as well as a smaller increase and faster recovery following stress exposure (Allen et al., 2002). The same population also demonstrated improved response to blood pressure-targeted medical therapy (Allen et al., 2001), and the presence of pet dogs was found to improve preadolescents' emotional responses to social stress (Kerns et al., 2018).

A literature search indicates that thus far, a very small number of studies assessed the effects of canines on the mood, stress and anxiety parameters of college students, a population that is susceptible to the harmful effects of chronic stress (Mohr et al., 2014). Specifically, Folse (1994) demonstrated that animal-assisted therapy positively influenced selfreported depression scores in college undergraduates, and Picard (2015) assessed whether the interaction of first-year college students with a canine would have a positive effect on mood and anxiety parameters. Participants completed the ‘Positive and Negative Affect Form’ and the ‘StateTrait Anxiety Inventory’ before and after spending five minutes with a canine (experimental group) or watching an informational video that included canines (control group). Results indicated that those who directly interacted with a canine reported an increase in positive mood, while those who watched video did not. However, all participants, regardless of condition, experienced a decline in negative mood and anxiety over time (Picard, n.d.). In light of the relative lack of knowledge in regard to the effect of animal assisted interventions in college students, the currents study was designed to explore the effects of canine-interactions on perceived stress in freshman college students. A “stress-provoking” procedure was utilized, requiring the participants to make a “to-do list” of all the urgent assignments that they were required to complete in the near future. It was hypothesized that the completion of the list will create a tentative perception of stress, which will decrease with the passage of time, but will be substantially influenced by the presence of a canine.

In addition, it was also hypothesized that in comparison to subjects who were not exposed to a

15 canine, subjects who were exposed to a canine will experience an improvement of mood parameters.

Methods Participants. Sixteen female freshman students from Saint Francis University (SFU) volunteered to participate in the study. Subjects age ranged between 18 and 20, and place of birth ranged across different areas of the USA (with the exception of two; one student was from Slovenia and one from Haiti). The canine that was utilized as the experimental manipulation was a 3.5 years old male Beagle mix named Tobie, previously fostered from the Central PA Humane Society at Altoona, PA, and trained for obedience and agility by the SFU “Canine Learning & Behavior” class (spring 2017).

The canine was of medium-small size, with white tan and black coloring, friendly manners and gentle attitude towards people.

Instruments. Student’s surveys were structured to include two parts. Part 1 collected anonymous demographic data (age, year in college, and place of origin), and contained the request to “make a to-do list of all the things you need to get done in the next week”, in order to create a tentative perception of stress. Part 2 of the survey included two questions which answers were structured into a 7-point Likert Scale to assess: 1) “How did you feel right after making the list?”, 2) “How did you feel right meeting Tobie (experimental group) / after sitting in the room for a few minutes (control group)?”. The answers to these questions were defined as 1 (“Relaxed”), 4 (“Bored/ Neutral”), and 7 (“Stressed”). All participants were requested to

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provide qualitative answer to the question “Why do you feel this way?”, and indicate “What do you do when you are stressed out?” (Options; watch TV, exercise, go for a drive, take a nap, play with animals, hang out with friends, call someone, or other). The surveys for the participants who were exposed to a canine also included the question: “On a Scale of 1-7, how much do you like dogs?”, which aimed to assess the possibility that an individual who is afraid of canines/dislikes canines was assigned into the experimental group.

Procedures. Subjects were randomly allocated into the experimental (exposure to a canine, n=8) and control (no exposure to a canine, n=8) groups.

The experiment took place on campus, in a small room that enable interaction with a canine, on predesignated dates and times. Due to canine availability constrains, the data was collected for the 1st set of 8 students during the 5/6th week of the semester, and for the 2nd set of 8 students during the 9/10th week of the semester. On the day of the experiment, participants entered the experimental room and were asked to complete part 1 of the survey. Then, based on group allocation, the experimental group interacted with a canine for five minutes, and the control group was asked to wait for the experimenter’s return (for an equivalent amount of time). This manipulation was followed by the request to complete part 2 of the survey. Each subject completed the experiment separately from other subjects, and the time slots for students’ participation in the experiment were spaced apart, so individuals do not notice and/or anticipate the presence of a canine. The canine itself was rewarded with treats, petting and hugging for it gentle, friendly behavior towards the participants. All participants signed an informed consent, and all researchers received appropriate training. All procedures were approved by the SFU Institutional review board (IRB) and by the SFU Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC, Protocol # 00017).

Data Analysis. Statistical analysis evaluated the difference between students’ perceived stress measurements before and after the experimental manipulation in both the experimental and control group (Two-way ANOVA analyzed with GraphPad

16 Prism7). Significant effects were evaluated using post-hoc analysis, and significance was determined at p<0.05. T-test comparisons were used to assess possible differences between subjects’ performance on weeks 5/6th of the semester and weeks 9/10th of the semester, as well as possible differences between the number of items on both groups’ to-do lists.

Descriptive statistics evaluated the distribution of answers to the question “What activities do you engage in to reduce feelings of stress?”, and qualitative data analysis evaluated responses to the question “Why do you think you feel this way?”.

The responses of students in the experimental group (canine exposure) to the question “On a Scale of 17, how much do you like dogs?” (1 = “Not at all”, 7 = “Very much”) were assessed, to evaluate the possibility that an individual who is afraid of canines/dislikes canines was exposed to a canine.

Results The results demonstrated that the completion of a to-do-list generated a tentative perception of stress in all participants, while in comparison to the control group, participants who were exposed to a canine experienced a stronger alleviation of perceived stress and an improvement of mood parameters. As demonstrated in Figure 1, while the participants’ perceived stress after the completion of the list and before the manipulation (exposure/no exposure to a canine) was noticeable and comparable in both the experimental (canine exposure, M=5.5, SD=1.41) and control groups (no canine exposure, M=5, SD=1.19), the experimental manipulation produced a stronger reduction in perceived stress in the experimental group (canine exposure, M=2.25, SD=1.16) compared to the control group (no canine exposure M=3.75, SD=1.28). Two-Way ANOVA demonstrated that the effect of the manipulation (canine exposure/no canine exposure) was significant [F(1,28)=25.5, p<0.0001], as well as the time of data collection (after the completion of the to-do list/after exposure or no exposure to a canine) [F(1,28)=4.978, P<0.05]. Tukey’s multiple comparisons post-hoc test indicated that the differences between stress levels after the completion of the list and after the experimental

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manipulation were only significant in the group which was exposed to a canine (p<0.0001), but not in the control group (p=0.22), suggesting that the exposure to a canine effectively reduced perceived stress levels, while a milder, insignificant effect can be attributed simply to the passage of time.

17 with friends (N=6) when stressed. A few exercise (N=5), watch TV (n=4), or play with animals (N=4), and almost none choose to go for a drive (N=1) when stressed.

Experimental (Canine Exposure) Group Pets are always happy, so they try to cheer you up and make sure you are in good mood The dog made me extremely happy and excited, I forgot about all the work I had to do Tobie made me feel happy and distracted from the world I love dogs and they usually help me relieve my stress Because he (Tobie) was very kind and I love animals in general

Figure 1. Perceived stress levels in the experimental (canine exposure) and control (no canine exposure) groups after completing the stress-provoking to-do list, and after the manipulation which included exposure to a canine (canine), or a period of waiting for the experimenter’s return (control). *p<0.05.

In addition, the interaction with a canine seemed to positively influence subjects’ mood, as indicated by a qualitative analysis of subject’s responses to question “Why do you think you feel this way?”. Following the completion of the experimental manipulation, subjects who were exposed to a canine utilized word associated with positive mood, while subjects who were not exposed to a canine utilized words associated with stress (see Table 1 below, which presents representative answers from 10 surveys; 5 experimental and 5 control).

Importantly, there were no significant differences between the data collected on the 5/6th week of the semester and the data collected on the 9/10th week of the semester [experimental group (t(14)=0.11, p=NS), control group (t(14)=0.72, p=NS)]. In addition, there were no differences in the numbers of items on both groups’ to-do list [experimental group vs. control group (t(8)=0.79, p=NS)], and all participants exposed to a canine scored their “liking of a dog” as 5 and above (M=6.2, SD=1.09). Finally, the analysis indicates that majority of students take a nap (N=7) or hang out

Control (No Canine Exposure) Group It is suffocating to not be able to cross things off my list, I feel overwhelmed I started looking at everything I needed to do, and it feels like there aren’t enough hours a day I know exactly what needs to be done next week, so I should fully be prepared Because thinking about what needs to be done stresses me out, for thinking about how much I have to do, but when I sit and relax I forget about it all I am stressed about what I need to do, but I know that I can actually get everything done and manage the time I have

Table 1. Representative answers to the question “Why do you think you feel this way?”. Mood-related and stress-related words are highlighted in Bold.

Discussion The current study demonstrates that the interaction with a canine successfully relieved stress levels and improved mood in freshman college students. These findings are in line with literature which demonstrates that animal interaction/pet ownership has the capacity to improve psychological and physiological functioning in various populations (Allen et al., 2002, 2001; Barker et al., 2003; Chandler, 2017; Farias-Tomaszewski et al., n.d.; Kerns et al., 2018; Krause-Parello et al., 2016; Owen et al., 2016; Rodriguez et al., 2018), and with literature demonstrating that animal interaction can effectively reduce self-reported depression

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measures (Folse et al., 1994), and improve mood (Picard, n.d.) in college students. These findings are also congruent with a pilot study conducted at SFU during the spring semester of 2017 (Tiberino & Flaisher-Grinberg, data not published). Specifically, 24 female college students at SFU volunteered to participate in an experiment that required them to watch a sad 2-minute video clip (aimed to provoke a negative mood), or a neutral video clip (aimed to provoke a neutral mood), followed by a brief interaction with a canine (Tobie, the same canine utilized in the current study). Participants were requested to answer an anonymous self-generated questionnaires and rate their mood on a Likers scale of 1-5 (1=”very sad”, 5-“very happy”). Results indicated that the sad movie successfully and tentatively created a sense of negative mood, that both groups experienced an improvement of mood parameters after exposure to a canine, but that the improvement was more dramatic in the group in which a negative mood was provoked. Surprisingly, the effect of the manipulation was more pronounced in freshman compared to sophomore, junior and senior students (data not published). These findings support the suggestion that the exposure to a canine may yield beneficial effects on stress and mood measurements alike.

The current findings partially contrast the results collected in a study conducted at the University of Maine, which assessed whether the interaction with a canine has the potential to affect students’ positive mood, negative mood, and anxiety parameters. The study discovered that the interaction with a canine increased students’ positive mood but had no significant effect on negative mood and stress/anxiety measures, which decreased across all experimental conditions over time (Picard, n.d.).

While the current study also demonstrated the positive effects of canine interaction on student’s mood, it revealed that the interaction with a canine successfully reduced students’ perceived stress. A possible explanation for these differences may stem from to the fact that (Picard, n.d.) measured the subject’s pre-existing stress/anxiety levels, while the current study aimed to experimentally generate an increase in perceived stress levels. It is possible that

18 the generation of a to-do-list created a consistent and relatively homogenous response pattern, which prevailed individual variability in stress/anxiety among subjects. In addition, it may be argued that both studies assessed slightly different psychological parameters, which are differentially modulated by the exposure to a canine [e.g., state vs. trait anxiety, (Bernstein and Eveland, 1982)].

The current findings have some important implications which should be considered. First, since the goal of reducing student’s stress and increasing the perception of tranquility and emotional stability are important in the context of higher education, the current study suggests that an intervention as short as 5 minutes, which included the interaction with a canine, may be a beneficial strategy in the attempt to impact students’ quality of life. Second, in line with (Picard, n.d.), the study focused on first-year students, a population susceptible to the pressure of first year in college (Brandy et al., 2018; Bruffaerts et al., 2018). The findings highlight freshman college students as important candidates for the employment of mental health-targeted intervention strategies.

This study also includes some limitations which must be taken into account. First, while short term beneficial effects of the exposure to a canine have been demonstrated, it is currently unknown how long-lasting these effects are. Second, the measurements of student’s mood were indirect, using qualitative feedback, rather than quantitative statistics. Third, the mechanisms which mediates the beneficial effects of canine-interaction on students’ perceived stress and mood were not explored in the current study. While it can be suggested that the canine served as a distraction, it can also be hypothesized that the canine triggered an experience associated with the comfort and happiness of the student’s family and home environment. Another explanation may relate to the effects of canineexposure on stress-related physiological parameters [e.g., modulating oxytocin and cortisol availability (Petersson et al., 2017)]. Future studies may choose to target these questions.

In conclusion, the current study demonstrates the positive effects of an interaction with a canine on the

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perceived stress of freshman college students, and suggests that similar strategies may be a useful intervention methodologies to improve well-being in this susceptible population.

Works Cited Allen, K., Blascovich, J., Mendes, W.B., 2002.

Cardiovascular reactivity and the presence of pets, friends, and spouses: the truth about cats and dogs. Psychosom Med 64, 727–739.

Allen, K., Shykoff, B.E., Izzo, J.L., 2001. Pet ownership, but not ace inhibitor therapy, blunts home blood pressure responses to mental stress. Hypertension 38, 815–820.

Barker, S.B., Pandurangi, A.K., Best, A.M., 2003. Effects of animal-assisted therapy on patients’ anxiety, fear, and depression before ECT. J ECT 19, 38–44.

Bernstein, I.H., Eveland, D.C., 1982. State vs trait anxiety: A case study in confirmatory factor analysis. Personality and Individual Differences 3, 361–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(82)90002-2

Brandy, J.M., Kessler, T.A., Grabarek, C.H., 2018. A Grounded Theory Investigation Into Sophomore Students’ Recall of Depression During Their Freshman Year in College: A Pilot Study. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20180329-02 Bruffaerts, R., Mortier, P., Kiekens, G., Auerbach, R.P., Cuijpers, P., Demyttenaere, K., Green, J.G., Nock, M.K., Kessler, R.C., 2018. Mental health problems in college freshmen: Prevalence and academic functioning. J Affect Disord 225, 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.07.044 Chandler, C.K., 2017. Animal-Assisted Therapy in Counseling. Taylor & Francis.

Farias-Tomaszewski, S., Jenkins, S.R., Keller, J., n.d. An evaluation of therapeutic horseback riding programs for adults with physic... 8.

Folse, E.B., Minder, C.C., Aycock, M.J., Santana, R.T., 1994.

Animal-assisted therapy and depression in adult college students. Anthrozoös 7, 188–194. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279394787001880

Harrer, M., Adam, S.H., Fleischmann, R.J., Baumeister, H., Auerbach, R., Bruffaerts, R., Cuijpers, P., Kessler, R.C., Berking, M., Lehr, D., Ebert, D.D., 2018. Effectiveness of an Internet- and App-Based Intervention for College Students With Elevated Stress: Randomized Controlled Trial. J. Med. Internet Res. 20, e136. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.9293

Human-Animal Bond [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Reference/humananimal-bond/Pages/Human-Animal-Bond-AVMA.aspx (accessed 8.13.18).

Janssen, M., Heerkens, Y., Kuijer, W., van der Heijden, B., Engels, J., 2018. Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on employees’ mental health: A systematic

19 review. PLoS ONE 13, e0191332. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191332

Kerns, K.A., Stuart‐Parrigon, K.L., Coifman, K.G., Dulmen, M.H.M. van, Koehn, A., 2018. Pet dogs: Does their presence influence preadolescents’ emotional responses to a social stressor? Social Development 27, 34–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12246

Krause-Parello, C.A., Sarni, S., Padden, E., 2016. Military veterans and canine assistance for post-traumatic stress disorder: A narrative review of the literature. Nurse Educ Today 47, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2016.04.020 Mohr, C., Braun, S., Bridler, R., Chmetz, F., Delfino, J.P., Kluckner, V.J., Lott, P., Schrag, Y., Seifritz, E., Stassen, H.H., 2014. Insufficient coping behavior under chronic stress and vulnerability to psychiatric disorders.

Psychopathology 47, 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1159/000356398

Owen, R.P., Finton, B.J., Gibbons, S.W., DeLeon, P.H., 2016.

Canine-assisted Adjunct Therapy in the Military: An Intriguing Alternative Modality. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners 12, 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurpra.2015.09.014

Petersson, M., Uvnäs-Moberg, K., Nilsson, A., Gustafson, L.L., Hydbring-Sandberg, E., Handlin, L., 2017. Oxytocin and Cortisol Levels in Dog Owners and Their Dogs Are Associated with Behavioral Patterns: An Exploratory Study. Front Psychol 8, 1796. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01796

Picard, M.J., n.d. Study of the Effect of Dogs on College Students’ Mood and Anxiety 48.

Rodriguez, K.E., Bryce, C.I., Granger, D.A., O’Haire, M.E., 2018. The effect of a service dog on salivary cortisol awakening response in a military population with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Psychoneuroendocrinology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.04.026

Staufenbiel, S.M., Penninx, B.W.J.H., Spijker, A.T., Elzinga, B.M., van Rossum, E.F.C., 2013. Hair cortisol, stress exposure, and mental health in humans: a systematic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38, 1220–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.11.015

Alicia Tiberino (’18 B.A. Psychology, B.A. Philosophy) graduated with a double major in Psychology and Philosophy and minors in both Business Administration and Ethics. She was a member of the swim team for four years and was an orientation counselor and director. She is currently living in Vancouver, British Colombia attending Adler University and pursuing a Master of Arts in Organizational Psychology.

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