The cambridge companion to religion and terrorism cambridge companions to religion 1st edition edite

The Cambridge Companion to Religion and Terrorism Cambridge Companions to Religion 1st Edition

Edited By James R Lewis

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thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Thereiscurrentlymuchdiscussionregardingthecausesofterrorist acts,aswellastheconnectionbetweenterrorismandreligion.Terrorismisattributedeithertoreligious “fanaticism” or,alternately,to politicalandeconomicfactors,withreligionmoreorlessdismissedas asecondaryfactor. TheCambridgeCompaniontoReligionandTerrorism examinesthiscomplexrelationshipbetweenreligionandterrorism throughacollectionofessaysfreshlywrittenforthisvolume.Bringing varyingapproaches,fromthetheoreticaltotheempiricaltothetopical, theCompanionincludesanarrayofsubjectssuchasradicalization, suicidebombing,andrationalchoice,aswellasspecificcasestudies. Theresultisarichlytexturedcollectionthatpromptsreaderstocriticallyconsidertheclusterofphenomenathatwehavecometorefertoas “terrorism” andterrorism’srelationshipwiththesimilarlyproblematic setofphenomenathatwecall “religion.”

JamesR.LewisisProfessorofReligiousStudiesattheUniversity ofTromsø(Norway).AscholarofNewReligiousMovements,he currentlyeditsorcoeditsthreebookseriesandisthegeneraleditor forthe AlternativeSpiritualityandReligionReview .Recentpublicationsinclude ViolenceandNewReligiousMovements (2011), Sacred Suicide (2014), Cults:AReferenceandGuide (2014), TheOxford HandbookofNewReligiousMovements (2015),and TheInvention ofSatanism (2016).

cambridgecompanionstoreligion Thisisaseriesofcompanionstomajortopicsandkey figuresintheologyand religiousstudies.Eachvolumecontainsspeciallycommissionedchaptersby internationalscholars,whichprovideanaccessibleandstimulatingintroduction tothesubjectfornewreadersandnonspecialists.

OtherTitlesintheSeries

americanislam EditedbyJulianeHammerandOmidSafi americanjudaism EditedbyDanaEvanKaplan americanmethodism EditedbyJasonE.Vickers ancientmediterraneanreligions EditedbyBarbetteStanleySpaeth karlbarth EditedbyJohnWebster

thebible 2ndeditionEditedbyBruceChilton

biblicalinterpretation EditedbyJohnBarton dietrichbonhoeffer EditedbyJohndeGruchy johncalvin EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

christiandoctrine EditedbyColinGunton christianethics EditedbyRobinGill christianmysticism EditedbyAmyHollywoodandPatriciaZ.Beckman christianphilosophicaltheology EditedbyCharlesTaliaferro andChadMeister classicalislamictheology EditedbyTimWinter jonathanedwards EditedbyStephenJ.Stein feministtheology EditedbySusanFrankParsons thejesuits EditedbyThomasWorcester jesus EditedbyMarkusBockmuehl

c.s.lewis EditedbyRobertMacSwainandMichaelWard liberationtheology EditedbyChrisRowland martinluther EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

medievaljewishphilosophy EditedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman modernjewishphilosophy EditedbyMichaelL.Morganand PeterEliGordon mohammed EditedbyJonathanE.Brockup pentecostalism EditedbyCecilM.Robeck,JrandAmosYong politicaltheology EditedbyCraigHoveyandElizabethPhillips postmoderntheology EditedbyKevinJ.Vanhoozer powerofevil EditedbyChadMeisterandPaulMoser puritanism EditedbyJohnCoffeyandPaulC.H.Lim thequr’an EditedbyJaneDammenMcAuliffe (continuedafterindex)

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Editedby JamesR.Lewis UniversityofTromsø

OneLibertyPlaza, 20thFloor,NewYork, ny10006,USA

CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.

ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.

www.cambridge.org

Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781316505625

doi : 10 1017/9781316492536

©CambridgeUniversityPress 2017

Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.

Firstpublished 2017

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabySheridanBooks,Inc.

AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

names :Lewis,James, 1949– editor.

title :TheCambridgecompaniontoreligionandterrorism/[editedby]JamesLewis, UniversityofTromsø.

description : 1 [edition].|NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2017.|

series :Cambridgecompanionstoreligion|Includesbibliographicalreferences andindex.

identifiers : lccn2017008345| isbn9781107140141 (Hardback:alk.paper)| isbn9781316505625 (pbk.:alk.paper)

subjects : lcsh :Terrorism–Religiousaspects.

classification : lccbl65.t47c362017|ddc201/.763325–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2017008345

isbn978-1-107-14014-1 Hardback

isbn978-1-316-50562-5 Paperback

CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, accurateorappropriate.

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Thereiscurrentlymuchdiscussionregardingthecausesofterrorist acts,aswellastheconnectionbetweenterrorismandreligion.Terrorismisattributedeithertoreligious “fanaticism” or,alternately,to politicalandeconomicfactors,withreligionmoreorlessdismissedas asecondaryfactor. TheCambridgeCompaniontoReligionandTerrorism examinesthiscomplexrelationshipbetweenreligionandterrorism throughacollectionofessaysfreshlywrittenforthisvolume.Bringing varyingapproaches,fromthetheoreticaltotheempiricaltothetopical, theCompanionincludesanarrayofsubjectssuchasradicalization, suicidebombing,andrationalchoice,aswellasspecificcasestudies. Theresultisarichlytexturedcollectionthatpromptsreaderstocriticallyconsidertheclusterofphenomenathatwehavecometorefertoas “terrorism” andterrorism’srelationshipwiththesimilarlyproblematic setofphenomenathatwecall “religion.”

JamesR.LewisisProfessorofReligiousStudiesattheUniversity ofTromsø(Norway).AscholarofNewReligiousMovements,he currentlyeditsorcoeditsthreebookseriesandisthegeneraleditor forthe AlternativeSpiritualityandReligionReview .Recentpublicationsinclude ViolenceandNewReligiousMovements (2011), Sacred Suicide (2014), Cults:AReferenceandGuide (2014), TheOxford HandbookofNewReligiousMovements (2015),and TheInvention ofSatanism (2016).

cambridgecompanionstoreligion Thisisaseriesofcompanionstomajortopicsandkey figuresintheologyand religiousstudies.Eachvolumecontainsspeciallycommissionedchaptersby internationalscholars,whichprovideanaccessibleandstimulatingintroduction tothesubjectfornewreadersandnonspecialists.

OtherTitlesintheSeries

americanislam EditedbyJulianeHammerandOmidSafi americanjudaism EditedbyDanaEvanKaplan americanmethodism EditedbyJasonE.Vickers ancientmediterraneanreligions EditedbyBarbetteStanleySpaeth karlbarth EditedbyJohnWebster

thebible 2ndeditionEditedbyBruceChilton

biblicalinterpretation EditedbyJohnBarton dietrichbonhoeffer EditedbyJohndeGruchy johncalvin EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

christiandoctrine EditedbyColinGunton christianethics EditedbyRobinGill christianmysticism EditedbyAmyHollywoodandPatriciaZ.Beckman christianphilosophicaltheology EditedbyCharlesTaliaferro andChadMeister classicalislamictheology EditedbyTimWinter jonathanedwards EditedbyStephenJ.Stein feministtheology EditedbySusanFrankParsons thejesuits EditedbyThomasWorcester jesus EditedbyMarkusBockmuehl

c.s.lewis EditedbyRobertMacSwainandMichaelWard liberationtheology EditedbyChrisRowland martinluther EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

medievaljewishphilosophy EditedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman modernjewishphilosophy EditedbyMichaelL.Morganand PeterEliGordon mohammed EditedbyJonathanE.Brockup pentecostalism EditedbyCecilM.Robeck,JrandAmosYong politicaltheology EditedbyCraigHoveyandElizabethPhillips postmoderntheology EditedbyKevinJ.Vanhoozer powerofevil EditedbyChadMeisterandPaulMoser puritanism EditedbyJohnCoffeyandPaulC.H.Lim thequr’an EditedbyJaneDammenMcAuliffe (continuedafterindex)

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Editedby JamesR.Lewis UniversityofTromsø

OneLibertyPlaza, 20thFloor,NewYork, ny10006,USA

CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.

ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.

www.cambridge.org

Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781316505625

doi : 10 1017/9781316492536

©CambridgeUniversityPress 2017

Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.

Firstpublished 2017

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabySheridanBooks,Inc.

AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

names :Lewis,James, 1949– editor.

title :TheCambridgecompaniontoreligionandterrorism/[editedby]JamesLewis, UniversityofTromsø.

description : 1 [edition].|NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2017.|

series :Cambridgecompanionstoreligion|Includesbibliographicalreferences andindex.

identifiers : lccn2017008345| isbn9781107140141 (Hardback:alk.paper)| isbn9781316505625 (pbk.:alk.paper)

subjects : lcsh :Terrorism–Religiousaspects.

classification : lccbl65.t47c362017|ddc201/.763325–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2017008345

isbn978-1-107-14014-1 Hardback

isbn978-1-316-50562-5 Paperback

CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, accurateorappropriate.

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Thereiscurrentlymuchdiscussionregardingthecausesofterrorist acts,aswellastheconnectionbetweenterrorismandreligion.Terrorismisattributedeithertoreligious “fanaticism” or,alternately,to politicalandeconomicfactors,withreligionmoreorlessdismissedas asecondaryfactor. TheCambridgeCompaniontoReligionandTerrorism examinesthiscomplexrelationshipbetweenreligionandterrorism throughacollectionofessaysfreshlywrittenforthisvolume.Bringing varyingapproaches,fromthetheoreticaltotheempiricaltothetopical, theCompanionincludesanarrayofsubjectssuchasradicalization, suicidebombing,andrationalchoice,aswellasspecificcasestudies. Theresultisarichlytexturedcollectionthatpromptsreaderstocriticallyconsidertheclusterofphenomenathatwehavecometorefertoas “terrorism” andterrorism’srelationshipwiththesimilarlyproblematic setofphenomenathatwecall “religion.”

JamesR.LewisisProfessorofReligiousStudiesattheUniversity ofTromsø(Norway).AscholarofNewReligiousMovements,he currentlyeditsorcoeditsthreebookseriesandisthegeneraleditor forthe AlternativeSpiritualityandReligionReview .Recentpublicationsinclude ViolenceandNewReligiousMovements (2011), Sacred Suicide (2014), Cults:AReferenceandGuide (2014), TheOxford HandbookofNewReligiousMovements (2015),and TheInvention ofSatanism (2016).

cambridgecompanionstoreligion Thisisaseriesofcompanionstomajortopicsandkey figuresintheologyand religiousstudies.Eachvolumecontainsspeciallycommissionedchaptersby internationalscholars,whichprovideanaccessibleandstimulatingintroduction tothesubjectfornewreadersandnonspecialists.

OtherTitlesintheSeries

americanislam EditedbyJulianeHammerandOmidSafi americanjudaism EditedbyDanaEvanKaplan americanmethodism EditedbyJasonE.Vickers ancientmediterraneanreligions EditedbyBarbetteStanleySpaeth karlbarth EditedbyJohnWebster

thebible 2ndeditionEditedbyBruceChilton

biblicalinterpretation EditedbyJohnBarton dietrichbonhoeffer EditedbyJohndeGruchy johncalvin EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

christiandoctrine EditedbyColinGunton christianethics EditedbyRobinGill christianmysticism EditedbyAmyHollywoodandPatriciaZ.Beckman christianphilosophicaltheology EditedbyCharlesTaliaferro andChadMeister classicalislamictheology EditedbyTimWinter jonathanedwards EditedbyStephenJ.Stein feministtheology EditedbySusanFrankParsons thejesuits EditedbyThomasWorcester jesus EditedbyMarkusBockmuehl

c.s.lewis EditedbyRobertMacSwainandMichaelWard liberationtheology EditedbyChrisRowland martinluther EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

medievaljewishphilosophy EditedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman modernjewishphilosophy EditedbyMichaelL.Morganand PeterEliGordon mohammed EditedbyJonathanE.Brockup pentecostalism EditedbyCecilM.Robeck,JrandAmosYong politicaltheology EditedbyCraigHoveyandElizabethPhillips postmoderntheology EditedbyKevinJ.Vanhoozer powerofevil EditedbyChadMeisterandPaulMoser puritanism EditedbyJohnCoffeyandPaulC.H.Lim thequr’an EditedbyJaneDammenMcAuliffe (continuedafterindex)

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Editedby JamesR.Lewis UniversityofTromsø

OneLibertyPlaza, 20thFloor,NewYork, ny10006,USA

CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.

ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.

www.cambridge.org

Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781316505625

doi : 10 1017/9781316492536

©CambridgeUniversityPress 2017

Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.

Firstpublished 2017

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabySheridanBooks,Inc.

AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

names :Lewis,James, 1949– editor.

title :TheCambridgecompaniontoreligionandterrorism/[editedby]JamesLewis, UniversityofTromsø.

description : 1 [edition].|NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2017.|

series :Cambridgecompanionstoreligion|Includesbibliographicalreferences andindex.

identifiers : lccn2017008345| isbn9781107140141 (Hardback:alk.paper)| isbn9781316505625 (pbk.:alk.paper)

subjects : lcsh :Terrorism–Religiousaspects.

classification : lccbl65.t47c362017|ddc201/.763325–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2017008345

isbn978-1-107-14014-1 Hardback

isbn978-1-316-50562-5 Paperback

CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, accurateorappropriate.

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Thereiscurrentlymuchdiscussionregardingthecausesofterrorist acts,aswellastheconnectionbetweenterrorismandreligion.Terrorismisattributedeithertoreligious “fanaticism” or,alternately,to politicalandeconomicfactors,withreligionmoreorlessdismissedas asecondaryfactor. TheCambridgeCompaniontoReligionandTerrorism examinesthiscomplexrelationshipbetweenreligionandterrorism throughacollectionofessaysfreshlywrittenforthisvolume.Bringing varyingapproaches,fromthetheoreticaltotheempiricaltothetopical, theCompanionincludesanarrayofsubjectssuchasradicalization, suicidebombing,andrationalchoice,aswellasspecificcasestudies. Theresultisarichlytexturedcollectionthatpromptsreaderstocriticallyconsidertheclusterofphenomenathatwehavecometorefertoas “terrorism” andterrorism’srelationshipwiththesimilarlyproblematic setofphenomenathatwecall “religion.”

JamesR.LewisisProfessorofReligiousStudiesattheUniversity ofTromsø(Norway).AscholarofNewReligiousMovements,he currentlyeditsorcoeditsthreebookseriesandisthegeneraleditor forthe AlternativeSpiritualityandReligionReview .Recentpublicationsinclude ViolenceandNewReligiousMovements (2011), Sacred Suicide (2014), Cults:AReferenceandGuide (2014), TheOxford HandbookofNewReligiousMovements (2015),and TheInvention ofSatanism (2016).

cambridgecompanionstoreligion Thisisaseriesofcompanionstomajortopicsandkey figuresintheologyand religiousstudies.Eachvolumecontainsspeciallycommissionedchaptersby internationalscholars,whichprovideanaccessibleandstimulatingintroduction tothesubjectfornewreadersandnonspecialists.

OtherTitlesintheSeries

americanislam EditedbyJulianeHammerandOmidSafi americanjudaism EditedbyDanaEvanKaplan americanmethodism EditedbyJasonE.Vickers ancientmediterraneanreligions EditedbyBarbetteStanleySpaeth karlbarth EditedbyJohnWebster

thebible 2ndeditionEditedbyBruceChilton

biblicalinterpretation EditedbyJohnBarton dietrichbonhoeffer EditedbyJohndeGruchy johncalvin EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

christiandoctrine EditedbyColinGunton christianethics EditedbyRobinGill christianmysticism EditedbyAmyHollywoodandPatriciaZ.Beckman christianphilosophicaltheology EditedbyCharlesTaliaferro andChadMeister classicalislamictheology EditedbyTimWinter jonathanedwards EditedbyStephenJ.Stein feministtheology EditedbySusanFrankParsons thejesuits EditedbyThomasWorcester jesus EditedbyMarkusBockmuehl

c.s.lewis EditedbyRobertMacSwainandMichaelWard liberationtheology EditedbyChrisRowland martinluther EditedbyDonaldK.McKim

medievaljewishphilosophy EditedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman modernjewishphilosophy EditedbyMichaelL.Morganand PeterEliGordon mohammed EditedbyJonathanE.Brockup pentecostalism EditedbyCecilM.Robeck,JrandAmosYong politicaltheology EditedbyCraigHoveyandElizabethPhillips postmoderntheology EditedbyKevinJ.Vanhoozer powerofevil EditedbyChadMeisterandPaulMoser puritanism EditedbyJohnCoffeyandPaulC.H.Lim thequr’an EditedbyJaneDammenMcAuliffe (continuedafterindex)

thecambridgecompanionto

RELIGIONANDTERRORISM

Editedby JamesR.Lewis UniversityofTromsø

OneLibertyPlaza, 20thFloor,NewYork, ny10006,USA

CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.

ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.

www.cambridge.org

Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781316505625

doi : 10 1017/9781316492536

©CambridgeUniversityPress 2017

Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.

Firstpublished 2017

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabySheridanBooks,Inc.

AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

names :Lewis,James, 1949– editor.

title :TheCambridgecompaniontoreligionandterrorism/[editedby]JamesLewis, UniversityofTromsø.

description : 1 [edition].|NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2017.|

series :Cambridgecompanionstoreligion|Includesbibliographicalreferences andindex.

identifiers : lccn2017008345| isbn9781107140141 (Hardback:alk.paper)| isbn9781316505625 (pbk.:alk.paper)

subjects : lcsh :Terrorism–Religiousaspects.

classification : lccbl65.t47c362017|ddc201/.763325–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2017008345

isbn978-1-107-14014-1 Hardback

isbn978-1-316-50562-5 Paperback

CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracy ofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain, accurateorappropriate.

Contributorspagevii Acknowledgmentsx Introduction 1 jamesr.lewis

1 DoesReligionCauseTerrorism? 11 markjuergensmeyer

2 Religion,Violence,Nonsense, andPower 23 williamt.cavanaugh

3 DiscountingReligionintheExplanationof HomegrownTerrorism:ACritique 32 lornel.dawson

4 Religion,RadicalizationandtheCausesof Terrorism 46 tommillsanddavidmiller

5 TheRoleoftheDevotedActorinWar, Revolution,andTerrorism 69 scottatran

6 GirardonApocalypseandTerrorism 89 espendahl

7 RationalChoiceandReligiousTerrorism:Its Bases,Applications,andFuture Directions 102 stephennemeth

8 TerrorasSacrificialRitual?ADiscussionof (Neo-)DurkheimianApproachestoSuicide Bombing 116 lorenzgraitl

9 ImitationsofTerror:ApplyingaRetroStyle ofAnalysistotheReligionTerrorismNexus 132 jamesr.lewis

10 TheLTTE:ANonreligious,Political, MartialMovementforEstablishingthe RightofSelf-Determinationof Īlattamils 146 peterschalk

11 TheRoleofReligioninal-Qaeda’s Violence 158 pieternanninga

12 MeaningsofSavagery:Terror,Religionand theIslamicState 172 pieternanninga

13 Where’sCharlie?TheDiscourseofReligious ViolenceinFrancePost-7/1/2015191 per-eriknilsson

14 UnderstandingtheThreatoftheIslamic StateinContemporaryKyrgyzstan 203 meerimaitkulova

15 TerrorandtheScreen:Keepingthe RelationshipofGoodandBadVirtual 216 christopherhartney

16 UnderstandingFalunGong’sMartyrdom StrategyasSpiritualTerrorism 235 jamesr.lewisandnicoles.d’amico Index 255

Contributors

MeerimAitkulova holdsanMAfromthePeaceandConflictTransformation Program,UniversityofTromsø – theArcticUniversityofNorway.Herareasof interestincludenewIslamicmovementsinKyrgyzstanandsecurityprocessesin thatcountry.

ScottAtran isDirecteurdeRecherche,CNRS,InstitutJeanNicod – Ecole NormaleSupérieureandResearchProfessor,GeraldFordSchoolofPublicPolicy andInstituteforSocialResearch,UniversityofMichigan;ResearchProfessor, JohnJayCollegeofCriminalJustice,CityUniversityofNewYork;Senior Fellow,HarrisManchesterCollegeandSchoolofSocialAnthropology,UniversityofOxford,andtheauthorofnumerousbooks,including Talkingtothe Enemy (2010)and InGodsWeTrust (2002)

WilliamT.Cavanaugh isSeniorResearchProfessorattheCenterforWorld CatholicismandInterculturalTheology,DePaulUniversityinChicago.His degreesarefromtheUniversitiesofNotreDame,Cambridge,andDuke.Heis theauthorof fivebooksandmanyarticles.Hisbookshavebeentranslatedinto French,Spanish,andPolish.

NicoleS.D’Amico isEditorialDirectorofAcademicPublishing.Shereceived herMAinJournalismStudiesattheUniversityofSheffieldandisalsoamedia officerfortheItalianPoliticsSpecialistGroupforthePoliticalStudiesAssociation.Sheisthecoauthorof “CultJournalism” inthe OxfordHandbookofNew ReligiousMovements,Vol.II,and “NewsMedia,theInternetandtheChurchof Scientology” in TheBrillHandbookofScientology (2017).

EspenDahl isProfessorofSystematicTheologyattheUniversityofTromsø. Heistheauthorof PhenomenologyandtheHoly:ReligiousExperienceafter Husserl (2010), InBetween:TheHolyBeyondModernDichotomies (2011)and StanleyCavell,Religion,andContinentalPhilosophy (2014).

LorneL.Dawson isChairoftheDepartmentofSociologyandLegalStudiesat theUniversityofWaterloo.Mostofhisresearchisinthesociologyofreligion, particularlythestudyofnewreligiousmovements.Hisworkonwhysomenew religionsbecomeviolentledtoresearchontheprocessofradicalizationin homegrownterroristgroups.Hehaswrittenthreebooks,editedfour,andpublishedoversixtyacademicarticlesandbookchapters.

EllenDobrowolski iscurrentlyagraduatestudentatUniversityinTromsø – the ArcticUniversityofNorway.Sheistheauthorof TheProphetoftheNew World:ReligiousInsanityandtheNewReligionofLouisRiel,forthcomingin theAlternativeSpiritualityandReligionReview.

LorenzGraitl isLecturerattheDepartmentofAsianandAfricanStudiesat HumboldtUniversityBerlin.HereceivedhisPhDinsociologyfromFreieUniversitätBerlin.His firstbook, SterbenalsSpektakel:Zurkommunikativen DimensiondespolitischmotiviertenSuizids (2012),discussesthehistorical genesisandcommunicativeaspectsofdifferentformsofpoliticalsuicide,as wellascorrespondingdiscoursesoflegitimization.

ChristopherHartney isaSeniorLecturerintheDepartmentofStudiesinReligionattheUniversityofSydneywhereheteachescoursesinreligionand violence,andreligionand film.Hespecializesinthestudyofnewreligionsin EastAsiaandVietnam,andhaspublishedextensivelyonCaodaism,Vietnam’s largestindigenousreligion.Heisapasteditorofthe JournalofReligiousHistory andLiteratureandAesthetics.

MarkJuergensmeyer isProfessorofSociologyattheUniversityofCalifornia, SantaBarbara.Heisanexpertonreligiousviolence,conflictresolution,and SouthAsianreligionandpolitics,andhaspublishedmorethantwohundred articlesandtwentybooks,including GlobalRebellion:ReligiousChallengesto theSecularState (2008)andhiswidelyread TerrorintheMindofGod:The GlobalRiseofReligiousViolence (2003).

JamesR.Lewis isProfessorofReligiousStudiesattheUniversityofTromsø –theArcticUniversityofNorway.Hecurrentlyeditsorcoeditsfourbookseries. Heisthegeneraleditorforthe AlternativeSpiritualityandReligionReview andformereditorofthe JournalofReligionandViolence.Lewisisalsothe authorofoverahundredarticlesandbookchapters,andtheauthor,editor,or coeditoroftwodozenmonographsandanthologies.

DavidMiller isProfessorofSociologyattheUniversityofBathandRCUK GlobalUncertaintiesLeadershipFellow(2013–2016).Recentpublications include: TheHenryJacksonSocietyandtheDegenerationofBritishNeoconservatism (2015,coauthor); StretchingtheSociologicalImagination:Essaysin HonourofJohnEldridge (2015,coeditor); TheWebofInfluence:TheRoleof AddictiveIndustriesinShapingPolicyandUnderminingPublicHealth (forthcoming,coauthor).

TomMills isasociologistandresearcherattheUniversityofBathandLecturer inSociologyatAstonUniversity.His 2015 doctoralresearchexaminedhowthe endofsocialdemocracyandtheriseofneoliberalismimpactedtheBBC,andis thebasisofhisforthcomingbook, TheBBC:TheMythofaPublicService (2016). Heisthecoauthorof WhatIsIslamophobia?:Racism,SocialMovementsand theState (2017); TheColdWaronBritishMuslims (2011)and TheBritainIsrael CommunicationsandResearchCentre:GivingPeaceaChance? (2013).

PieterNanninga studiedHistoryandReligiousStudiesandcompletedhisPhD ontherepresentationsofsuicideattacksinal-Qaeda’smartyrdomvideos

(2014).Currently,heisAssistantProfessorofMiddleEasternStudiesatthe UniversityofGroningen.Hisresearchfocusesonglobaljihadism(especially al-QaedaandtheIslamicState)andheisparticularlyinterestedintherelationshipbetweenculture,religion,andviolence.

StephenNemeth isAssistantProfessorofPoliticalScienceatOklahomaState University.HereceivedhisPhDfromtheUniversityofIowain 2010.His primaryinterestsareintheorganizationalandspatialattributesofterrorist violence.Hehasauthoredorcoauthoredseveralarticlesonterrorismandconflictmanagement.

Per-ErikNilsson isapostdoctoralscholar financedbytheSwedishResearch Council(Vetenskapsrådet).HeisworkingwithintheImpactofReligion ResearchProgram,UppsalaUniversity,andtheCHERPAresearchcenterat Sciences-Po,Aix-en-Provence.InhiscurrentresearchNilssonfocusesonsecularism,nationalism,andpopulisminFrance.

PeterSchalk isProfessorEmeritusfromUppsalaUniversity.Hismainareasof researchwasinBuddhism-Hinduismandreligiousexpressionsofsocial-economic conflictsinpresentSouthAsia,especiallyontheconceptsofmartyrdomina cross-culturalperspective.Hisfocuswasonnon-religiousconceptsaspromoted bytheLiberationTigersofTamilEalam(LTTE).

Acknowledgments

Asanyonewhohaswrittenabookoreditedananthologyknows,one typicallyacquirestoomanydebtstobeabletoadequatelyacknowledge everyone.SoattheriskofoffendingsomeindividualsIwillfailto mention,letmethankafewpeopletowhomIowethegreatestdebts.

Aboveall,letme firstthankmywife,EvelynOliver,whohas patientlybornewithmeandtoleratedtheoftenexcessiveamountof timeIhavespentonthecomputerduringthisandotherprojects.

Thenletmethankthecontributors,someofwhomhavewaitedfor yearstoseethiscollectionemergeintothelightofday.Amongthese contributors,letmeespeciallythankMarkJuergensmeyer,whowasan earlysupporterofthisproject.

Iwouldalsoliketoacknowledgethemoregeneralsupportofthe UniversityofTromsø – TheArcticUniversityofNorway,theDepartmentofHistoryandReligiousStudies,andmyReligion-Theology colleagues.

Finally,WilliamT.Cavanaugh’schapteroriginallyappearedas “Religion,Violence,Nonsense,andPower,” PatternsofViolence, ChristianReflection:ASeriesinFaithandEthics, 59 (Waco,TX:The InstituteforFaithandLearningatBaylorUniversity, 2016),pp. 11–18.It isreprintedherebypermissionofthepublisher.

Introduction

jamesr.lewis

Itcouldbearguedthattheeraofcontemporaryreligiousterrorism began(atleastintermsofpublicawareness)onthemorningofTuesday, 11 September 2001,whenfourpassengerairlinerswerehijackedby membersofal-Qaeda.Twooftheairlinerswererammedintoeachof thetwintowersoftheWorldTradeCenterinManhattan.Anotherwas rammedintothePentagon.YetanotherwasenroutetoWashington, DC,whenpassengersattackedthehijackers,whosubsequentlycrashed theplaneintoa fieldinPennsylvania.Intotal,almost 3,000 peopledied. Intheaftershockofanyterroristattack – especiallyanattack carriedoutinthenameofreligion – itiseasytounderstandreactive commentsthatdismissattackersasmindlessfanatics,drivenby irrationalreligioushatredorevenbydiabolicalmotives – asif ‘terrorists’ wereminionsoftheDevilhimself.TociteafewofGeorge W.Bush’squasi-theologicalstatementsregardingal-Qaeda’sleader, OsamabinLaden,spokenshortlyafter 9/11:

IconsiderbinLadenanevilman ... Thisisamanwhohates freedom.Thisisanevilman.

ThePresidentwasthenasked, “Butdoeshehavepoliticalgoals?” to whichBushreplied, Hehasgotevilgoals.Andit’shardtothinkinconventionalterms aboutamansodominatedbyevil.1

Again,itisnotdifficulttounderstandthefeelingsunderlyingthis rhetoric – aswellastounderstandthestrongmilitaryresponsethat followed.Thereis,however,apainfullyobviousproblemhere,namely thatthiskindofemotionalevaluationanditsaccompanyingstrategic responsedoesnotseemtohavebluntedthephenomenonwerefertoas ‘terrorism’.Ifanything,manifestationsofthisphenomenononlyseem tohavegottenworse – asif,liketheSorcerer’sApprentice,effortsto destroy ‘terrorism’ onlypromptittoexpandandgrow.

Giventheindecisiveconsequencesofpurelyreactivemilitary responses,itisclearthat(atleasttomanyresearchers,includingthe presentauthor)moretimeandenergyneedstobeinvestedintotheless flashyapproachoftryingto understand thecomplexitiesthatliebehind suchattacks – including,whenappropriate,theattackers’ religious convictions.Thisisnottosay,ofcourse,thatanalyseshavenotalready beencarriedout.Thus,forexample,inapiecepublishedin 2004,noted terrorismresearcherAndrewSilkeobservedthat,onaverage,anew bookonterrorismwasbeingpublishedeverysixhours.2 Atthattime, studiesofterrorismwerebeingconductedintheshadowof 9/11.Asa consequence,manyauthorscommented,inonewayoranother,onthe religiousconvictionsofthehijackersandontheperpetratorsofother violentactswhoseemedtobeinspiredbyreligiousmotives.

Intheyearsimmediatelyfollowingthe 9/11 attacksaswellasinthe presentperiod,thegreatmajorityofcommentatorsdonothavereligiousstudiesbackgrounds,andarenotusuallyorprimarilyinterestedin religion.Asaconsequence,thereligiousdimensionofterrorismhas oftenbeendealtwithsuperficially.Secularistcriticswithaxestogrind againstreligionhaveportrayedtheimputedirrationalfanaticismatthe coreofreligionastheprimarycauseofterrorism,whileanalystswith politicalsciencebackgroundshavetendedtodownplayifnotdismiss thereligionfactoraltogether.Academiciansfromcriminologyhave examinedterroristsascriminals;psychologistshavepostulatedpsychopathologicalmechanismsatworkintheterroristmind;andsoforth. Voicesfromreligiousstudieshavebeenrelativelyfew.

Thereis,however,nosuchthingasasinglereligiousstudies approach.Thus,anadditionalcomplexitythatneedstobetakeninto accountwhendiscussingreligionandterrorismisthat,overthepast severaldecades,therehasbeenarevolutionwithinreligiousstudies.As discussedintheir NyttBlikkpåReligion (NewViewsonReligion), IngvildSaelidGilhusandLisbethMikaelssonnotethatculturalstudies iscurrentlysupplantingpriorapproachestothestudyofreligion.3 In thisemergentapproach,religionisviewedasanaspectofculture,and stressisplacedontheinteractionbetweenreligionandothercultural phenomena.Aspartofthisproject,theveryterm ‘religion’ hasbeen interrogatedandcriticallyanalysedasanideologicalcategoryembodyingspecificallyWesternviewpointsandassumptions.Somehaveeven arguedthatthereisnothingessentialaboutreligiousphenomenathat setthemapartfromnon-religiousphenomena.Fromthispointofview, assertionsthat ‘religion’ (insomeabstractsense,distinctfromspecific traditions)causesanythingshouldberejected.Thismakesstudiesthat

assignaspecialstatusto ‘ religiousviolence’ ,suchas,totakebut oneexample,CharlesSelengut’s SacredFury , 4 problematic.Forthe mostpart,contributorstothecurrentcollectionsharethecritical understandingthat religion isaculturalconstructionratherthana trans-historicalforce,butwithoutnecessarilyrejectingtheroleof understandingspeci fi creligioustraditionsforunderstandingspeci fi c actsofviolence.

Additionally,themajorityofcontributorsshare – thoughinvarying degrees – theviewpointthatthereisanimportantsenseinwhich terrorismisalsoaculturalconstruction.BythisImeanthat terrorism isnotanobjectivephenomenonthatwerecogniseinthesamewaythat werecognise,letussay,conchshellsonthebeach.Ataverybasiclevel, likereligion,thereissomuchvariabilityamongthedifferentconflicts thatgiverisetotheincidentsofpoliticalviolencewhichwelabel ‘terrorism’ thatitmightbebettertotalkintermsofterrorisms,inthe plural.5 Additionally,theverytermcarrieswithitasenseofcondemnation,as ‘somethingthebadguysdo’ . 6 Inotherwords,thetermis inherentlysubjective,asreflectedinthefamiliarexpression, ‘oneperson’sterroristisanotherperson’sfreedom fighter’ . 7 Manyanalystshave beenespeciallyguiltyofconfiningthemeaningofterrorismtothe violentpoliticalactsofnon-stateactorsagainstnationstates,especially againstWesternnationsandtheirallies.Inrecentyears,theterrorist labelhasalsobeenextendedtoindividualsandmilitaryunits fighting underthebanneroftheIslamicState,whichhasnotbeenregardedas havingthestatusofalegitimatenationstate.

Beyondthesesharedunderstandings,forthepresentcollection Ihaveintentionallybroughttogetheraselectionofresearcherswith widelyvarying – sometimesborderingonmutuallyexclusive –approachesandtheoreticalorientations.Thus,forexample,MarkJuergensmeyer,whocontributedtheintroductorychaptertothepresent collection,wasoneofthe firstreligiousstudiesspecialiststofocuson thereligion-terrorismnexus.Asaconsequence,hisinfluentialscholarship,particularlyhis TerrorintheMindofGod (originallypublishedin 20008),hasbeenapointofreference – andcriticalreflection – inthe worksofsubsequentresearchers.Inhis TheMythofReligiousViolence, 9 WilliamT.Cavanaugh,authorofthesecondchapter,takesthe culturalapproachtoitslogicalconclusion.Explicitlycontrastinghis workwithJuergensmeyerandwithaselectionofotherearliertheorists, heassertsthatthereisnodistinctlyreligiousviolencethatplacesitina separatecategoryfromnon-religiousviolence.However,Cavanaugh’s andrelatedapproachesthatdownplaytheroleofreligionhave,inturn, Introduction 3

beenusedascriticalpointsofreferenceforsubsequentresearchers. Thus,forexample,inhischapterinthepresentcollection,LorneDawsonarguesagainstapproachesthatcompletelysidelinereligiosityasa causalfactorinunderstandingterroristacts.

Arelativelyrecentapproachto ‘terrorismstudies’ isCriticalTerrorismStudies(CTS).InamannernotunlikeCavanaugh’sinterrogationof ‘religion’ and – asthenamesuggests – CTScriticallyexaminesour assumptionsabout,andportrayalsof, ‘terrorism.’ AndwhileTomMills andDavidMillerwouldnotnecessarilyplacethemselves firmlywithin thatparticularschool,theirchapteronreligiousterrorisminthis anthologyneverthelessadoptsa ‘critical’ approachinthespiritof CTS,aswellasadoptingthehistoricalsociologicalapproachofLisa Stampnitzky’simportantstudy, DiscipliningTerror:HowExperts Invented ‘ Terrorism.’10

Ihadoriginallyconceptualisedthiscollectionasfallingintotwo parts,withPartOnecontainingchaptersfocusedondifferenttheoreticalapproaches.However,becausetheoryandcontentaresooften interwoven,Iwasforcedtoabandonthatplan.Nevertheless,thecollectioncontains fivechapterswhichemphasisetheoreticalaspects:Scott Atran,whoseworkoncognitive-evolutionaryapproachestoterrorism hasbeensoinfluential,conciselyarticulateshisthinkingabout DevotedActorsandviolenceinhiscontribution.EspenDahlexamines thecontroversialbutneverthelessresilientthoughtofRenéGirard, especiallyGirard’slaterthinkingaboutterrorism.StephenNemeth discussesrationalchoicetheory,andhowthisapproachhasbeen appliedtoreligionandterrorism.LorenzGraitlsummariseshowa varietyofdifferentresearchershaveattemptedtoapplyEmileDurkheim’sclassicsociologicalideasaboutsuicidetocontemporarysuicide bombings.Finally,thepresentauthoroffersapartialrevampingofolder approachestomythandritualintermsofstudiesof ‘imitation’,through whichheinterpretsselectaspectsofcertainradicalsubcultures.

Thesubsequentthreechaptersofferdetaileddiscussionsofthe religion-terrorismrelationship.WhereasPeterSchalk’sessaydeconstructsandcritiquestreatmentsthatportraytheTamilinsurgencyin SriLankaasmotivatedbyreligiousconcerns,PieterNanninga’spiece onal-QaedadigsdownintotheculturallyinformedmeaningsofstatementsbyOsamaBinLadentoproducearemarkablynuancedanalysis thatfundamentallycallsintoquestionwhatitmeanstosaythatalQaeda’sattacksaremotivatedby ‘religion’– or,forthatmatter,whatit meanstosaythatBinLadenwas not motivatedbyreligiousconcerns. Nanninga’ssecondchapteroffersasimilarlynuancedanalysisofhow

theIslamicStatedraws,inpart,fromMuslimtraditionsinitscreation ofspectacularactsofsymbolicviolence.

Thecollection’spenultimatethreechaptersexaminearangeof differentresponsestocontemporarynon-stateterrorism.Per-ErikNilssonexaminestheFrenchnationalresponsetotheattackonthesatirical magazine, CharlieHebdo,andthevariousculturalmeaningsencodedin thatresponse.MeerimAitkulovathenlooksathowthegovernmentof Kyrgyzstanutilisedanincidentthatwasportrayedasaresponseto IslamicStateterrorismasawayofmarshallingsupportforthegovernment,aswellasapretextforrequestingmilitaryaidfromtheUnited StatesandRussia.Lastly,ChristopherHartneyexploresthemeaningsof screenportraysofterrorism.Finally,JamesLewisandNicoleD’Amico arguethattheself-sacrificeofFalunGongpractitionersisbeingencouragedbythemovement’sleadershipaspartofalargerstrategytobring pressuretobearonChina.

surveyofcontents

Violenceinthenameofreligion,plentifulenoughinourtime,isan enduringfeatureofreligiouslife.Thehistoryofeveryreligioustradition leavesatrailofblood,thoughsomewouldarguethattheviolentimages inreligionaregreatlymisunderstood.Yetthefactremainsthatreligion is filledwiththesymbolsandlanguageofviolence.Perhapsmoretothe point,inthemodernworlddramaticactsofterrorismhavebeenundertakeninthenameofreligion.In ‘DoesReligionCauseTerrorism?’ Mark Juergensmeyersituatestheissueinamiddleground,givingreligion someresponsibilitybutnottheexclusiveroleinunderstandingthe terroristactsassociatedwithcertainreligioustraditions.Inthe first chapter,hekicksoffthecollectionbydiscussingtheattractionbetween religionandterrorismingeneralterms.

Inthepresentcollection’ssecondchapter, ‘Religion,Violence,Nonsense,andPower’,WilliamT.Cavanaughisparticularlyinterestedin examiningdiscourseabout ‘religion’ inWesternapproachestoterrorism.Religionisgenerallythoughttobeapeculiarlyvirulentsourceof –oranaggravatingfactorin – terroristattacks.Thecategorisationof ideologiesandpracticesas ‘religious’ and ‘secular’,however,isaWesternwayofdividinguptheworld.Thischaptertracesagenealogyofthe conceptofreligion,andshowshowtheconceptisnotaneutralanalyticaltoolbutratherservestodrawattentiontocertainkindsofviolence andawayfromotherkindsofviolence,thoselabeled ‘secular’ . Introduction 5

In ‘DiscountingReligionintheExplanationofHomegrownTerrorism:ACritique’,LorneL.Dawsonfocusesonthegenreofprofessional literaturepennedbyscholarsandcertain ‘terrorismexperts’ and finds, insharpcontrasttoCavanaugh,apervasivepatternofdenyingthat thereareanydirectcausalrelationshipsbetweenIslamandterrorism, andmoregenerallybetweenbeingreligiousperseandbeingaterrorist. Todemonstratethispoint,heexaminesstudiesbyaselectionofthreeof themostprolificandinfluentialscholarsofterrorism.Heconcludesby pointingoutthatmuchoftheprimarydataavailableaboutthemotivationsofjihaditerroristsare primafacie religious,andthatifwewishto beeffectiveincounteringthiskindofterrorismthen,atminimum,this self-understandingmustbetakenintoaccount.

In ‘Religion,RadicalizationandtheCausesofTerrorism’,Tom MillsandDavidMillerofferanumberofrelatedperspectivesonportrayalsoftheconnectionbetweenreligionandterrorism.Oneimportantcontributionisthattheirchapterprovidesaconcisehistoryof ‘terrorismstudies’,especiallytheemergenceofthisinchoate ‘field’ back whentheSovietUnionwasportrayedasthedrivingforcebehindterrorism,andhowthisfocuswaseventuallysupplantedbyafocusonreligionintheso-calledNewTerrorism.MillsandMilleralsoexaminethe politicalleaningsofthevariousindividualsandentitiesinvolvedin terrorismstudies(e.g.,thinktanks),andhowsuchorientationsplay intothestigmatisingofIslamasthesourceofterror.

Uncompromisingwars,revolution,andtoday ’ sglobalterrorism aredriven,inpart,byDevotedActorswhoadheretosacredortranscendentvaluesthatgenerateactionsindependentlyfrom,orout ofproportionto,rationallyexpectedoutcomes,calculatedcostsand consequences,orlikelyrisksandrewards.In ‘ TheRoleofthe DevotedActorinWar,Revolution,andTerrorism ’ ,ScottAtrandemonstrateshow fi eld-basedobservation,s urveysandexperimental studiesinreal-worldpoliticalcon fl ictsshowwaysinwhichDevoted Actors,whoareunconditionallycommittedtosacredcauses,and whosepersonalidentitiesarefusedwithinauniquecollectiveidentity,willinglymakecostlysacri fi cesincluding fi ghtinganddying, thusenablinglow-powergroupstoendureandoftenprevailagainst materiallymuchstrongerfoes

Decadesago,theFrench-Americanphilosophicalanthropologist, RenéGirard,putforwardoneofthefewwidelyinfl uentialtheories ofviolenceandreligion.Girard’ sapproachhasbeenhighlycontested, butithasneverthelesshadamajorimpactoncurrenttheoretical discussions.Fromthe 1960 sandonward,Girardputforwardand

continuallydevelopedhisthoughti ndifferentphases:fromhistheory ofmimeticdesire,toitsconsequen cesforarchaicreligionandsacrifi ce,tohisJudeo-Christiandeconstructionofsacri fi cialmyths.In ‘ GirardonApocalypseandTerrorism’ ,EspenDahldiscusseswhat hedescribesasafourthphaseofGirard ’ sthought,inwhichGirard linksreligiousterrorismandBiblicalapocalypseinordertoshedlight onthestructureofviolenceinthecontemporaryworld.

Forsocialscientists, ‘ rationalchoice’ referstowhatareactuallya rangeofmodelswhichpositthatindividualsaremotivatedbyselfinterestandadesiretomaximisetheirsenseofwell-beingor,inthe languageofeconomists,theirutility.Rationalchoicetheoristsassert thattheirmodelshavebeenabletoimposeanelementofpredictabilityonhumanbehaviour,allowingforthescienti fi cstudyofarange ofeconomic,socialandpoliticalprocesses – including ‘ religious ’ terrorism.In ‘ RationalChoiceandReligious Terrorism:ItsBases,Applications,andFutureDirections’ ,StephenNemethdiscussesthe assumptionsoftherationalchoicemo del,itsuseinterrorismresearch, anditsapplicabilitytothestudyofreligiousterrorism,objectionsto themodelanditsfutureapplications.

ManystudiesonsuicidebombingutiliseDurkheim’scategoryof altruisticsuicide,butoftendosoinasuperficialway,withoutestablishinglinkstohislargertheoryofreligion.Inthe fieldofmediastudies, Durkheim’stheoriesonritualandceremonyarefrequentlyused.They areevenappliedtosecularcontexts,thoughnotwithoutcritique.Acts ofterrorhavealsobeendescribedasmediaevents;however,they performadiametricallyoppositefunctionduetotheirdisruptiveand chaoticnature.Acknowledgingthemulti-dimensionalcharacterof eventsthatareperceivedinvariouswaysbydifferentaudiences,in ‘TerrorasSacrificialRitual?’ LorenzGraitlasksifextremeviolencelike suicidebombingsorbeheadingscanreallybeseenasDurkheimian ritual.PerhapsDurkheim’sexplanatoryframeworkmustinsteadbe modifiedtoadequatelyanswerthesequestions.

Contemporaryapproachestomyth(andritual)tendtoemphasise boththedifferencesamongmythsaswellastheembeddedcharacterof religion,inpartbecauseofamoregeneralrevoltagainstuniversalising approaches,particularlyastheseearlierapproacheswererepresentedin theworkofMirceaEliade.In ‘ImitationsofTerror:ApplyingaRetroStyle ofAnalysistotheReligion-TerrorismNexus’,JamesR.Lewisutilisesa selectionoftheseearlierunderstandingsofmythsasthebasisforinterpretingthemythic/ritualisticcharacteristicsthatmanyterroristacts seemtoexhibit.Thelaterpartofthechapterpresentsarethinkingof