Leman Manhattan Science Journal
Vol. 6
April 2025
How poverty reshapes the mind
Also inside
• Antimatter
• Improve your memory using science
• The Science of rain
• Effects of popular diets on the body
Science Journal Vol 6.
April 2025
Contents
1. How Poverty Reshapes the Mind – Clint Jean-Marie
2. If the memory serves: If the recall of memory can be improved with techniques – Esha Nagvikas
3. The Effects of Popular Diets on the Human body – Madeleine Mouriadi
4. Matter & Antimatter - Mariyah Matawala
5. The Science Behind Rain - Scarlett Tyler, Grade 10
6. Puzzles – Wordsearch & crossword
Edited by
Mr. S Bonnar, Chair of Sciences
Mariyah Matawala, Grade 12
Michael Ashkenazy, Teacher of Grade 9 and Forensics
How Poverty Reshapes the Mind
Clint Jean-Marie, Grade 10
This article focuses on sociology and applied behavioral economics of homelessness through the specific question, "How does poverty affect the health of impoverished people and the way that they think long term?”. This topic was chosen because, growing up in America, specifically in New York City, it’s known that poverty and homelessness are very prevalent. Which has raised questions such as why is this so common? How does poverty impact their daily well-being? What can be done to help them? These questions have inspired research on the long-term effects of poverty and homelessness on homeless and poor people, and finally, what could be done to reduce and mitigate homelessness and poverty?
The cycle of poverty demonstrates how hard it truly is to break free from crippling poverty.
Five recent articles in particular expertly analyze and document the multifaceted impacts of poverty; answering the question of this research project from multiple perspectives. The first article, The APA's ‘Effects of Poverty, Hunger, and Homelessness on Children and Youth,’ informs readers about how these factors shape development and health during childhood. The APA Working Group report talks about how chronic stress compromises mechanisms within the brain, such as emotional regulation. A study entitled, ‘Effects of Childhood Poverty and Chronic Stress on Emotion Regulatory Brain Function in Adulthood,’ explains the negative impact of
childhood poverty on adulthood. ‘Structuring Poverty: How Racism Shapes Child Poverty and Child and Adolescent Health’ talks about how social and cultural systems that are currently in place make the effects of poverty even worse and offers opportunities for intervention. Lastly,
‘The Impact of School Meal Programs on Educational Outcomes in African Schoolchildren: A Systematic Review’ gave a specific view into the effects of hunger and food security on learning and education. These 5 articles because they address my topic holistically and from multiple different viewpoints.
The American Psychological Association (APA) analyzes the negative outcomes of teens and children being raised in poverty and brings light to the face that not having access to adequate resources can lead to more problems than one would expect. Problems include under-resourced schools and families living under the poverty line often cannot equal learning experiences for both gifted and special needs students. Poverty also plays a part in impoverished students not attending school in general; research shows “students experiencing homelessness are more than twice as likely to be chronically absent than non-homeless students” (APA, 2024) Which in turn leads to high dropout rates and impoverished families staying in cycles of poverty. But on a cognitive level, people living in poverty are more susceptible to lack of development in
areas of the brain that are “critical for learning, communication, and academic achievement, including social emotional processing, memory, language, and executive functioning." (APA, 2024) This data is significant because it shows the effects of poverty go beyond material resources but also impede cognitive function itself, putting impoverished children and adolescents at a further disadvantage.
A limitation I noticed in this article was the lack of general, long-term solutions to cutting down and totally stopping childhood poverty. Shortterm solutions such as volunteering at soup kitchens and donating supplies are proposed, but in order to stop this problem for good, more focused initiatives should be taken.
A paper by the American Psychological Association goal was to research stress-related health disparities in relation to race and socio-economic class. For context, stress is the reaction to stimuli that strains one’s coping mechanisms, often leading to physical and mental health problems. Common triggers of stress include physical danger, economic troubles, and social threats, such as discrimination, job insecurity, and exposure to crime or unsafe living conditions. Constant stress, otherwise known as chronic stress, can lead to health issues such as high blood pressure (HBP), obesity, and, in severe cases, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. These factors
make diabetes such a pressing cause because of how common stress is and how dangerous it can be if not handled correctly due to the fact that those who are under heavy, constant stress are not looking for healthy outlets to release this stress and really end up digging themselves further into the hole of problems they are already in
A limitation of this article is the lack of health disparities addressed. While prevalent disparities such as high blood pressure (HBP), obesity, and, in severe cases, diabetes and cardiovascular disease are mentioned. Many others, such as sexually transmitted infections (STIs), asthma, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. These commonly affect communities that are affected by stressrelated health disparities, are neglected within this document.
Pilyoung Kim et al (2013) focused on the long-term effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotional regulatory systems. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and longitudinal data, scientists were able to observe reduced activity in the brain’s prefrontal cortex (ventrolateral and dorsolateral regions), which are commonly damaged by the effects of childhood poverty due to the brain constantly being under pressure because of stressful stimuli associated with growing up without adequate resources. These findings are significant, firstly, because they show that childhood poverty does indeed have long-term effects. Secondly, these findings show that chronic stress exposure during childhood plays a large role in these negative outcomes. Also, they emphasize the importance of early interventions to reduce this stress in order to preserve the regions of the brain that can lead to negative long-term outcomes.
A limitation in this study is the fact that the experiment was conducted on only participants aged 9–24. Which could flaw the experiment because large chunks of time during adulthood are missed in the data.
“scientists were able to observe reduced activity in the brain’s prefrontal cortex,, which are commonly damaged by the effects of childhood poverty due to the brain constantly being under pressure because of stressful stimuli”
In Structuring Poverty: How Racism Shapes Child Poverty, Child, and Adolescent Health the influence of structural racism is shown to strongly influence child poverty and health disparities.
Heard-Garris uses input from scholars of multiple disciplines, including pediatrics, public health, law, and sociology, to get the most well-rounded data for the question, “What is the relationship between structural racism, poverty, and pediatric health?” (Heard-Garris) In order to answer the question, Heard-Garris conducted research on systemic racism directed towards marginalized minorities and people of color. Examples include redlining, which is defined as a "discriminatory practice that consists of the systematic denial of services such as mortgages, insurance loans, and other financial services to residents of certain areas, based on their race or ethnicity.” (Cornell, LII) Another widespread practice of systemic racism is mass incarceration, seen in the 1960s and 1980s during the war on poverty. During this time period, there was a spike in arrests on drug charges, specifically committed by minorities, who were sentenced more severely than their white counterparts. This research and its findings are significant because they highlight the fact that systemic racist practices like redlining and mass incarceration play a large role in child development because they introduce children whose parents have been incarcerated or experienced redlining inherent biases that disproportionately affect their health and socioeconomic classes.
A limitation of this article is the fact that it’s only analyzing those who live in the U.S.A., which neglects people in other parts of the world that are affected by systemically racist systems.
Wall et al (2022) detail the positive effects of providing meals for malnourished children has on their ability to learn and retain information. In order to come to this conclusion, researchers gathered data from previous investigations of school feeding programs and articles published in English between 2011–2021. School Feeding Programs (SFPs) were studied in children living
throughout various sub-Saharan African countries, including Uganda, Senegal, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Burkina Faso, and Malawi. This study’s target population was students from ages 3–12 years old. The intervention in all studies was some form of food supplementation, whether it be a meal during class or take-home rations. The findings of multiple different observed effects such as better test performance and more consistent attendance to school. "Non-beneficiary children were two times more likely to be absent than SFP students."
To conclude, the most interesting finding from these articles is the fact that childhood poverty physically affects the brain, specifically the prefrontal cortex (ventrolateral and dorsolateral regions), as seen in “Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood." (Pilyoung Kim et al,) These findings relate to and add to the physical part of the question, "How does poverty affect poor people’s health and the way that they think longterm?” Which will answer the question in a more comprehensive manner. Finally, this literature review can be a resource further researchers use to answer pressing social justice questions that need to be answered to help those who are disproportionately affected by poverty.
References
Barrett, B. (2024). Poverty & Deprivation in Urban Areas | DP IB Geography Revision Notes 2017. [online] Save My Exams. Available at: https://www.savemyexams.com/dp/geography/ib/17/sl/revision-notes/10-urbanenvironments/10-1-the-variety-of-urban-environments/10-1-4-poverty-and-deprivation-in-urbanareas/ [Accessed 26 Feb. 2025].
mbenderev (n.d.). Poverty’s Effect on Infants and Toddlers Infographic. [online] ZERO TO THREE. Available at: https://www.zerotothree.org/resource/povertys-effect-on-infants-andtoddlers-infographic/.
The Impact of School Meal Programs on Educational Outcomes in African Schoolchildren: A Systematic Review
Received: January 18, 2022; Accepted: March 16, 2022; Published: March 19, 2022
Caitlin Wall, Terezie Tolar-Peterson, Nicole Reeder, Marina Roberts, Abby Reynolds, and Gina
Rico Mendez, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume 19, Article 3666
“Effects of Poverty, Hunger, and Homelessness on Children and Youth.” American Psychological Association. American Psychological Association, APA Working Group on Stress and Health Disparities. (2017).
Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood
Structuring Poverty: How Racism Shapes Child Poverty and Child and Adolescent Health
The Impact of School Meal Programs on Educational Outcomes in African Schoolchildren: A Systematic Review
STRESS AND HEALTH DISPARITIES Contexts, Mechanisms, and Interventions Among
Racial/Ethnic Minority and Low Socioeconomic Status Populations, Date Created: 2017
American Psychological Association,Working Group Members
Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood
Approved August 21, 2013
PNAS
Pilyoung Kim (et al)
Structuring Poverty: How Racism Shapes Child Poverty, Child, and Adolescent Health
Available in PMC 2022 November 01
Nia Heard-Garris, MD, MSc1 (et al)
Acad Pediatr. 2021;21(8 Suppl):S108–S116.
If the memory serves: If the recall of memory can be improved with techniques
Esha Nagvikas, Grade 9
Memories build up lives through thoughts, experiences, and information, all processed through our brain. A memory can make up an individual and give them a framework for life. Memories are initially versatile, then are integrated into a stable form as neural circuits are established.
A neural circuit is made of neurons interconnected by synapses, which carries out a function once if activated. Information is encoded into our brain through six main methods: visual encoding, acoustic encoding, semantic encoding, elaborative encoding, organizational encoding and tactile encoding. Information is then stored in either STM (short term memory) or LTM (long term memory). Memory is then retrieved according to its type. For example, short-term
memory is retrieved in the order it is stored, whereas long-term memory is retrieved through association. The retrieval of memory is influenced by many cues which determine the memories retrieval. Synapses are formed whenever new information is gained, meaning they become stronger as memories are made (Ian, 2023). When a memory is required, it must be recalled. long-term memory is retrieved through association of details. However, the memory retrieval process is futile as memories are fragile. In order to improve the recall of memory many individuals utilize techniques to re-encode memories better in order to strengthen the memories. If proper recall techniques are implemented, then the memories will strengthen because recall techniques organize information in order to prevent them from falling out of the scope.
Methodology
Through proper intensive research, memory formation can be understood. Utilizing scientific journals and researching can ensure that accurate information is retrieved. In order to properly understand how memory recall can be improved, proper understanding of memory encoding processes and storage must exist. By researching memory processes first, and then properly
discussing the recall of memory and recall techniques, the hypothesis can be tested effectively. Scientific journals, psychology papers, research facilities, and clinics all provide proper resources for a successful scientific article.
Encoding
Encoding is the process of initially learning information through any one of four ways. Visual encoding, acoustic encoding, semantic encoding or tactile encoding.
Visual encoding is the formation of memories through the encoding of images to understand the memory as an object. All such visual information is stored in the visuospatial sketchpad, that is connected to the central executive. The central executive is the key area of working memory (Ian, 2023).
Auditory information is encoded as an acoustic memory. This involves the processing of sounds, words and any other auditory input. Acoustic memory is split up into the information coming into the brain for one or two seconds, and rehearsal, which would convert the information from short-term to long term.
The encoding of sensory information is known as semantic encoding. Semantic encoding includes remembering concepts instead of images. The short-term memories can be converted into meaningful long memories using sensory information.
Tactile encoding is the process of encoding and storing a memory based on how something feels (BetterHelp Editorial Team, 2024). Tactile encoding is entirely based on the touch and feel in a memory, and are usually important memories. Neurons in the somatosensory cortex play an important role in this process (Ian, 2023).
Elaborative encoding is the process of adding on new information to old memories. Relating knowledge to existing memories in order to improve knowledge and increase the
amount of memories, as more information is gained. Additional pieces of information are added onto old memories instead of creating entirely new memories, as in other encoding processes.
Finally, organizational encoding is the process of classifying information associated with other information (BetterHelp Editorial Team, 2024).
Information is typically entered into the memory system through one of these modes (How Memory Works, n.d.). The encoding process is the beginning of the journey memories go on as they are encoded, stored, and finally, recalled.
Short term memory
Short term memory, also known as STM, is the temporary storage space where information recently learnt is held for around 15-30 seconds, varying depending on the individual (McLeod, 2023b). This accounts for around 5-7 objects, again varying for individuals.
Though it isn't explicit, memories can transfer from the short-term memory to the long-term memory, as they do all the time. STM storage can be increased by a variety of techniques that are commonly used today by a significant percentage of society.
Short term memory is defined by its three most significant aspects. Limited capacity, as the STM can only hold around 7 items at a time. Limited duration, as it can only hold information for around 30 seconds, spanning to a few minutes at most. Encoding, as STM is primarily acoustic, sometimes translating visual information into sounds (McLeod, 2023b). These three characteristics are the keystone to understanding short-term memory.
According to a theory proposed by George Miller (1956), the STM can only hold an average of seven objects, varying by a couple items. George Miller claimed that this was due to the amount of ‘slots’ in the STM. The theory left much room for interpretation, especially as Miller didn’t specify how much information can be held in a slot, meaning chunking information together could expand the short-term memory. Miller's theory has been supported by numerous scientific studies as time passed, and is still used as a common belief today.
Figure 1: All about psychology, 2023: George A. Miller's theory of the 7 slots of information in our short-term memory, represented through the equation 7±2.
The short-term memory has two main functions, namely to store and retrieve information. The storage of information involves focusing on the environment and recognizing information that is already in your brain (Professional, 2024). The short-term memory works alongside the encoding processes in order to use sensory information to receive and process information from the senses. The short-term memory also works with the long-term memory to transfer information into the long-term memory.
The STM is temporarily stored in the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is at the front of the frontal lobe, which is a lobe of the brain that is behind the forehead. The hippocampus converts short-term memories into long-term memories by sending them to the cerebral cortex (Professional, 2024).
Figure 2: Image from National Institute of Health, Illustrated by Levent Efe, n.d: The image from the national institute of health depicts the brain, along with the location of the Prefrontal cortex, Amygdala, Neocortex, Basal ganglia, Cerebellum and the Hippocampus.
Short term memory is a temporary storage space where recently gained information, of about 5-7 objects are held for around 15-3o seconds, depending on the individual (McLeod, 2023b). STM has a limited capacity, duration and encoding requirements. George Miller theorized that the short-term memory can only hold 7 objects, due to the amount of “slots” in the STM. The short-term memory works with the encoding processes to store and retrieve
information using the sensory information. short-term Memory also works with the long-term memory to transfer information from the STM to the LTM. The short-term memory is located in the prefrontal cortex; the hippocampus converts short-term memory into long-term memory.
Long term memory
Long term memory, also called LTM, denotes the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory storage to long persisting memories. This memory is unlimited in capacity and stability (MSEd, 2023). The memories in long-term memory can last for years, and sometimes even for life. LTM is vital as it can help us recall major events in our lives, important skills and personality traits. long-term memory may be divided into two subtypes: explicit memory and implicit memory, also known as procedural memory and declarative memory, respectively.
Explicit memories are memories that appear and are available in our conscious mind. Explicit memory has two more subcategories, known as episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory contains specific events in one's life, such as graduation or a specific birthday. Semantic memory carries information about the world, like meanings of words or general knowledge facts. The information retained in episodic memory is declarative, or centered on "knowing that" something is true.
Figure 3: Simply psychology, 2023: The types of long-term memory are clearly classified through this hierarchical organizational chart. long-term memory is divided into explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory is divided into episodic and semantic, and implicit memory is divided into procedural and emotional conditioning. The chart displays this in an easily comprehensible manner.
Implicit memories are mostly unconscious and automatic (McLeod, 2023a). The subcategories of implicit memories are procedural memories and emotional conditioning.
Procedural memories involve knowing how to do things, such as basic skills. This includes riding a bike or brushing teeth. Emotional conditioning, are memories of events that cause people to react to stimuli accordingly. For example, a flash of lightning will condition an individual to close or cover their eyes.
Long term memories are influenced by the method which the memory was encoding through, and the number of times the memory is accessed. Some memories easily spring to mind, and others may require prompts to recall. Neurons first encode memories in the cortex, and
hippocampus (MSEd, 2023). Whenever the memory is recalled it is re-encoded, by similar but not identical neurons. This accounts for miniature details getting lost in translation.
Long term memory is also extremely fragile and susceptible to change and misinformation. Older memories can also interfere with the formation of new memories, making it difficult to remember what actually happened at what time. The brain sometimes even fabricates details to fill in missing gaps in memories, such as when dates or names are forgotten, which accounts for missing details or fake details.
Long term memory, or LTM, refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term storage, that lasts for years, and sometimes even a lifetime. LTM accounts for skills, major events and personality traits. It can be divided into explicit and implicit memories, which are further divided into subcategories. Explicit memories are conscious memories, divided into episodic memories and semantic memories (McLeod, 2023a). Implicit memories are subconscious memories that are divided into procedural and emotional conditioning. long-term memory is surprisingly fragile, and therefore, susceptible to change. The brain can fabricate details and fill in memory gaps. As fragile as it is, long-term memory is still vital to the survival and prosperity of an individual.
Retrieval
Memory is retrieved through recall, an active reconstruction of memory. When a memory is accessed for retrieval, the process modifies the memory, essentially recording it (Memory and Recall | Center for Teaching & Learning, n.d.). As the memory is retrieved more frequently it becomes more accessible, however this does mean the memory is re-encoded more frequently. Though some details can be lost in this process, it does strengthen the memory, and make the
memory more recallable for the foreseeable future. Memories stored in STM and LTM are retrieved differently, as they were encoded differently. short-term memories are retrieved in the order they were stored in, sequentially, while long-term memory is retrieved through association of details.
The retrieval of stored information assumes that it remains a crucial part of cognitive activities, especially regarding semantic and episodic memory, or explicit memory. In order to receive a more successful retrieval, the retrieval cue and the memory trace must be powerful.
The success of memory retrieval also depends on the encoded information. All factors must work together in order to retrieve a clear and robust memory from storage.
Improvement of Recall
The memory retrieval process is subject to flaws, especially through the reconstruction process. Stored information is lost over time as the re-encoding tends to gloss over and lose details, sometimes even altering the memory. Retrieval is entirely cue and context dependent, requiring different types of cues, or a different number of contexts for complete memory retrieval.
In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment that tested how well individuals remembered a list of nonsensical syllables over time (How Memory Works, n.d.). He used the results of his experiment to create what is now known as the ‘Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve’. The experiment proved the rate of memory decay relies on both the time that has passed since your learning experience and how powerful your memory is. Some degree of memory decay would always be present, yet all other memory relied on such factors
Figure 4: The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve. (Source: Schaefer, 2015): The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve is the result of multiple experiments conducted by Hermann Ebbinghaus, and is still accepted by psychologists today. The forgetting curve represents information retained after different time periods. It is an accurate representation of the nature of memory loss over time.
This coexists with the techniques in which memory can be better recalled, and retained. Memory can be retained through different techniques depending on the purpose of the information. Teachers commonly use and benefit from the testing effect, spacing effect and the interleaving technique. The testing effect utilises frequent, small tests in order to regularly recall information. The spacing effect uses the repeated learning of information over longer times to increase the likelihood of memory retention. The interleaving technique involves the practice of multiple skills in one session. Students employ the use of a variety of techniques, different from the teacher's admired techniques, involving State-dependent memory, schemas, chunking and deliberate practice. State-dependent memory is the idea that the state one learnt information in
will recall it, being an individual's physical state, as well as their surroundings. Schemas act as cognitive ‘shortcuts’ that are mental frameworks created to understand and organize information, however they prevent individuals from learning information falling outside the scope of the schema (How Memory Works, n.d.). Chunking refers to the process of grouping pieces of information together to encourage retention. Deliberate practice is, as the name suggests, the act of deliberately practicing a skill with the intention of improvement.
Memory retrieval is influenced by cues and contexts, as suggested by the Ebbignghaus forgetting curve, created in 1885 through repeated experimentation. The forgetting curve points toward the need for better recall. Recall techniques include the testing technique, spacing technique, and interleaving technique. Students often utilize the techniques of state-dependent memory, schemas, chunking and deliberate practice. The recall of memory can be improved through a number of ways, all dependent on the individual and the information required.
Discussion
Memory is a complex act, filled with processes that take place in order to ensure the memory takes its place in the brain. Memories are extremely fragile, easily altered and lost. To prevent memories from being lost one can implement recall techniques such as schemas, statedependent memory or chunking. An interesting perspective could be comparing the different recall techniques and their effectiveness in different areas of memory encoding. Such testing could be done through intensive experimentation. From a third-person perspective, lesser-known recall techniques could be discussed in order to increase the number of recall techniques; still the reality remains that any recall strategy will guarantee that memories can be successfully recalled.
Conclusions
Memory formation is a complicated and extensive process, filled with different steps, processes and techniques. A memory must first be encoded, through auditory, semantic, tactile, elaborative or organizational encoding processes. Then it is stored in the STM, where only around 7 objects can be stored for around 15-30 seconds. The LTM holds explicit and implicit memories, explicitly being episodic or semantic, and implicit being procedural or emotional conditioning. The memory is then recalled, and re-encoded, becoming stronger, yet less accurate, as some details are lost. Memory can be recalled better using techniques such as testing effect, spacing effect and interleaving. Other useful techniques include state-dependent memory, schemas, chunking and deliberate practice. Although memory can be altered and lost, the utilization of such techniques will benefit the memory such that it can be recalled clearly and accurately.
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The Effects of Popular Diets on the Human body
Madeleine Mouriadi, Grade 9
Introduction
Diets, a common focus in the modern world today. Vegetarianism, veganism, keto, Mediterranean, paleo the list goes on. But what do these diets actually do to the human body? This article will discuss three popular diets: keto, veganism, and intermittent fasting to see how they affect the body. Diets can be used for many different things such as weight loss, better mental health, and generally improving bodily health. They are effective too! Scientists at Harvard University found that diets can directly affect emotions (Selhub, 2022.) This is not the only thing that diets can do. Many times doctors recommend certain diets to patients with chronic health disorders such as diabetes, cancer, COPD, arthritis and more. The human body runs on what it’s fed, healthy or unhealthy.
What is the Keto diet?
The Keto diet is a low carb high fat diet catered to people searching to lose weight. It drastically reduces the intake of carbohydrates such as grains, legumes, vegetables, and fruits and is considered a good starter to a weight loss journey. Its effects are short term. In the 1920’s it was instigated as an effective treatment for children with epilepsy and considerably reduced the occurrence of epileptic seizures. (LeWine, 2024)
Positive Effects of the Keto Diet
The Keto diet forces the body to burn stored fat in the liver in the form of ketone bodies for energy instead of glucose. Ketones are located in the blood or urine in the form of acids created by the body. They indicate that the body has begun to burn fat instead of glucose. Jumpstarting the process of burning ketone bodies takes about three to four days. Once the body is not burning glucose and ketone bodies become the main source of energy it goes into a state known as ketosis (Helms,2023.) Symptoms include: bad breath/keto breath (Caused by ketones), constipation, osteopenia, insomnia, dehydration, hyperlipidemia, and kidney stones (Cleveland Clinic editorial team, n/a.) Under ketosis it is important that fat supplies 90% of daily calories and that only 20-50 grams of carbs are consumed daily. Too much protein can inhibit ketosis because the amino acids in proteins can be transmuted into glucose. The keto diet requires enough protein to preserve muscle and body mass and still permit ketosis. (The Nutrition Source editorial team, 2024)
Negative Effects of the Keto Diet
While there are many benefits of the Keto diet it can also come with many risks. The diet is high in saturated fat clogging the arteries and putting the patient at risk for heart disease. It is recommended to eat 7% of saturated fat a day (LeWine, 2024.) Many patients following the Keto diet may experience very high cholesterol putting them at risk for a plethora of other problems such as heart attacks and strokes. Nutrient deficiency is seen very regularly with patients as well. It is important to get enough nutrients even though the diet is restricting. Many people who don’t plan (It is best to plan with a dietitian) are deficient in: micronutrients, including selenium, magnesium, phosphorus, and vitamins B and C (LeWine, 2024.) Heightened levels of uric acid in the blood create high risks for gout, a complex form of arthritis (Mayo Clinic team, 2022.) Moreover, kidney stones and osteoporosis may be caused by the keto diet. Kidneys assist in metabolizing protein following a diet such as the Keto can overburden them. The liver already processes a lot of fat obeying the Keto diet can worsen already existing conditions or start new ones. The Keto diet does not contain a lot of fibrous foods such as grains and legumes. Fiber helps our bodies defecate, with less in the body constipation may occur. Two to seven days after starting the keto diet the participant may experience something known as the “Keto flu” this is a series of symptoms that vary from participant to participant. Symptoms include fuzzy thinking, mood swings, nausea, fatigue, and “brain fog” (Campos, 2018.)
The Keto diet is one of the most popular diets of the modern century. With many people drawn to what it promises it is necessary to consider the risks it comes with and how certain bodies will react to it. A high fat diet may not be suitable for everyone and it could do more harm than good. Every body is different and may not support such a strict and demanding regime. On the other hand some bodies may benefit greatly from a diet such as this one. Proceeding with a plan is the best way to help understand each body and what it needs.
What is Veganism?
Veganism is the process of refraining from consuming any animal products. Unlike vegetarianism, veganism also bans eggs, milk, and other animal related products. Many vegans may keep up this diet for cultural or bodily purposes and it has many effects on the body. The vegan diet may also assist in losing weight, managing diabetes, and lowering the risk of certain diseases and cancer.
Positive Effects of the Vegan Diet
The vegan diet is often compared and or mixed up with the vegetarian diet but in reality these two diets are very different. The vegan diet contains less saturated fat and cholesterol and more dietary fiber than the vegetarian diet and is considered a more austere diet in comparison to the vegetarian one. If followed correctly the vegan diet can have many benefits. Like many diets in the modern world today the vegan diet is known for improving weight loss and reducing the risk of heart disease by lowering the body’s cholesterol. Many people at risk for different types of cancer such as colon cancer may go on the vegan diet to help lower their risk (Rush editorial
team, n/a.) It is shown that plant based foods contain phytochemicals such as Anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are found in blue and red fruits. They help protect against heart disease, slow down the process of aging, protect against tumors, prevent blood clots, and fight allergies and inflammation (Stanford Medicine editorial team, n/a.) The vegan diet is shown to help keep diabetes under control by lowering the body’s A1C levels which measure the amount of hemoglobin attached to glucose and reflect the body’s glucose levels. Participants who practice the vegan diet usually have less body fat, have lower serum cholesterol levels, and hypotension (lower blood pressure) due to high levels of potassium in the vegan diet. This assists in reducing the risk of heart failure.
Negative Effects of the Vegan Diet
The vegan diet may not be for everyone, there are many drawbacks along with benefits. As with many diets, nutrient deficiencies always present themselves when poor planning occurs. Vegans are routinely deficient in vitamins B-12 and D, calcium, and long-chain n-3 (omega-3) fatty acids (Craig, 2009.) Supplements may be used to aid in terminating these deficiencies although it is best to plan and eat a wide variety of foods such as legumes so they don’t even occur in the first place. To properly follow the vegan diet people need to incorporate new methods of including these nutrients into their diets: protein, vitamin B12, essential fatty acids, iron, vitamin D. Eating five portions of fruits and vegetables each day, starchy carbohydrates, good sources of complete proteins such as quinoa, and tofu (NHS editorial team, 2022.) In the modern world many substitutes for meat and other non- vegan products have been created. These include the Beyond and Impossible burgers as well as Violife cheeses. Milk alternatives such as soy and almond milk are also popular. While these substitutes are satisfying for a special occasion it’s important to note that they are not healthier alternatives to consume everyday. Meat
substitutes are highly processed and contain high levels of sugar and fat (Champion, 2022.) They do not contain the same nutrients as real meat and are not complete proteins. It is suggested that the vegan diet should not consist mainly of substitutes and should contain more whole foods. It is essential to understand that someone may be very unhealthy when following the vegan diet. Just because someone is following a diet that is stricter and more restricting doesn’t mean they are healthy (Soble, n/a.)
The vegan diet can help the body do very impressive things, helping lower the risk of cancer, managing diabetes, and assisting in losing weight proves the effect that diets have on the body. Following a set dietary procedure such as the vegan diet aids in keeping the body under control and helps maintain homeostasis.
What is Intermittent Fasting?
Intermittent fasting is a very unique diet that focuses on when food is consumed rather than what food is consumed. It is the process of abstaining from eating food (fasting) during certain times and only eating food during a short window of the day.
Similar to many other diets it was introduced to help reduce weight, the risk of type 2 diabetes, inflammation, introduce positive effects on blood pressure, LDL cholesterol triglyceride levels, and average blood sugar. Intermittent fasting is very personalized in comparison to other harsher diets such as the keto one. It focuses on fasting periods and depending on each participant's schedule it can be modified.
Positive Effects of Intermittent Fasting
Our modern world is plagued with unhealthy habits such as little exercise and detrimental electronic use. In comparison to fifty years ago when the time on the television was reduced, and exercise was more common, people tended to eat in a healthier pattern. According to neuroscientist Mark Mattson (n/a) human bodies have evolved to go longer periods of time without food. Making our bodies acclimate to intermittent fasting at a quicker pace. Schedules such as only eating during an eight hour window or consuming food once a day twice a week help the body metabolically switch. Metabolic switching occurs during the third phase of fasting. Increased fatty acids and glycerol are produced by the process of glycogen storage in hepatocytes, depletion, and accelerated fat tissue lipolysis (John Hopkins editorial team, n/a.) By lengthening the period in which the body burns through calories consumed in the last meal it will eventually start burning fat. To properly lose weight the participant cannot eat extensive amounts of food during the window because too many calories will be consumed.
Negative Effects of Intermittent Fasting
Although the effects of intermittent fasting seem to be promising there is no concrete evidence proving them. A study conducted by the New England Journal of Medicine demonstrated how slight the difference between eating with a regular schedule and intermittent fasting is. They gathered people with ages between 18-75 with body mass indexes (BMI) 28-45. No participants were actively participating in a weight loss program or were taking any
medications that affected calorie intake. Participants stuck to a 25% calorie-reduced diet (1,500 to 1,800 calories per day for men and 1,200 to 1,500 calories per day for women.) The ratio between calories consumed from protein, fat, and carbohydrates was also set. Half of the participants had no time restriction and on average lost forteen pounds over one year. The other half had an eight hour window to consume food and on average lost 18 pounds over the course of one year. With only a difference of four pounds it exhibits the minute effects of this diet. It is strongly recommended to match intermittent fasting with resistance training because lean muscle mass which may be lost helps provoke metabolic rate, control blood sugar, and keep the body physically able in general (Liu, 2022.) Frequently headaches, moodiness, and lack of ability to focus are associated with a diet such as intermittent fasting where it is challenging to consume all nutrients necessary. This diet may be high risk to pregnant and breastfeeding women, growing children and adolescents, anyone with a history of an eating disorder, diabetics, and the elderly. Participants that are currently engaging in sports need to be cautious because it is important to not physically push the body to perform with no energy/little to no food (John Hopkins editorial team, n/a.)
Conclusion
These three diets discussed all have the common target of weight loss. Although a study was not performed to see which diet is the most preferable when it comes to losing weight, it gave an insight into three very varied diets. While the keto diet may promise favorable results, it’s essential to follow it accurately, or the body doesn’t enter ketosis; therefore, the diet will not work. Although the vegan diet may seem more achievable to some, it poses a plethora of other risks that intermittent fasting and keto don’t. Resemblances of these diets include risks of nutrient deficiency, heart attacks, and no solid evidence of long- term weight loss. Concluding this research paper, it was found that diets may be highly contrasting but still be used for
resembling results, although a “Proper” diet doesn’t exist due to the fact that each diet is shaped by different outcomes. A participant with high cholesterol may determine a diet such as the vegan one to be more beneficial to their body. While a child trying to diminish the occurrence of epileptic seizures may choose the route of the keto diet. Consulting with a dietitian is highly advised when someone is looking into following a diet due to the fact that it’s difficult to understand what is best for each body's needs. This article only discussed three different diets. It’s crucial to note that these are not the only diets available to the public; there are countless others that fit each person's needs.
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8. Health benefits of a vegan diet. (n.d.). Rush University System for Health. https://www.rush.edu/news/health-benefits-vegan-diet
9. High cholesterol - Symptoms and causes. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/symptomscauses/syc-20350800
10.Ms, D. C. R. (2022, August 25). Is plant-based meat always the healthier option? Ohio State Health & Discovery. https://health.osu.edu/wellness/exercise-and-nutrition/is-plantbased-meat-always-the-healthier-option
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14.The A1C Test & Diabetes. (2024, October 4). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/healthinformation/diagnostic-tests
15.Website, N. (2023, February 10). The vegan diet. nhs.uk. https://www.nhs.uk/livewell/eat-well/how-to-eat-a-balanced-diet/the-vegan-diet/
16.Professional, C. C. M. (2024a, May 1). Ketones. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/25177-ketones
17.Professional, C. C. M. (2024b, May 1). Ketosis. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/24003-ketosis
18.Website, Intermittent Fasting What it is and How Does it Work?. John Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/intermittentfasting-what-is-it-and-how-does-it-work
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Matter & Antimatter
Mariyah Matawala, Grade 12
Introduction
The term “opposites attract” or “if one exists, the opposite exists as well” is commonly heard and referenced in literature, art, and philosophy. However, this ideology also applies to science. A certain symmetry in nature is represented by Newton’s third law of motion. If object A applies a force to object B, object B must apply a force of equal magnitude in the opposite direction to object A. Shows that forces always occur in pairs and that a body cannot exert a force on another without first feeling that force (Khan Academy, n.d). Similarly, in chemistry matter has an opposite, antimatter.
Image from Singh, 2023
What is matter? What is antimatter?
Matter is a material with motion and physical space occupation that is composed of different kinds of particles. Physics principles state that every kind of particle has a distinct mass and scale. Among particles, the electron (negative charge), proton (positive charge), and neutron (no charge) are the most well-known examples. Atoms make up everything and are made up of combinations of these particles. The proton and neutron are in the middle of the atom in the nucleus, surrounded by electrons that orbit the nucleus (Awati, 2022).
The opposite of matter is antimatter. Except for having the opposite electric charge to matter, antimatter is identical to matter. For example, a positron is the antimatter pair of an electron, which has a negative charge. A positron is a positively charged particle that has the same mass as an electron. An antiproton in antimatter is the opposite of a proton in matter, it consists of a negative charge. Neutrons are frequently their own antimatter partners. However, scientists are still unsure if the enigmatic, neutral tiny particles known as neutrinos are also their own antiparticles (Mann, 2021).
Figure 1: Matter vs Antimatter, Lithium Atom (Elina, 2023)
What would happen if matter and antimatter collide?
A tremendous amount of energy is released when matter and antimatter collide and the particles destroy one another. In addition to a significant energy release, new and distinct particles (like neutrinos and different flavors of quarks) may also be created, depending on the colliding particles. Because of the law of conservation of energy, which states that some energy is converted to heat and light and some is used to form new particles, the new particles will be less massive than those in the initial collision. Upon collision, particles of matter and antimatter annihilate one another, transforming their mass into energy in accordance with Einstein's wellknown mass-energy equivalency principle, E=mc^2 (Vočadlo, 2022).
How were matter and antimatter naturally created? How is antimatter created in a lab?
It is believed that nearly equal amounts of matter and antimatter were created in the early universe, in the initial moments following the Big Bang. Current scientific understanding states that the enormous energy and high temperatures of the Big Bang produced particles of both matter and antimatter. It is through this process that high-energy photons, like gamma rays, are produced. This matter-antimatter imbalance also known as baryon asymmetry has an exact cause that is not fully understood. It is one of the major mysteries of cosmology and particle physics (“The matter-antimatter asymmetry problem”, n.d.).
Matter and antimatter pairs are created when an immense amount of energy is compressed into a small area, as is the case with high-energy particle collisions at the CERN laboratory. This can only happen if the energy imparted to the speeding particles is at least equal to the mass of the newly formed particles; the more energy imparted during particle collisions, the more massive matter and antimatter particles can be created. Equal amounts of matter and antimatter are produced as energy converts to mass (CERN, 2011).
At CERN, protons collide with nuclei inside a metal cylinder known as a target with energies of up to 26 GeV, or almost thirty times their mass at rest. Approximately four pairs of protons and antiprotons are created for every million collisions. The antiprotons are led to the Antiproton Decelerator, where they are slowed down from 96% to 10% of the speed of light after being separated from other particles by magnetic fields. Then they are trapped and kept in beam pipes to be observed (CERN, 2011).
The Discovery of Antimatter
Carl Anderson, a professor at the California Institute of Technology in the US, observed "something positively charged, and with the same mass as an electron" in 1932 while he was researching cosmic particle showers in a cloud chamber. He determined that the tracks were of antielectrons, each created alongside an electron from the impact of cosmic rays in the cloud chamber. Because of its positive charge, he referred to the antielectron as a "positron" and reported his findings in the journal Science (CERN, 2023).
In 1954 in Berkley, California, The Bevatron was designed. This machine could collide particles of proton at 6.2 GeV, which is the expected energy for making antiprotons. The following year, Physical Review Letters, vol. 1, no. 1, November 1955, published a paper titled "Observation of antiprotons," written by Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis, who were affiliated with the University of California at Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory at the time. It declared the finding of a new subatomic particle that was exactly like the proton except for having a negative electrical charge as opposed to a positive one. The year after, the article, “Antineutrons Produced from Antiprotons in Charge-Exchange Collisions”, written by Bruce Cork, Glen Lambertson, Oreste Piccioni, and William Wenzel, was accepted for publication in the journal Physical Review (CERN, 2023).
It was established in 1965 that each of the three atom-forming particles protons, neutrons, and electrons had an antiparticle. The question was whether it was reasonable to assume that antiparticles, bonded together in antiatoms, are the fundamental building blocks of antimatter if particles, bound together in atoms, are the basic units of matter. Two teams of physicists, one
under the direction of Antonino Zichichi and utilizing the Proton Synchrotron at CERN, and the other under the direction of Leon Lederman and using the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York, simultaneously answered the question supporting the original belief (CERN, 2023).
Mesons
Mesons are subatomic particles held together by a strong nuclear force, consisting of one quark and one antiquark with ½ spins (opposite spins). They are heavier than electrons but lighter than protons and neutrons (Britannica, 2016). A quark is an elementary particle, like the electron it can not be broken down. They could be considered to be at the foundational level of particle physics, according to the Standard Model. Quarks only make up protons and neutrons and come in 6 flavors: up, down, top, bottom, charm, and strange (Cooper, 2022).
Mesons are essential to comprehending the strong force that binds atomic nuclei together. They were found in cosmic rays in the 1930s. Many mesons are unstable, but they last long enough (a few billionths of a second) to be detected by particle detectors, allowing scientists to reconstruct quark movements (Britannica, 2016).
Masons are often believed to be an exception to the matter and antimatter antimatter rule of annihilation, however, the reason mesons are able to exist long enough to be observed is that the quark and antiquark are of different flavors. The anti-quark has a down flavor and the quark has an up flavor with the opposite spin. Since the quark and anti-quark of a neutral pi meson, also known as a pi zero, are identical and not complete opposites, they do annihilate one another as rapidly (Carter, n.d.).
The up and antidown can simply destroy each other through a weak interaction, but since this interaction is still weak, it takes far longer to occur than it would if strong or electromagnetic interactions were used (“Why don't quark-antiquark pairs annihilate?”, 2011).
Conclusion
Matter and Antimatter are an impetuous paradox of one another, so different but they encompass the ideology of the yin-yang and the unity of the opposites. Their immense dueling differences orchestrate the fragile cosmic balance that the universe was created upon. They dance a battle of two distinct cosmic lovers, structured not only to annihilate each other but to tear apart and unravel the existence of the whole universe.
References
Awati, R. (2022, June 16). What is matter?.
https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/matter
Britannica, T. E. of E. (2016, October 26). Meson. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/meson
Carter, L. (n.d.). How do mesons sustain their existence? Why do the quarks and antiquarks not annihilate? Quora. December 25, 2023,
CERN. (2011). CERN accelerating science. Making antimatter | Angels & Demons - The science behind the story. https://angelsanddemons.web.cern.ch/antimatter/making-antimatter.html.
CERN. (2023). The story of antimatter. CERN accelerating science. https://timeline.web.cern.ch/timeline-header/86.
Cooper, K. (2022, November 1). Quarks: What are they?. Space.com. https://www.space.com/quarksexplained
Eliana. (2023a). Matter vs Antimatter. Today I came across new thing : antimatter. Medium.
Retrieved December 22, 2023, from https://medium.com/@elinaekka7/today-i-came-across-newthing-antimatter-82840e6035ff
Eliana. (2023b, August 10). Today I came across new thing : antimatter. Medium. December 22, 2023, https://medium.com/@elinaekka7/today-i-came-across-new-thing-antimatter82840e6035ff
Khan Academy. (n.d.). What is Newton’s third law? (article). Khan Academy.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/forces-newtons-laws/newtons-laws-ofmotion/a/what-is-newtons-thirdlaw#:~:text=Newton’s%20third%20law%3A%20If%20an,without%20experiencing%20a%20for ce%20itself.
Mann, A. (2021, December 13). What is antimatter?. LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/32387-what-is-antimatter.html.
The matter-antimatter asymmetry problem. CERN. (n.d.).
https://home.cern/science/physics/matter-antimatter-asymmetry-problem
Singh, V. (2021). 2 particles one red and one blue colliding. The Havok. Retrieved December 27, 2023, from https://thehavok.com/why-antimatter-matters/.
Vočadlo, L. (2022, March 10). What happens when matter and antimatter collide?. Culture Online. https://www.ucl.ac.uk/culture-online/case-studies/2022/mar/what-happens-when-matterand-antimattercollide#:~:text=When%20matter%20and%20antimatter%20collide%2C%20the%20particles%20 destroy%20each%20other,quark%20%E2%80%93%20see%20figure%20below).
Why don’t quark-antiquark pairs annihilate?. (2011, September 27). Physics Forum. December 25, 2023, https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/why-dont-quark-antiquark-pairsannihilate.534377/#google_vignette.
The Science Behind Rain
Scarlett Tyler, Grade 10
Introduction
Rain is made in the process of the water cycle and is a huge factor in our lives. The physics and study behind rain are important information for many concepts like gravity, condensation, evaporation, agriculture, soil nutrients, and atmospheric pressure. Understanding how rain forms, the factors that influence its intensity, and the benefits it brings to the land helps prove its importance. Atmospheric pressure and measuring with a barometer also plays a significant role in predicting rain, while determining whether rain will fall lightly or heavily. Rain helps benefit research but it's also important for supplying Earth with nutrients and helps our society function. This essay will explore the cycle of rain, the factors affecting its patterns, and the important contributions rain makes to the land/life on Earth.
The water cycle is a useful diagram scientists use to show the process of how it rains. There are 4 important processes of the water cycle; evaporation, condensation, transpiration, runoff, and precipitation. It starts when the sun heats the ocean and causes the water (H2O) to evaporate and rise into the air. Evaporation is the process of liquid turning into vapor. Then the water vapor cools and condenses to become droplets. Which then form clouds. More condensed vapor creates
bigger clouds. If enough water condenses the water drop gets heavier and begins to fall. The transition from vapor to liquid is called condensation. Condensation can take place when the air contains more water vapor than it can receive. Transpiration is the evaporation of water through pores or stomata, in the leaves of plants. Transpiration and evaporation come from all water, soils, snow, ice, vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped together and called evapotranspiration (total evaporation). Water Vapor is the primary form of moisture in the atmosphere. Precipitation that falls onto Earth and is distributed by being runoff into the sea or intercepted by soil or vegetation. The colder it is the higher the chance the rain will freeze and turn into hail or snow. Rain's gravitational force brings it to the ground, which gives rain a higher gravitational potential energy and as it falls to Earth's ground it turns into kinetic energy. The rain will then either be absorbed into the ground or become runoff and go back into rivers or the ocean and the process will start all over.
How does atmospheric pressure affect rainfall?
The air that makes up the atmosphere is made of different glasses. Nitrogen makes as much as 78% of the volume. Oxygen (O2) makes up for 21%. The remaining 1% is made of such gasses as Carbon dioxide(CO2), Argon(Ar), Hydrogen(H), and Helium(He). Air and the atmosphere do have weight. This weight decreases as you go up within the atmosphere. When gravity acts on the air, the air exerts a force upon the earth called pressure. Pressure is Pascals (Pa) which is equal to about one newton per square meter (N/m²). A barometer is a tool used to measure atmospheric pressure and used for forecasting the weather and determining altitude. A basic change in pressure is the twicedaily rise and fall due to the sun's heat. The pressure is the lowest at 4am/pm and highest around 10am/pm. A decrease in pressure on a barometer means a fall in pressure which indicates a high chance of it raining. Low pressure can also mean it will be windy or cloudy. Rising or steady pressure shows that the current weather is likely to continue. A barometer is extremely important to meteorologists to determine future weather.
The difference between light and heavy rain
Sometimes it rains and we have phrases that differ like drizzling and it's raining cats and dogs implying light and heavy rainfall. The reason rain falls in different variations is because the higher the droplets go the heavier they become. Different temperatures do factor into this as well. When it's colder the cold air holds less moisture than warm air which causes it to rise slower. Less moisture in the air means less water vapor available to condense into clouds and less potential for precipitation. When it's hotter the air holds more moisture and more intense precipitation levels. As we said before the more droplets in the cloud the heavier it will fall. Heat causes a surplus of condensation and evaporation which are key factors to elevating the chances of rainfall and the intensity of said rain.
The benefits of rain on the land
Rain is a fundamental factor in keeping the world alive. Rain provides a natural source of water and nutrients for plants and animals that inhabit the earth helping maintain ecological balance. Rainfall helps maintain the water cycle and provides fresh water for all living organisms. It helps agricultural practices by supplying the soil with the nutrients it needs. Without rain the soil becomes dryer and no longer good for farming. Without farming, humans would lose a huge part of their food supply.
Conclusion
In conclusion, rain is an extremely important factor in our lives and a crucial component of Earth's water cycle. Rain is influenced by atmospheric pressure, temperature, and environmental conditions, and understanding these factors helps us appreciate its role in replenishing the land and sustaining the natural balance of life on Earth. Rain is a complex event that is essential for maintaining the delicate ecosystem.
Citations
https://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/education/pressure.shtml https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/rain/# https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmosphere/airpressure#:~:text=In%20wet%20weather%20if%20the,or%20north%2Deast%20wind). https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/clouds/cloud_development/clouds.ht m#:~:text=Clouds%20form%20when%20the%20invisible,a%20liquid%20or%20solid%20form. https://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/what-causes-heavyrain.php#:~:text=As%20moist%20air%20moves%20up,than%20clouds%20in%20the%20summ er.
THE HUMAN BODY WORD SEARCH
SPACE CROSSWORD PUZZLE
ACROSS
DOWN
2. Distance light travels in one year
3. Nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way
7. The amount of moons Jupiter has
8. _______ Shower
9.
that revolve around each other or a common center
1. _______ Hole
4. Northern Lights
5. Pluto is a...
6. The first person to travel in space
Two stars