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2ndEdition

ISSUESINENVIRONMENTALSCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGY

SERIESEDITORS:

ProfessorR.E.Hester,UniversityofYork,UK

ProfessorR.M.Harrison,UniversityofBirmingham,UK

EDITORIALADVISORYBOARD:

ProfessorP.Crutzen,Max-Planck-InstitutfurChemie,Germany, ProfessorS.J.deMora, PlymouthMarineLaboratory,UK, DrG.Eduljee,SITA,UK, ProfessorL.Heathwaite,Lancaster University,UK, ProfessorS.Holgate,UniversityofSouthampton,UK, ProfessorP.K.Hopke, ClarksonUniversity,USA, ProfessorP.Leinster,CranfieldUniversity,UK, ProfessorP.S.Liss, SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofEastAnglia,UK, ProfessorD.Mackay,Trent University,Canada, ProfessorA.Proctor,FoodScienceDepartment,UniversityofArkansas,USA, DrD.Taylor,WCAEnvironmentalLtd,UK.

TITLESINTHESERIES:

1:MininganditsEnvironmentalImpact

2:WasteIncinerationandtheEnvironment

3:WasteTreatmentandDisposal

4:VolatileOrganicCompoundsinthe Atmosphere

5:AgriculturalChemicalsandthe Environment

6:ChlorinatedOrganicMicropollutants

7:ContaminatedLandandits Reclamation

8:AirQualityManagement

9:RiskAssessmentandRiskManagement

10:AirPollutionandHealth

11:EnvironmentalImpactofPower Generation

12:EndocrineDisruptingChemicals

13:ChemistryintheMarineEnvironment

14:CausesandEnvironmentalImplications ofIncreasedUV-BRadiation

15:FoodSafetyandFoodQuality

16:AssessmentandReclamationof ContaminatedLand

17:GlobalEnvironmentalChange

18:EnvironmentalandHealthImpactof SolidWasteManagementActivities

19:SustainabilityandEnvironmentalImpact ofRenewableEnergySources

20:TransportandtheEnvironment

Howtoobtainfuturetitlesonpublication

21:SustainabilityinAgriculture

22:ChemicalsintheEnvironment:Assessing andManagingRisk

23:AlternativestoAnimalTesting

24:Nanotechnology

25:BiodiversityUnderThreat

26:EnvironmentalForensics

Telephone: þ44(0)1223432360,Fax: þ44(0)1223426017,Email:booksales@rsc.org Visitourwebsiteatwww.rsc.org/books Published on 29 September 2016 on

27:ElectronicWasteManagement

28:AirQualityinUrbanEnvironments

29:CarbonCapture

30:EcosystemServices

31:SustainableWater

32:NuclearPowerandtheEnvironment

33:MarinePollutionandHumanHealth

34:EnvironmentalImpactsofModern Agriculture

35:SoilsandFoodSecurity

36:ChemicalAlternativesAssessments

37:WasteasaResource

38:GeoengineeringoftheClimateSystem

39:Fracking

40:StillOnlyOneEarth:Progressinthe40 YearsSincetheFirstUNConferenceon theEnvironment

41:PharmaceuticalsintheEnvironment

42:AirborneParticulateMatter

43:AgriculturalChemicalsandtheEnvironment: IssuesandPotentialSolutions,2ndEdition

Asubscriptionisavailableforthisseries.Thiswillbringdeliveryofeachnewvolumeimmediatelyonpublicationandalsoprovideyouwithonlineaccesstoeachtitle via theInternet.For furtherinformationvisithttp://www.rsc.org/issuesorwritetotheaddressbelow.

Forfurtherinformationpleasecontact: SalesandCustomerCare,RoyalSocietyofChemistry,ThomasGrahamHouse,SciencePark, MiltonRoad,Cambridge,CB40WF,UK

ISSUESINENVIRONMENTALSCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGY

EDITORS:R.E.HESTERANDR.M.HARRISON

29 September

IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnologyNo.43

PrintISBN:978-1-78262-690-9

PDFeISBN:978-1-78262-691-6

EPUBeISBN:978-1-78262-930-6

ISSN1350-7583

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r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2017

Allrightsreserved

Apartfromfairdealingforthepurposesofresearchfornon-commercialpurposesorfor privatestudy,criticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatents Act1988andtheCopyrightandRelatedRightsRegulations2003,thispublicationmaynot bereproduced,storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withouttheprior permissioninwritingofTheRoyalSocietyofChemistryorthecopyrightowner,orinthe caseofreproductioninaccordancewiththetermsoflicencesissuedbytheCopyright LicensingAgencyintheUK,orinaccordancewiththetermsofthelicencesissuedby theappropriateReproductionRightsOrganizationoutsidetheUK.Enquiriesconcerning reproductionoutsidethetermsstatedhereshouldbesenttoTheRoyalSocietyof Chemistryattheaddressprintedonthispage.

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Preface

Agriculturalproductionisinaperiodofrapidtransformationinvolving anincreaseintheuseofbiotechnology,syntheticchemistry,biological chemicalsandbiopesticides.Thesedisciplinesareintegratedwithimprovementsinapplicationtechnology,digitalfarmingandtheuseofbig data.Whilstofferinguniqueopportunitiestoreducepotentialenvironmentalimpacts,theseadvancesalsoraisenewenvironmentalconcerns.

Thisbookprovidesanoverviewofthechangesoccurringinthe agriculturalindustry,highlightingopportunitiestoaddressimpactsand indicatingpotentialbarrierstoadoptionofnewtechnology.Thiseditionhas beenupdatedtoincludetheverylatestinagriculturaldevelopments,includingorganicfarmingandgeneticallymodifiedcrops.Itwillbeofvalueto studentsandacademicsinagriculturalcolleges,aswellasfarmersand landownersandthoseworkingonagriculturallegislation.

Inthefirstchapter,LauraMcConnellandhercolleaguesfromBayer CropSciencehavereviewedthewaysinwhichagriculturaltechnologiescan beintegratedinordertominimisetheirenvironmentalimpacts.Againsta backgroundofincreasingworldpopulation,growingnumbersofundernourishedpeople,changesinclimatethatimpactonagriculturalproductivity,includingchangesinrainfallpatterns,andtheurgentneedfor increasedyieldsinfoodproduction,theroleoftheagrochemicalindustry andgrowthintheareaofagriculturalbiologicalsisdiscussed.Precision agriculture,enhancedbydigitalfarmingtechnologies,isofincreasingimportanceinraisingproductivitylevelsandimprovingthesustainabilityof cropproduction.Improvedsyntheticpesticideslessentheriskstohumans andwildlifeandemergingtechnologiessuchasgeneticengineeringareof growingsignificance.Landmanagementandregulatorycontrolsalsoare addressedhere.

Agriculturalproductivityisheavilydependentontheapplicationof fertilisernutrientstoland,butinefficientusecancauseenvironmental damage.Chapter2,byRichardMcDowellandhiscolleaguesfrom NewZealandandWales,outlinesourcurrentunderstandingofvitalNandP

IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnologyNo.43 AgriculturalChemicalsandtheEnvironment:IssuesandPotentialSolutions,2ndEdition

EditedbyR.E.HesterandR.M.Harrison

r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2017

PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org

useefficienciesbycropsandtherangeandcost-effectivenessofstrategiesto mitigatefertiliserlossesthatresultincontaminationoffreshwater.Equally importanttoagriculturalproductivityistheuseofpesticides,including fungicides,insecticides,molluscicidesandplant-growthregulators,herbicides.InadditiontotheirtreatmentinChapter1,thesearegivenspecial attentioninChapter3byStevenBaileyandcolleaguesfromNaturalEngland andHarperAdamsUniversity.Theirwide-rangingtreatmentaddressesin detailthreecurrentissuesofconcern:impactsonterrestrialwildlifeand biodiversity,thedevelopmentofresistance,andcontaminationofwaterby pesticides.

Chapter4isconcernedwithagroecologyandorganicfarmingasapproachestoreducingtheenvironmentalimpactsofagriculturalchemicals. NicLampkinandhiscolleaguesfromtheOrganicResearchCentrein Newbury,UK,describehowtheseapproachescanbeadvantageousforbiodiversity,resourceuseandemissions,butwithpotentialtrade-offsagainst productivityandprofitability.These,however,canbemitigatedthrough theuseofspecialistmarketsfororganicproductsandthroughagrienvironmentalsupportorpaymentforecosystemservices.Thechapter includesinternationalcomparisonsanddetailsthemeasuresneededfor financialviability.Attheotherendofthespectrumofagriculturalpractices, Chapter5dealswiththesubjectofcropbiotechnologyforweedandinsect control.WrittenbyHuwJonesofAberystwythUniversity,thisdescribesthe rapiduptakeandwidespreaduseofGMcropvarietieswithtoleranceto herbicidesandresistancetoinsectpests.However,thisremainsahighly controversialarea,particularlyforfoodcropssuchassoybean,maizeand sugarbeet.GMinsect-resistant(Bt)cotton,ontheotherhand,hasbeen widelyadoptedthroughouttheworld,notonlyshowingresistancetothe traditionalbollwormandbudwormpestsbutalsobeingassociatedwith increasesinbeneficialarthropodpredators,suchasladybirdsandspiders, andadecreaseinaphidpests.TherearemanyregulatoryhurdlestoovercomeforfuturegrowthofGMcropcultivationbutthepressureforincreased agriculturaloutputandefficiencytogetherwiththedevelopmentofnew, highlyspecificgene-editingtechniquesarepowerfuldrivers.

Thefinaltwochaptersinthebookarefocusedontheparticularareasof aquacultureandhorticulture.InChapter6,ColinMoffat,headofscienceat MarineScotland,describesboththebenefitsandhazardsofaquaculturefor foodproduction.Seafoodiswellknownforbeinghighlynutritious;seaweed iswidelyusedinfoodaroundtheworld,butparticularlyinChinaandJapan; freshwaterfishspeciessuchastroutandcarphavebeenpopularthroughout history;shellfishsimilarlyhavebeenfoundtobeapartofthehumandietat leastasfarbackastheBronzeAge.Aquaculture,themanagedproductionof marineorfreshwateranimalsandplants,istheworld’sfastest-growing systemforfoodproduction,currentlyproducingmorethan70million tonnesannually,thebulkofthisinAsia.Thechapterreviewstheuseof chemicalsandpharmaceuticalsinaquacultureforthecontrolofpests, diseaseandparasites,andtheenvironmentalhazardthatthesepresent. vi Preface

Chapter7,writtenbyRosemaryCollieroftheUniversityofWarwickand hercolleaguesfromNIABatEastMalling,isconcernedwiththewiderange ofplantfamiliesencompassedbythetermhorticulture.Theseincludefruit, vegetablesandornamentalsgrowntoprovidecutflowers,pot,gardenor landscapingplants;bothoutdoorandprotectedcropsinglasshousesand polytunnelsarealsoreferenced.Althoughthesecropsoccupyarelatively smallfootprintincomparisonwitharablecropsandgrasslandsupporting livestock,theyoftenrequiremoreintensiveuseoffertilisersandpesticides inordertoachievetheappearanceandqualitycriteriathatdetermine marketvalue.Thechaptersummarisescropproductionmethods,focusing ontheuseofagriculturalchemicalsandpotentialapproachestoreducing theirenvironmentalimpact;casestudiesoncarrotproductionandintegratedpestanddiseasemanagementinappleorchardsareincluded.

RonaldE.Hester RoyM.Harrison

Published on 29 September 2016 on

Editorsxiii

ListofContributorsxv

IntegratingTechnologiestoMinimizeEnvironmentalImpacts1

LauraL.McConnell,IainD.KellyandRussellL.Jones

1Introduction1

2DevelopmentsandEmergingTrendsintheCropProtectionIndustry3

3ImprovingtheSustainabilityofCropProduction6

3.1ImprovedPropertiesofSyntheticPesticides7

3.2EmergingTechnologies7

3.3EnhancedApplicationTechnologies10

3.4BetterLandManagement12

4RoleofRegulationinTechnologyDevelopment13 Acknowledgements15 References15

TheEnvironmentalImpactofFertiliserNutrientsonFreshwater20

RichardW.McDowell,PaulJ.A.WithersandTonyJ.vanderWeerden

1Introduction20

2TheRequirementsandUtilisationofNandPbyDifferentCrops21

3TheLoss,ImpactandManagementofFertiliserNandP fromLandtoWater26

3.1TheAvailabilityofNutrientSourcestoLoss26

3.2PathwaysofNutrientLoss29

3.3Attenuation30

3.4ProcessingofNandPinFreshwaters32

3.5StrategiestoMitigateNandPLosses33

IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnologyNo.43 AgriculturalChemicalsandtheEnvironment:IssuesandPotentialSolutions,2ndEdition

EditedbyR.E.HesterandR.M.Harrison

r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2017 PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org

4FutureDirectionsandResearchGaps35 Acknowledgements38 References38 Pesticides45

StevenBailey,JohnP.H.Reade,AlastairBurnandSusanZappala

1Introduction45

2PesticidesandTerrestrialWildlife46 2.1Introduction46

2.2PesticideUseandImpactsonTerrestrialBiodiversity: PastandPresent47

2.3WildlifeProtectionGoalsinPesticideRegulation48

2.4DirectEffects51

2.5IndirectEffects55

2.6PesticidesandProtectedSitesandHabitats57 2.7Conclusion59

3PesticideResistance61

3.1Introduction61

3.2HerbicideResistance61

3.3FungicideResistance63

3.4InsecticideResistance65

3.5ManagingResistance66 4PesticidesinWater67

4.1WhatIstheIssue?67

4.2PesticideMovementtoWater70

4.3RegulatoryControl76

4.4Mitigation78

4.5LookingAhead:DoWeHaveAlltheAnswers?83 Acknowledgements84 References84

AgroecologyandOrganicFarmingasApproachestoReducingthe EnvironmentalImpactsofAgriculturalChemicals94 NicolasH.Lampkin,JoSmithandLaurenceG.Smith

1Introduction95

2WhatareAgroecologyandOrganicFarming?95 2.1Agroecology95

2.2OrganicFarming96 3TypicalPracticesandSystems98

3.1WhatRoleDoesChemistryPlayintheseApproaches?98

3.2RestrictingInputsorRedesigningSystems?100

4PerformanceofAgroecologicalApproachesRelativeto ConventionalIntensiveSystems101

4.1Biodiversity101

4.2ResourceUseandEmissions102

4.3Productivity105

4.4FinancialViability107

5Conclusions109 Acknowledgements109 References109

CropBiotechnologyforWeedandInsectControl114

HuwD.Jones

1GlobalTrendsofGMCropAdoption114

2HerbicideTolerance118

2.1ADriverforChangingAgronomicPractices118

2.2ConservationTillageAgriculture118

2.3ManagingResistance119

3Pest/DiseaseResistance120

3.1BtGenesandToxins120

3.2ReductioninInsecticideUse121

3.3EvolutionofInsectResistancetoCryToxins122 4WhatDoestheFutureHold?124

4.1RegulatoryHurdlesandAsynchronousApprovals124

4.2WhatistheFutureforCropBiotechnology?125 References126

Aquaculture128

ColinF.Moffat

1Aquaculture–AModernFoodIndustrywithaLongHistory129

1.1OurSeasandOceansasaSourceofFood129

1.2AChangingLandscape131

1.3ALongHistory132

1.4ThePresentDay136 2Challenges137

3TheUseofChemicalsforPest/Disease/ParasiteControl142

3.1TheRequirementtoUsePesticides142

3.2SeaLiceTreatmentsinSalmonAquaculture149

3.3Non-salmonidAquaculture152

3.4Anti-foulingCompounds153

3.5Disinfectants157

4PotentialImpactsontheEnvironmentandNon-targetSpecies157

5StrategiestoReduceChemicalUsage163

5.1TestingtheProducts163

5.2ChangestoHusbandry163

5.3MinimisingInfectionPressurebyCooperation BetweenFarmswithinaGeographicallyConnectedArea165

5.4Bioremediation166

5.5UsingNaturalCompoundswhichare EnvironmentallyBenign166

5.6ImprovingtheHost’sResistancetoDisease166

RosemaryH.Collier,JerryV.CrossandXiangmingXu

1Introduction176 2Overview178 2.1Fertilisers178 2.2SoilHealth179

2.3Pests,DiseasesandWeeds180

2.4WaterUseandWaterQuality185 3CaseStudies186

3.1CaseStudy1:CarrotProductionintheUK186

3.2CaseStudy2:IntegratedPestandDiseaseManagement (IPDM)inAppleOrchards192

Editors

RonaldE.Hester,BSc,DSc(London),PhD(Cornell), FRSC,CChem

RonaldE.HesterisnowEmeritusProfessorofChemistry intheUniversityofYork.HewasforshortperiodsaresearchfellowinCambridgeandanassistantprofessorat CornellbeforebeingappointedtoalectureshipinchemistryinYorkin1965.HewasafullprofessorinYorkfrom 1983to2001.Hismorethan300publicationsaremainly intheareaofvibrationalspectroscopy,latterlyfocusingon time-resolvedstudiesofphotoreactionintermediatesandonbiomolecular systemsinsolution.Heisactiveinenvironmentalchemistryandisafounder memberandformerchairmanoftheEnvironmentGroupoftheRoyalSociety ofChemistryandeditorof‘IndustryandtheEnvironmentinPerspective’ (RSC,1983)and‘UnderstandingOurEnvironment’(RSC,1986).Asamember oftheCounciloftheUKScienceandEngineeringResearchCounciland severalofitssub-committees,panelsandboards,hehasbeenheavilyinvolved innationalsciencepolicyandadministration.Hewas,from1991to1993,a memberoftheUKDepartmentoftheEnvironmentAdvisoryCommitteeon HazardousSubstancesandfrom1995to2000wasamemberofthePublicationsandInformationBoardoftheRoyalSocietyofChemistry.

RoyM.Harrison,BSc,PhD,DSc(Birmingham),FRSC, CChem,FRMetS,HonMFPH,HonFFOM,HonMCIEH

RoyM.HarrisonisQueenElizabethIIBirminghamCentenaryProfessorofEnvironmentalHealthintheUniversity ofBirmingham.HewaspreviouslyLecturerinEnvironmentalSciencesattheUniversityofLancasterandReader andDirectoroftheInstituteofAerosolScienceatthe UniversityofEssex.Hismorethan400publicationsare mainlyinthe fieldofenvironmentalchemistry,althoughhis currentworkincludesstudiesofhumanhealthimpactsofatmosphericpollutantsaswellasresearchintothechemistryofpollutionphenomena.Heisa pastChairmanoftheEnvironmentGroupoftheRoyalSocietyofChemistry forwhomheedited‘Pollution:Causes,EffectsandControl’(RSC,1983;

Published on 29 September 2016 on

FifthEdition2014).Hehasalsoedited‘‘AnIntroductiontoPollution Science’’,RSC,2006and‘‘PrinciplesofEnvironmentalChemistry’’,RSC, 2007.Hehasacloseinterestinscientificandpolicyaspectsofairpollution, havingbeenChairmanoftheDepartmentofEnvironmentQualityof UrbanAirReviewGroupandtheDETRAtmosphericParticlesExpertGroup. HeiscurrentlyamemberoftheDEFRAAirQualityExpertGroup,the DepartmentofHealthCommitteeontheMedicalEffectsofAirPollutants, andCommitteeonToxicity.

on 29

ListofContributors

StevenBailey,NaturalEngland,ParksideCourt,HallParkWay,TelfordTF3 4LR,UK.Email:steven.bailey@naturalengland.org.uk

AlastairBurn,NaturalEngland,SuiteD,UnexHouse,BourgesBoulevard, PeterboroughPE11NG,UK

RosemaryH.Collier,WarwickCropCentre,SchoolofLifeSciences, UniversityofWarwick,Wellesbourne,WarwickCV359EF,UK.Email: rosemary.collier@warwick.ac.uk

JerryV.Cross,NIABEMR,NewRoad,EastMalling,KentME196BJ,UK

HuwD.Jones,InstituteofBiological,Environmental&RuralSciences (IBERS),AberystwythUniversity,Penglais,Aberystwyth,Ceredigion,SY23 3DA,Wales,UK.Email:huw.jones@aber.ac.uk

RussellL.Jones,BayerCropScience,2TWAlexanderDrive,Research TrianglePark,NorthCarolina,27709USA

IainD.Kelly,BayerCropScience,2TWAlexanderDrive,ResearchTriangle Park,NorthCarolina,27709USA

NicolasH.Lampkin,OrganicResearchCentre,ElmFarm,Hamstead Marshall,Newbury,RG200HR,UK.E-mail:nic.l@organicresearchcentre.com

LauraL.McConnell,BayerCropScience,2TWAlexanderDrive,ResearchTriangle Park,NorthCarolina,27709USA.Email:laura.mcconnell@bayer.com

RichardW.McDowell,AgResearch,InvermayAgriculturalCentre,Puddle Alley,PrivateBag50034,Mosgiel9053,NewZealand;Agricultureand LifeSciences,LincolnUniversity,Lincoln7647,NewZealand.Email: richard.mcdowell@agresearch.co.nz

ColinF.Moffat,MarineScotland,MarineLaboratory,375VictoriaRoad, Aberdeen,AB119DB,Scotland,UK.Email:colin.moffat@gov.scot

JohnP.H.Reade,HarperAdamsUniversity,Newport,ShropshireTF108NB,UK

JoSmith,OrganicResearchCentre,ElmFarm,HamsteadMarshall,Newbury, RG200HR,UK

LaurenceG.Smith,OrganicResearchCentre,ElmFarm,Hamstead Marshall,Newbury,RG200HR,UK

TonyJ.vanderWeerden,AgResearch,InvermayAgriculturalCentre,Puddle Alley,PrivateBag50034,Mosgiel9053,NewZealand.

PaulJ.A.Withers,SchoolofEnvironment,NaturalResourcesand Geography,BangorUniversity,DeiniolRoad,BangorLL572UW,UK.

XiangmingXu,NIABEMR,NewRoad,EastMalling,KentME196BJ,UK

SusanZappala,NaturalEngland,ApexCourt,CityLink,NottinghamNG2 4LA,UK

Published on 29 September 2016 on

IntegratingTechnologiestoMinimize EnvironmentalImpacts

LAURAL.MCCONNELL,*IAIND.KELLYANDRUSSELLL.JONES

ABSTRACT

Historically,syntheticagrochemicalshavehadacentralrolein increasingyieldsinagriculturalproduction.Assessmentmethodsand approachestowardsmonitoringandaddressingtheenvironmental impactofthetechnologywererelativelysimple.Agriculturalproduction,however,isinaperiodofrapidtransformation.Researchand Developmentcompaniesaretransformingtheiractivitiestoprovide amoreholisticapproachthatprovidesproducerswithintegrated solutions.Theseapproachesencompassbiotechnology,synthetic chemistry,biologicalsandbiopesticides,alldisciplinesthatareintegratedwithimprovementsinapplicationtechnology,digitalfarming andtheuseofbigdata.Whilethesedevelopmentsmayraisenew questions,theyalsoprovideuniqueopportunitiestoreducepotential environmentalimpacts.Thischapterprovidesanoverviewofthe changesoccurringintheagriculturalindustryandhighlightswaysin whichwemightaddresstheireffects,whilepointingoutsomeofthe barrierstoadoptionofnewtechnologies.

1Introduction

*Correspondingauthor.

In2015,theUnitedNationsadoptedthe2030AgendaforSustainable Developmentand17specificSustainableDevelopmentGoalsasaguidefor IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnologyNo.43 AgriculturalChemicalsandtheEnvironment:IssuesandPotentialSolutions,2ndEdition EditedbyR.E.HesterandR.M.Harrison r TheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2017

PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org

2

LauraL.McConnell,IainD.KellyandRussellL.Jones

globaldevelopmentdesignedtoendpoverty,protecttheplanetandensure prosperityforall.1 SustainableDevelopmentGoalnumber2isto‘‘end hunger,toachievefoodsecurityandimprovednutrition,andpromote sustainableagriculture’’by2030.Atpresent,about790millionpeopleare undernourished;2 therefore,achievingthisambitiousgoalwillrequiresignificantandrapidtechnologicalinnovationsinagriculturalproduction systemsacrosstheworld.OtherUNgoals,relatedtosustainablemanagementofwaterandaddressingclimatechangeanditsimpacts,willalso requiremajoradvancesinagriculturaltechnologyinordertoincreasefood productioninasustainablemanner,whilekeepingpacewiththedemands ofanexpandingpopulation.

Thegoalofendinghungerandachievingfoodsecuritybecomesmore challengingconsideringthatthecurrentworldpopulationof7.3billionis projectedtoreach9.7billionby2050and11.2billionby2100.3 Inaddition, globallifeexpectancyisprojectedtoincreasefrom70to77yearsby 2045–2050.Developingcountriesareexpectedtohavethegreatestrateof populationgrowth,andaveragefoodconsumptionindevelopingcountries isprojectedtoincreasefrom2005levelsof2619kcalperson 1 day 1 to 3000kcalby2050.4 Withincreasingconsumption,thereisanincreasein demandforamorediverseandprotein-richdietincludingmeat,milk,eggs andvegetableoils.Currentlyapproximately12%ofthelandsurfaceofthe globeisusedforcropproduction.Recentestimatesindicatethatupto34% oftheworld’slandsurfacecouldbeusedforagriculture,although approximately20%hasbeendeemedmarginalandunsuitableforrainfed agriculture.Therefore,carefulmanagementandprotectionofthemost productiveagriculturallandswillberequired,alongwithnovelapproaches toachievingincreasedproductiononmarginallands.

Climatechangeisexpectedtobringgeographicalchangesinprecipitation patternsandthereforewillaltergrowingconditionsandwateravailabilityin agriculturalproductionregionsbothwithintheUSA5 andacrossthe world.6,7 Plantgrowthofbothcropsandweedspecies,willbeaffectedby increasesincarbondioxideintheatmosphere.8 Whilesomeagricultural regionsmaybenefitfromincreasedyieldsinawarmingclimate,northward expansionofinsectpestsandweedspeciesisalreadybeingobserved.Climatechangewillbringaboutadditionalchallengessuchasageneralincreaseinextremeweathereventswhichcandamagecropsandfood distributionnetworks,agrowingriskoffood-borneillnessesandrising troposphericozoneconcentrations,resultingindamagetocropyields.9,10

Withincreasingpopulationandawarmingclimate,additionalfactorswill alsoinfluencetheglobalavailabilityoffood,possiblyleadingtowater scarcityanddecreasedwaterquality.Approximately70%ofglobalfreshwaterconsumedisusedinagriculture.11 Whiledomesticwastewatercanbe recycled,muchofthewaterusedincropproductioniseitherincorporated intobiomassoristranspired.Asincomesindevelopingcountriesincrease, greaterdemandformeatanddairyproductswillrequiremorewaterfor productioncomparedwithstaplecrops;itisestimatedthatagricultural

productionwillneedtogrowby60%by2050tokeepupwiththisdemand. Increasedproductiononthesamelimitedlandresourceswilllikelyrequirea greaterportionofcroplandunderirrigation,leadingtoincreasedwater scarcityandthepotentialfordecreasedwaterquality.Ifincreasingdemand forfoodcannotbemetwithincreasingyields,thenmoremarginallandswill bepushedintofoodproduction,reducinghabitatsfornativeplantsand animalsalongwithotherecosystemservicesthattheselandscurrently provide.Thischapterseekstosummarizerecentandemergingtrendsinthe cropprotectionindustry,todiscussthechallengesfacingtheindustry,the roleofregulationinnewtechnologydevelopmentandrecommendationson findingawayforwardtowardsincreasedproductionandimprovedsustainabilityinagriculture.

2DevelopmentsandEmergingTrendsintheCrop ProtectionIndustry

Overthelastapproximately70years,yieldincreases,particularlyinthe developedcountries,havebeensignificant.IntheUSA,forexample,soybean yieldshavedoubledandcornyieldshaveincreasedbyafactoroffour, leadingtoincreasesinfarmtotalfactorproductivityof1.47%peryearfrom 1948to2013.12 Muchofthisimprovementwasachievedthroughtheuseof moreefficientandautomatedmachinery,improvedseedvarietiesand agriculturalchemicals,includingfertilizersandpesticidesand,mostsignificantly,herbicides.Increasedyieldshaveloweredthecostofcommodities andhaveresultedinamoreabundantfoodsupply,whilepubliclyand privatelyfundedagriculturalresearchhascontributedtoinnovationsand newtechnologies.

ThepesticideconsumptionindexintheUSAincreasedsteadilyfrom1960to themid-1990sbuthasnowleveledoffandbeguntodecline,whilethetotal farmoutputhascontinuedtoincrease(Figure1).12 Thislevelingoffofpesticideusecoincidedwiththeintroductionofnewgenetictraitsintothemarket, beginningaround1996(Figure2).13 Herbicide-tolerantsoybeansachieved morethan80%adoptioninthemarketplaceby2003;useofherbicide-tolerant cottonincreasedmoreslowlybutexceeded80%by2012.Insecticide-tolerant cotton,orBtcotton,containsthegenefromasoilbacteriumnamed Bacillus thuringiensis, andproducesaproteinthatistoxictocertaininsectpests. Btcottonusehasincreasedto84%ofallacresofcottonplanted,asof2014. Publicinvestmentsinagriculturalresearch,however,haveslowedin recentyearswhileprivatesectorresearchanddevelopmenthasgrown rapidly.14 Continuedinvestmentsfrombothpublicandprivatesourceswill berequiredtoachievetheincreasesinagriculturalproductivityrequiredto meetglobalfooddemand.Withintheprivatesector,thechallengeoffeeding anever-increasingpopulationinaperiodofchangingenvironmental conditionswillbeaccomplishedbyamuchdifferentindustry,underthe scrutinyofacivilsocietywithnear-universalaccesstosmartphone

4 LauraL.McConnell,IainD.KellyandRussellL.Jones

Figure1 Comparisonoftrendsinpesticideconsumptionindexandtotalfactor productivityofUSfarmsfrom1948to2013.Pesticideconsumptionindices arerelativetouseinAlabamain1996 ¼ 1.Valuesdisplayedarethesumof consumptionindexfor48states. Sourcedata:Ref.12.

Figure2 AdoptionofgeneticallyengineeredcropsintheUnitedStates,1996to 2015.HT ¼ herbicide-tolerantcrop,Bt ¼ insectresistantcropcontaining thegenefrom Bacillusthuringiensis. Sourcedataandfigureadaptedfromref.13.

technology,informationandcommentaries.Somehaverecentlyproposed thattheglobaleconomyisenteringafourthindustrialrevolution,leadingto extremeautomationandconnectivity.15 AtarecentWorldEconomicForum, anewreportonthe FutureofJobs waspublished,describingchangesinthe economyexpectedby2020:

‘‘WearetodayatthebeginningofaFourthIndustrialRevolution.Developmentsinpreviouslydisjointedfieldssuchasartificialintelligenceand machinelearning,robotics,nanotechnology,3Dprintingandgeneticsand biotechnologyareallbuildingonandamplifyingoneanother.Smart

systems—homes,factories,farms,gridsorentirecities—willhelptackle problemsrangingfromsupplychainmanagementtoclimatechange.Concurrenttothistechnologicalrevolutionareasetofbroadersocioeconomic, geopoliticalanddemographicdevelopments,withnearlyequivalentimpactto thetechnologicalfactors.’’16

Theeffectsofthesechangesineconomicforcesarealreadyevidentinthe structureoftheagrochemicalindustryasitentersaperiodoffasterconsolidationandmorediverseacquisition.Intheperiod1998–2002theindustryhadasignificantconsolidationasthetenmajorresearchand developmentcompaniesmergedtocreatesix(Monsanto,Syngenta,Bayer CropScience,Dupont,DowAgroSciencesandBASF),17 eachwithtotalsales ofover h5millionin2014(Figure3).Asthefigureshows,withinthesesix companiestherewasacleardifferentiationinthesizeoftheagrochemicals businesscomparedtotheseedbusiness.MonsantoandDuPonthavegreater than50%oftheirsalesinseedswhileinSyngenta,DowAgroSciencesand BayerCropScience,agrochemicalspredominate.BASFfocusedprimarilyon agrochemicals.

Thelastfiveyearshaveseenconsiderableacquisitionsandpenetrationby themajoragrochemicalcompaniesintotheareaofagriculturalbiologicals. In2012alone,BayeracquiredAgraQuest,Inc.,Monsantoannouncedits BioDirect t technologyplatform,BASFacquiredBeckerUnderwood,Inc., andSyngentaacquiredPasteuriaBioscience,Inc.aseachofthesecompanies strengthenedtheirpositioninthispromisingnewareaofagricultural technology.Definitionsoftheterm‘‘biologicals’’varybutgenerally

Figure3 Estimatedtotalsalesofagrochemicalsandseedsin2014formajorcrop protectioncompanies(millioneuros)excludingnon-agriculturalbusiness. EstimatesbasedoncompanypublicationsandBayerCropScienceinternal marketresearch.

encompassmicrobials,plantextractsorotherorganicmaterial,andbeneficialinsectsthatcanbeusedtocontrolpestsanddiseasesorstimulatecrop efficiency.Thevariationindefinitionofthemarketmakesitssizedifficultto measurebutoneestimateputthemarketatapproximately$3billion,which includedbiopesticidesatanestimated$2billionandbiostimulantsaround $1billion,withthepotentialforcontinuingdouble-digitgrowththroughout thedecade.18

Anotheremergingarearelatedtotheincreaseinglobalconnectivitythat hasseenacquisitionbythemajoragrochemicalcompaniesisprecision agriculture,enhancedbydigitalfarmingtechnologies.Themostnotableof thesewastheacquisitionofTheClimateCorporationbyMonsantoin2013. Thispurchasesignaledtheimportancethatreadyaccesstoreal-timefield datawillhavetothegrowerofthefuture.Advancedanalytics,synthesizing localconditionsincludingsoiltype,weatherpatterns,cropvarietiesand patternsofdiseaseoutbreaksandinsectinfestationwillallbeamongstthe decision-makingtoolsavailabletogrowersintheireffortstomaximize productivity.Approachestodataaccess,dataownershipanddatasecuritywill beanintegralpartoftheimplementationandsuccessofthesedevelopments, andequipmentmanufacturersareakeylinkinthisdigitaldevelopment.Selfdriving,highlycomputerizedplanters,sprayersandharvestersareeither availablenoworindevelopment,withtheabilitytorespondinreal-timeto satellite,droneandground-basedrobots.In2015,Deere&Companyagreedto acquirethePrecisionPlanting,LLCequipmentbusinessfromMonsanto’s ClimateCorporationSubsidiarytoenableexclusive,nearreal-timedata connectivitybetweencertainJohnDeerefarmequipmentandtheClimate FieldViewt platformaspartoftheinnovationalignmentwithinthissectionof theindustry.Inrelatedactivities,BayerCropSciencehasrecentlyacquired proPlant,Inc.,andSyngentahasacquiredAgConnections,LLC.

Majorfactorsthatareimpactingthefutureofthecropprotectionindustry aretheenormouscostofproductdevelopmentandchallengesofincreasing regulatoryhurdles.Thecostofdevelopmentofanewagrochemicalis currentlyestimatedatapproximately$290million,with11yearsfrom discoverytocommercialization,19 whileanewplantbiotechnologytraitcosts approximately$135million,with12to16yearsfromlabtocommercialization.20 Clearly,inafewyearstheappearanceoftheindustrywillbevery differentfromtodayandislikelytobemorefar-reachingthanthedevelopmentsthatoccurredataroundthemillennium.Consolidationwithinthe largeresearchanddevelopmentcompanieswillbeaccompaniedbyventure capitalandnichemarketinvestmentsasnewandpotentiallydisruptive technologiescontinuetoevolve.

3ImprovingtheSustainabilityofCropProduction

Sincetheintroductionofsyntheticchemicalsasakeycontributorinprotectingplantsandincreasingyields,concernshavebeenraisedaboutpotentialenvironmentalimpacts.Assessingandreducingtheseimpactshasbeen 6

amultidimensionalprocessandthepaceonlyincreasesasagronomycontinuestoencompassnewscientificdisciplinesandtechnology.Someofthese willbeexpandeduponlaterinthisbookbutanoverviewisprovidedhere.

3.1ImprovedPropertiesofSyntheticPesticides

Whilepesticideusehasincreasedovertime,thepropertiesofpesticide productshaveevolvedtominimizetheirriskstohumansandwildlife.Two basictrendsinnewcompoundshaveoccurredoverthepast2to3decades: newcompoundsaredesignedwithmorespecificmodesofaction,which tendtolimiteffectstospecifictaxa,andaremorehighlyactive,facilitating loweruserates.Whilepotentialenvironmentaleffectscanbesimilarfora sensitivespecieswithcompoundswithbroadormorespecificmodesof action,fewerspeciesareatriskfromcompoundswithspecificmodesof action.Intheinsecticidearea,forexample,theuseofthenon-specific acetylcholinesterase(AChE)inhibitors(organophosphatesandcarbamates) was51%in1999.Together,theAChEinhibitorsandthoseinsecticides actingonthevoltage-gatedsodiumchannel(vgSCh),inparticularthepyrethroids,accountedforapprox.70%oftheworldmarket.21 By2012,AChEinhibitorusehaddroppedmuchfurtherto19%,whilepyrethroidshad remainedrelativelyconstantat17%andneonicotinoiduse(introducedinthe 1990s)hadrisento24%tobecomethemajorclassesofinsecticides.22 Both theneonicotinoidandpyrethroidclassesofinsecticideshavemodesofaction whicharehighlytoxictoinsects,buthavelowmammalianandaviantoxicity comparedtoorganophosphateandcarbamateinsecticides.Riskmitigation strategiescan,therefore,bemuchmoretargeted,generallyfocusingon aquaticspeciesforpyrethroidsandpollinatorspeciesforneonicotinoids. Furthermore,use-ratesinthe1980sweretypically1–10kgha 1,whilemany compoundstodayareappliedatrateslessthan1kgha 1 andaverageapplicationratesofsomesulfonylureasareaslowasafewgramsperhectare.23

TheUSDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA),EconomicResearchService conductedanexhaustiveanalysisofpesticideuseon21cropsfrom1960to 2008andexaminedchangesovertimeinenvironmentallyrelevantcharacteristicsofpesticidesonthemarket(Figure4).24 Themostdramatictrend observedwasthedeclineintoxicitytohumans,butdeclinesinaverage annualapplicationrateandpersistencewerealsoobserved.Declinesin pesticideconsumptionhavealsobeenaccompaniedbymajorchangesin applicationtechniques,aswellasstewardshipefforts(e.g. integratedpest management,nutrientmanagementandconservationagriculture)to maintainthesustainabilityofchangingagriculturalprocesses.

3.2EmergingTechnologies

3.2.1GeneticEngineering. ThistechnologyencompassesGenetically ModifiedOrganisms(GMOs)producedbyrecombinantDNAtechniques and,morerecently,techniquessuchasgeneeditingandRNAinterference

8

LauraL.McConnell,IainD.KellyandRussellL.Jones

Figure4

Averagequalitycharacteristicsofpesticidesappliedtofourmajorcrops, 1968to2008,whereRateisthepoundsofactiveingredientappliedper acreinoneapplicationtimesthenumberofapplicationsperyear;Toxicity isdefinedastheinverseofthewaterqualitythresholdinpartsperbillion, servingasanenvironmentalriskindicatorforhumansfromdrinking water;andPersistenceistheshareofpesticideproductsinusewithsoil half-lifelessthan60days.

Sourcedataandfigureadaptedfromref.24.

(RNAi).AswasmentionedinSection2,theoverallrateofpesticideuse intheUSAhasleveledoffwiththerapidadoptionofGMOcropsinthe late-1990s,whilefarmproductivityhascontinuedtoincrease(Figure1). Initiallyasinglegenewasinserted,producingherbicide-tolerantorinsectresistantplants.Thetechnologyhasbeenveryeffectiveandhasfundamentallychangedfarmingpracticesinmanypartsoftheworld.However, thebroadacceptanceoftheglyphosate-toleranttrait,coupledwithuseof thenon-specificherbicideglyphosate,has,unfortunately,ledtotheevolutionofglyphosate-resistantweedspecies.25 Herbicide-tolerantandinsecticide-resistanttraitscannowbestackedincottonandincorn,and useofthesestackedtraitvarietieshasincreasedovertime.13 Withthese advancedGMOs,insecticideapplicationscanbeminimizedandherbicide applicationsmoretargetedwhenweedpestpressureincreases.Effortsare underwayinacademic,industryandgovernmentscientificcirclestotrack weedresistance26 andtoincreasestewardshipprogramstoeducatefarmersonhowtomanageresistance.27 AdoptionofGMOcropshasalsoledto increasedadoptionofconservationtillagepractices,leadingtobeneficial effectsonsoilandwaterquality.28

Furtheradvancesinthetechnologyarefocusingonoutputtraitswhich, forexample,enhanceyield,conferdroughtresistance,enhancenitrogen-use efficiencyandconferdesirablequalitypropertiesonthecrop.Anearly entryintothisfieldwastheso-called‘‘goldenrice’’engineeredtoproduce

b-carotene,theprecursortovitaminA,aswellasanincreaseddoseof absorbableiron.29,30 Modifiedanimalsinourfoodsupplyarealsobeing approvedbytheUnitedStatesFoodandDrugAdministration(USFDA).For example,theAquAdvantageSalmon,whichgrowstomarketsizemore quicklythannon-geneticallyengineeredsalmon,wasapprovedbythe USFDAin2015.31 Otherpotentialdevelopmentsfromgenomicsinclude improvedfoodsafety(i.e. microbialcontaminationandallergendetection), ediblevaccinesandtherapeuticmonoclonalantibodiesproducedfrom plants.32

Morerecently,targetedtechnologieshavebeendevelopedthathavethe potentialforsite-specificgenemodification.Theseincludesite-directed zinc-fingernucleases(ZFNs)andtranscriptionactivator-like(TAL)-effector nucleases(TALENs).ArecententryintothisfieldisCRISPR-Cas9,whichis showingpromiseasafacilemethodoftargetingspecificgenes.33 AnalternativetechnologyisRNAi,wherebyRNAmoleculesareusedtodownregulate theexpressionofgenes.34 AninterestingaspectofRNAiisthat,whileitcan beincorporatedandexpressedintheplant,itcanbesprayeddirectlyonto theplantasabiological.35 Thepotentialofthisnewareaofresearchis enormousfornumerousindustries.Idealproductswouldbehighlyspecific tocertaininsectpestswhileprotectingbeneficialorganisms.Itisalsobeing envisagedthatRNAicouldbeusedtoincreasethenutritionalvalueofcertaincropsortolimittheaccumulationofallergenicproteins.36

3.2.2AgriculturalBiologicals. Agriculturalbiologicalscoverabroad rangeofproducts.Generallytheyareconsideredtoincludeproducts derivedfromnaturallyoccurringmicroorganisms,plantextractsorother organicmatter,butcanalsoincludemacroorganismssuchasbeneficial insects,mitesandnematodes.37 Theyaretypicallyseparatedintotwo majorcategories:biopesticidesandbiostimulants.Biopesticidesinclude plantextracts,organicacidsandsemiochemicals(e.g. pheromones)and canalsoencompasssuchtermsasnaturalproductchemistryandsecondarymetabolites.Alsoincludedinthisgroupareintactmicrobes(generally bacteriaandfungi,butviruses,protozoansandyeastsalsoarebeinginvestigated).Biologicalproductsgenerallyhavemultiplemodesofaction whichmakethemresilienttoresistancedevelopment.Theyareexcellent toolsinintegratedpestmanagementandareoftenusedinconjunction withconventionalcropprotectionproductstoreduceresidueswhilemaximizingyields.Biostimulantsmodifyplantphysiologytoincreasethevigor ofthecrop.Theyprotectagainstabioticstress;forexampleimprovingroot establishment,facilitatingtheuptakeofnutrients.Relatedtobiostimulantsarethebiofertilizers,suchasnitrogen-fixingbacteria,whichalso increaseplantvigor.

3.2.3OrganicAgriculture. Landincertifiedorganicproductionaccountedforabout1%ofagriculturallandgloballyin2010,theyearfor whichthemostrecentfiguresareavailable.38 Whilethecurrentareaof

10 LauraL.McConnell,IainD.KellyandRussellL.Jones

organicproductionislow,thedemandforcertifiedorganicproducehas increasedtomorethan4%offoodsalesintheUSA.39 TheUSDAdefines organicagricultureas‘‘theapplicationofasetofcultural,biological,and mechanicalpracticesthatsupportthecyclingofon-farmresources,promoteecologicalbalance,andconservebiodiversity’’.40 Organicagriculture alsoprovidesfor:‘‘Asalastresort,producersmayworkwiththeirorganic certifiertouseanapprovedpesticide,suchasnaturallyoccurringmicroorganisms,insecticidesnaturallyderivedfromplants,oroneofafewapprovedsyntheticsubstances’’.Clearlythereisapotentiallinkbetween organicagricultureandbiologicals,butnotallbiologicalsarecertifiedorganicundertheUSDANationalOrganicProgram.Theimpactoforganicproductionanditsroleinaddressingenvironmentalimpactwillbedependent onitslevelofadoption.Overallorganicyieldshavebeenshowntobelower thannon-organic,whilepremiumsfororganicproducehavetosomeextent offsetthisfromagrowerperspective.38,41 Thefinaladoptionwill,therefore, beaneconomicbalancebetweenpressureonarableland,yields,andsocietaldemandsasfoodrequirementscontinuetopressurelandresources.

3.2.4WasteReductionStrategies. Afrequentlyoverlookedstrategyinincreasingtheworldfoodsupplyistheadoptionofmethodstoreduce waste.Ithasbeenestimated42 thatroughlyonethirdoffoodproduced forhumanconsumptionislostorwastedglobally,amountingtoabout 1.3billiontonsperyear.Theselossesoccurthroughoutthesupplychain, startingfromtheinitialphasesofcropproductionthroughtoconsumptionbytheconsumer.Thesourceandmagnitudeoflossesvaryby regionandcountry,withmuchmorebeinglostindevelopedcountries thanindevelopingcountries.The percapita figureforfoodwastedbyconsumersinEuropeandNorthAmericaisestimated42 at95–115kgyear 1 , whileinsub-SaharanAfricaandSouth/SoutheastAsiaitisonly6–11kg year 1.Indevelopedcountiesdisposalofediblefoodbytheconsumerisa majorfactor,whileindevelopingcountriesdeficienciesinsupplychain management,infrastructureandaccesstoadvancedagriculturaltechnologiesallcontribute.IntheUnitedStatesalone,estimatesarethat31% (133billionpounds)ofthe430billionpoundsoftheavailablefoodsupply attheretailandconsumerlevelsgoesuneaten(2010values).43 Thishasled toeffortssuchastheDepartmentofAgricultureandtheEnvironmental ProtectionAgencyDeputyannouncing,inlate2015,anationalfoodwaste reductiongoal,callingfora50%reductionby2030,largelythroughfederal government-ledpartnershipswithcharitableorganizations,faith-basedorganizations,theprivatesectorandlocal,stateandtribalgovernments.

3.3EnhancedApplicationTechnologies

3.3.1SprayDriftReductionTechnology. Considerableadvancesinspraydrift-reductiontechnology,suchaslow-driftnozzlesandapplication equipment,havebeenmadeinthelast2–3decades.44 Progresshasalso

beenmadeinthedevelopmentofdrift-reductionagentsandlow-driftformulations;forexample,DowAgroScienceshasintroducedanherbicide product,EnlistDuot,with90%lessdriftthanotherformulationsofthe sameherbicides.Significantprogresshasalsobeenmadeinestablishing guidelinesforstudiestomeasurespraydrift;forexample,ISO 22856:2008,45 andinmodelingspraydriftasafunctionofsprayequipmentandsprayconditions.46 Alloftheseimprovementshavehelpedreducetheamountofmaterialmovingawayfromthefieldandimpactson terrestrialandaquaticnon-targetorganisms.

3.3.2SeedTreatments. Theuseofseedtreatmentshasdramaticallyincreasedinthepast2–3decades.Priortothe1980s,seedtreatmentswere usedprimarilyasdisinfectants.Inthe1980sthe introductionoflow-rate, highlyeffectivesystemicfungicidesprovidedseedlingprotectionfromsoilbornefungi, e.g. triadimenolandmetalaxyl,followedbythesystemicinsecticidesinthe1990s,imidaclopridbeingthefirstwhichprotected againstbothbelow-groundsoilinsectsandearly-seasonabove-ground pests.Anti-nematodeactivityappearedinthe2000swithabermectinand thebiologicaltreatmentVotiVos .

Seedtreatmentsprovideprotectionforyoungplants,withlesspesticide materialthanifappliedasbroadcast,bandedorin-furrowtreatments. Amajoradvantageofseedtreatmentscomparedtobroadcastapplicationsis thatthetreatedseedistypicallylocatedbelowthesoilsurface,significantly reducing runoff lossesofcropprotectionchemicalstonearbyterrestrialor aquaticenvironmentsoutsidethefield.47 Therearenumerousadditional benefitsandusesofthistechnology.Improvementsintheuseofthetechnologycontinuetodevelopandprogresshasbeenmadeinthepastfewyears inproductformulations,applicationequipmentandadditivesthatreduce dustemissionsduringtheplantingoftreatedseed.48

Seedtreatmentshavebeenassociatedrecentlywithpollinatoreffects, althoughthisismoreofafunctionofthespecificproductsused,since similarissuescouldoccurwithalternativeapplicationmethods.Improved methodologiesarebeingdevelopedtoassesstheenvironmentalrisksto pollinatorsingeneral,includingseedtreatment.49 Systemicactivitycanbea positiveforasoil-appliedcompoundsinceithasnoeffectoninsectsthatdo notconsumetheleavesorotherportionsofaplant,leavingmostbeneficial insectsunharmed.50

3.3.3PrecisionAgriculture. Precisionagricultureusesacombinationof geospatialinformationandsensorstooptimizeinputstocropsasafunctionoflocationinthefield.Suchanapproachcanincreaseyieldsbymakingcertainthatareasofthefieldbenefitingfrominputs(nutrientsand cropprotectionproducts)receivethemintherightquantities,whileminimizinginputsbynotapplyingamaximumraterequiredinoneportionof thefieldtotheentirefield.51

12 LauraL.McConnell,IainD.KellyandRussellL.Jones

Digitalfarmingutilizeshigh-resolutiongeopositioningsystems(GPS)and geographicinformationsystems(GIS)tocouplereal-timedatacollection technologywithaccuratepositioninformation.Datacollectedfromsensors mountedonsatellitesorunmannedaerialvehiclescanbeusedtogenerate high-resolutionimageryofcropfieldsandtoautomatenutrientandpesticideapplicationsbyfarmers.Suchanapproachofminimizinginputsalso reduceslossofnutrientsandcropprotectionproductsinrunoffandtile drainsmovingtonearbysurfacewaterbodies,therebyreducingpotential effectsonaquaticorganisms.Asmentionedearlier,enormousadvancesin digitalfarmingtechnologyareexpectedoverthenextfewdecades,providing seamlessintegrationwithfarmequipmentandleadingtodecreaseduseof fertilizers,pesticidesandwaterresourceswhilemaximizingyields.

3.4BetterLandManagement

3.4.1NoandLowTillage. Theuseofno-andlow-tillagehasbeen heavilypromotedformanyyearsasawayofreducingtheamountofsoil movingofftilledfieldsduringrainstormsandpreventingimpactson aquaticorganisms.Inordertomaintainaweed-freefield,theweedsremovedbytillagemustbekilledbyherbicides.Thelackoftillagehelps promoteinfiltrationofwater(andnutrientsandcropprotectionchemicals presentinthewater)reducingrunoffaswellassoilerosion.Thispractice wasadoptedforabout40%ofcombinedcorn,soybean,wheat,andcotton intheUSAin2010–11(89millionacresperyear)52 andcontributedtothe healthofsurfacewaterbodiesinthisregion.Globally,adoptionratesof no-tillvarybyregion,withthelargestpercentagesfoundinSouthAmerica at47%,NorthAmericaat38%,AustraliaandNewZealand12%,and muchlowerratesinotherregionsoftheworld.53

3.4.2IncreaseduseofDrainageWaterManagement. Thenumberoffields inwhichtiledrainagehasbeeninstalledcontinuestoincrease.Tiledrains aretypicallyinstalledinfieldswithpoordrainagetoallowaccesstothe fieldbyfarmequipmentandtopreventdamagetocropsbystanding water.Concernsexistregardingtiledrainsasapathwayfornutrientand pesticidemovementtostreams.54 However,drainagewatermanagementis nowaUSDA-NaturalResourcesConservationServicepractice55 thatcanbe usedtoincreaseyieldsbymaintaininghealthysoilmoisturelevelsandto reduceoff-sitemovementofnutrients,pathogenandpesticideresidues. Watercontrolstructuresfunctionlikeundergrounddamsthatallowfarmerstocontrolthewaterlevelinthesoil.Duringmanureapplications,for example,thedrainoutletcanberaisedtominimizedrainageandreduce nutrientandpathogenloading.Duringnon-productionperiods,drainage managementcanbeusedinamannerbeneficialtolocalwildlife.Combinedwithotherconservationmeasurestoreduceerosion,properdrainagemanagementcanimprovewaterqualityandincreaseprotectionof aquatichabitats.

3.4.3VegetativeBufferStrips. Afterthedepressionanddustbowlofthe 1930sintheUnitedStates,vegetativebufferstripswereencouragedasa waytopreventsoilinfieldsmovingintosurfacewaterbodiesandalsoas awayoflimitingmovementofcompoundstightlyboundtothissoil. Later,researchersbegantorealizethatbufferstripscouldalsobeuseful inremovingcompoundslessstronglyboundtosoil.56,57 TheUSDApromotesvegetativebufferstripsasaconservationmeasureforimproving surfacewaterquality,providingfinancialassistancetogrowersfortheir implementation.58 Considerableprogresshasbeenmadeinthepastdecadeinestimatingtheeffectivenessofvegetativebufferstripsinremoving cropprotectionproductsfromrunoffwater.59

3.4.4TreatmentofFurrowIrrigationOutflow. Inaridregions,furrowirrigationissometimesusedtoprovidewatertocrops.Typicallythereisoutflowofwaterfromsuchanirrigationsystem,whichcontainssediments, nutrientsandcropprotectionproducts.Theultimatesolutioniseither storingandreusingthiswaterorswitchingtodripirrigation.However, suchmanagementpracticeshavenotyetbeenadoptedbyallgrowers. Anumberoftechnologieshavebeenadoptedtoreducetheimpactof furrowirrigationoutflowonsurfacewaterbodiesandthesecanbeused individuallyorsometimesincombinationwithothertechnologies.The additionofpolyacrylamide(PAM)canbeusedtominimizelossesofsedimentandcropprotectionproductsboundtosediment.60 Sedimentation basins,oftenincombinationwiththeuseofPAM,canalsobeusedto minimizelossesofsedimentandcropprotectionproductsboundtosediment.61 Vegetativeditchesandconstructedwetlandsreceivingoutflows frommultiplefields62 areothertechniquesusedforremovingsediment andpromotingdegradationofcropprotectionproductsinoutflowsfrom furrow-irrigatedfields.

3.4.5ManagementofUrbanApplications. Recentworkwithpyrethroids hasshownthatswitchingfrombroadcastapplicationstospotorcrack andcreviceapplicationsonimpervioussurfaces,suchasdrivewaysor garagedoorswithadirectpathwaytostreetdrains,candramaticallyreducemovementofcropprotectionproductsappliedinurban/suburban settingstourbanstreams.63 Formulationscanbeoptimizedtoreducerunofflossesofcropprotectionproductsinurban/suburbanenvironments, butthiseffectislessthanthatobtainedfromswitchingfrombroadcastto spotorcrackandcreviceapplications.64

4RoleofRegulationinTechnologyDevelopment

Clearlythechallengesbeingfacedinincreasingglobalproductionina sustainablemannerwillbedependentoninnovativeapproaches,integrating multipletechnologiestominimizeenvironmentalimpactwhileavoiding failuretocontrolpests,diseasesandweedsduetoresistancedevelopment.