Friday, October 11th, 2019
“The best option for your education”
Authors: Paulina Chicaiza Jhon Criollo Paúl Pérez Rodrigo Recalde Isabel Torres
THEORIES
ADULT LEARNING THEORIES: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education Malcolm Knowles (1988) considered that adults learn in different ways from children. He introduced the term ‘‘andragogy’’ to differentiate adult learning from pedagogy; this differentiation now seems to be artificial.
THEORIES
CATEGORIES OF LEARNING THEORIES Instrumental learning theories These focus on individual experience, and include the behaviorist and cognitive learning theories. There are some overviews: -
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Behavioral theories are the basis of many competency based curricula and training programs (Thorndike 1911; Skinner 1954). Cognitive learning theories focus learning in the mental and psychological processes of the mind, not on behavior. Experiential learning has influenced adult education by making educators responsible for creating, facilitating access to and organizing experiences in order to facilitate learning.
Humanistic theories: These theories promote individual development and are more learnercentered. -
Self-directed learning suggests that adults can plan, conduct, and evaluate their own learning. It has often been described as the goal of adult education emphasizing autonomy and individual freedom in learning.
THEORIES Transformative learning theory: It explores the way in which critical reflection can be used to challenge the learner’s beliefs and assumptions (Mezirow 1978, 1990, 1995). The process of perspective transformation includes: -
A disorienting dilemma. The context, which includes personal, professional and social factors. Critical reflection.
Social theories of learning: These concepts have been developed by Etienne Wenger (Lave & Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998), who emphasizes the importance of ‘‘communities of practice’’ in guiding and encouraging the learner. Situated cognition theories are based on three main assumptions: -
Learning and thinking are social activities Thinking and learning are structured by the tools available in specific situations.
Thinking is influenced by the setting in which learning takes place (Wilson 1993).
Motivational models: One such theory is self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci 2000; ten Cate et al. 2011; Kusurkar & ten Cate 2013). It recognizes the importance of intrinsic motivation, and considers that three basic needs must be fulfilled to sustain it: Autonomy, Competence, and a feeling of belonging – or ‘‘Relatedness’’. Reflective models: Reflective learning (Scho¨n 1983, 1987) has important relevance to medical education, and more widely in society (Archer 2012).
THEORIES
Historical aspects of adult learning theories John Locke (Locke 1690) considered that the mind was a tabula rasa or ‘‘blank slate’’ at birth and that all acquired knowledge was derived from experience of the senses. These ideas were reworked and developed until the early twentieth century when Edward Thorndike derived his laws (Thorndike 1911), principally the law of effect. This was further developed by behaviourists, such as Skinner (1954) who demonstrated that some forms of learning could be demonstrated by a simple stimulusresponse paradigm.
John Locke
Chomsky (1975) considers that the type of experiments favoured by behaviourists do not explain the acquisition of higher order skills. Chomsky
Vygotsky
Chomsky argued that our brains are programmed to acquire higher order skills. Piaget, a cognitive constructivist, considered the different types of knowledge that could be acquired at different stages in a young person’s life (Piaget, 1952). Social constructivists, like Vygotsky (1978) focus on the way that the learning community supports learning. A key idea in social constructivism is that of the Zone of Proximal Development, whereby a learner can only acquire new knowledge if they can link it in with existing knowledge.
Piaget
STRATEGIES
Guided discovery learning and students’ learning strategies In a structured learning environment new knowledge is sufficiently similar to the existing knowledge to allow its relevance to be perceived. It follows that the more diverse alearning group’s membership is, the more likely the individuals within the group are to learn.
The organization phase.
Some recent work by Maudsley shows that medical students develop in the way they learn, but that the progression is not always from duality to multiplicity.
During this phase the learner looks at a problem from all angles, testing and retesting the hypothesis against what they already know. Part of this phase is fitting the information into what the learner already knows, and part of it is in constructing the new information into a story that makes sense to the learner. This is a complex task and involves the learner reflecting in action, challenging him- or herself to reflect critically.
The elaborate and refine phase.
The educator has two roles in supporting the learner:
The dissonance provided by the task has been sufficient to introduce new possibilities, facts and concepts to the learner. They must now start to make sense of them.
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We have two phases. -
The first is in this process is to consider as many of the possible explanations. The second phase mentions that we can act intuitively.
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To provide them with scaffolding, a skeleton to support their ideas and give them coherence and structure. The danger with scaffolding is that if it is too detailed it removes any freedom or responsibility from at the learner. To encourage critical reflection. Given that so much of our knowledge base changes, critical thinking is probably the most important skill we can give our students.
APPLICATIONS
Adult Learning Theory: Applications to Non-Traditional College Students Adult learners can be classified in many ways, this piece will focus on how best to understand and teach entry-level adult learners who are between the ages of 25 and 50, have a high school diploma or a GED, are financially independent, and have one semester or less of college-level coursework. Andragogy and Adult Learning Theory Much adult learning theory comes from the organizational development (OD) field where the focus on learning theory is seen as a way of providing employees with the tools they needed to perform better in the workplace Building upon theories from organizational development, Knowles identified four principles that characterize adult learners: a. They are self-directed, take responsibility for their own actions, and resist having information arbitrarily imposed on them.
b. They have an extensive depth of experience, which serves as a critical component in the foundation of their selfidentity. c. They are ready to learn. As most adult learners return to college voluntarily, they are likely to actively engage in the learning process. d. They are task motivated. Adult students returning to college attend for a specific goal and the primary component of their motivational drive tends to be internal (Knowles, 1984). In addition to the four principles put forth by Knowles, adult learners may have an established life context that determines their learning.
APPLICATIONS Adult Learning Strategy and Theory
Theory to Practice
Schraw and Moshman (1995) lay out three
One of the challenges for nontraditional students is a
metacognitive frameworks that identify how people
high attrition rate. Studies indicate that one
structure their own learning theories. These three
component leading to this high attrition rate is the
frameworks are tacit theory, informal theory, and
lack of successful integration of the nontraditional
formal theory. For educators who have adult learners
student into the collegiate environment (Andres &
in their classes, understanding tacit theory and
Carpenter, 1997; Sandler, 1999; Weldman, 1985).
informal theory is useful for identifying how adult
Because integration into the academic environment
learners learn and for creating course material that
is a challenge for adult students, developmental
can address deficiencies that arise from these
educators must understand the background of adult
metacognitive frameworks
students and develop a curriculum that addresses their particular needs. By having an awareness of the
According to tacit theory, adult learners acquire their metacognitive skills from peers, teachers, and the local culture. Adult learners likely have these skills deeply ingrained into their conceptual framework, which may make it difficult for them to change,
different learning styles of adult learners, framing learning strategies in immediately useful ways, and using competition and repetition, the developmental educator can enhance the integration of the adult learner into the collegiate environment.
regardless of the degree of error resulting from a flawed tacitly-developed learning theory
Framing
Informal theory, describing the learner as possessing
As adult learners are likely to be more task and goal-
some recognition of metacognition. Individuals who
oriented (Knowles, 1984), it is important to frame
use informal theory still acquire their metacognitive
their reintroduction to collegiate learning in such a
skills over time from their peers and their
way that they can see the benefits as directly relating
environment, but they have at least a rudimentary
to their academic careers. Introducing theories
conscious
without making a direct connection to the adult
thought
process
metacognitive framework
regarding
their
learners’ current course load can result in frustration if they don’t see the relevance of the new learning strategy. If strategies learned in developmental educational coursework prove useful in processing the material they learn in their other courses, adult learners are likely to be more accepting of the strategies.
LEARNING STYLES
Significance and Impact of Learning Styles There are different people and obviously they learn
Adults Educators According to Kierkegaard, "true
differently and for that reason it is important to
instruction begins when instructors understand their
consider the use of learning styles especially in adult
students" and their attitudes and learning approaches
education. Because adult students already have work
(as quoted in Felder & Brent, 2005, p. 69). It is a very
and academic experiences, as well as previous
important need because in that way the teacher
knowledge of life and are entities that have an impact
knows each student, as well as if he has a special
in areas such as:
need. In addition, if different methods or approaches
Adults Educational Institutions
regarding teaching are not used, the adult student
According to (Pigg et al., 1980, p. 233) they stated that Kolb's Learning Style is effective in designing
may become frustrated. Adults Learners
educational models for adult students, curriculum
The importance of adult students knowing and
material, etc. This style meets the needs of students
being aware of their learning styles. This knowledge
because there is a combination of learning styles and
can help academic progress because students seek
ensures the future of disciplines.
ways to educate themselves and get to know each other better and feel good about themselves.
LEARNING STYLES
Adults as Learners: Effective Teaching Strategies Characteristics of Adult Learners
4 Principles for Teaching Adults
Malcolm S. Knowles (1973), a pioneer in adult learning, based his work on the concept of “andragogy” (the art and science of how adults learn). He noted the following characteristics:
MOTIVATE
Need to know why they are learning something Learn through doing Are problem solvers Learn best when the subject is of immediate use Prefer social interaction Want to use their life experiences in the classroom Want to integrate new ideas with existing knowledge
Principal 1: Make Sure Your Adult Students -
Understand “Why”
INFORM Principle 2: Adults Need to Learn in Their Own Way There are three general learning styles for providing information: -
Visual learners rely on pictures. Auditory learners listen carefully. Kinesthetic or Tactile learners need to physically do something to understand it.
LEARNING STYLES
MONITOR Principle 3: Participants Feel Respected and Encouraged
Probing Questions Different types responses: -
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Feeling respected means the instructor acknowledges the adult learner’s experience and current knowledge and creates an environment that conveys respect for everyone in the room.
ENGAGE Principle 4: Use Experiential Learning -
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The first aspect of this principle is to tap into the wealth of wisdom and experience of the participants whenever it’s appropriate. The second aspect can take many forms. Any activity that gets your students involved makes the learning experiential.
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of
questions
create
specific
Fact-finding questions are targeted at verifiable data such as who, what, when, where and how much. Feeling-finding questions ask for subjective information that gets at the participants’ opinions, feelings, values and beliefs. Tell –me-more questions can help you find out more about what the participants are saying. Best / least questions help you find out more about what the participants are saying. Third-party questions help uncover thoughts in an indirect manner. “Magic wand” questions let you explore people’s true desires.
LEARNING STYLES
10 Warm Ups and Energizers They can serve to focus your participants on a new topic, open up creative thinking, and help them to apply their own learning in new ways. The feedback can also give the instructor a reading of the current knowledge and experience the participants already have. 1. EXPECTATIONS 2. BRAINSTORM (OR DATA DUMP) 3. THE POWER OF STORY 4. THREE WORDS 5. A FEW OF MY FAVORITE THINGS 6. PLAY-DOH SCULPTURES 7. SUPER POWERS 8. WHERE DO YOU STAND 9. IF YOU WON THE LOTTERY 10. M&M’S