Organization
ConferenceChair
JoaquimFilipePolytechnicInstituteofSetúbal/INSTICC,Portugal
ProgramChair
JaapvandenHerikLeidenUniversity,TheNetherlands
ProgramCommittee
GiovanniAcamporaUniversityofNaplesFedericoII,Italy
JoseAguilarUniversidaddeLosAndes,Venezuela
VarolAkmanBilkentUniversity,Turkey
IsabelMachado Alexandre
InstitutoUniversitáriodeLisboa(ISCTE-IUL) andInstitutodeTelecomunicações,Portugal
VickiAllanUtahStateUniversity,USA
Klaus-DieterAlthoffGermanResearchCenterforArti ficialIntelligence/ UniversityofHildesheim,Germany
FranciscoMartínez Álvarez
PablodeOlavideUniversityofSeville,Spain
FrédéricAmblardIRIT-Université Toulouse1Capitole,France
CesarAnalideUniversityofMinho,Portugal
AndreasS.AndreouCyprusUniversityofTechnology,Cyprus
DianaArellanoFilmakademieBaden-Württemberg,Germany
Tsz-ChiuAuUlsanNationalInstituteofScienceandTechnology, RepublicofKorea
Jean-MichelAuberletIFSTTAR(FrenchInstituteofScienceandTechnology forTransport,DevelopmentandNetworks),France
SnorreAunetNorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Norway
KerstinBachNorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology, Norway
FlorenceBannayIRIT,ToulouseUniversity,France
FedericoBarberUniversidadPolitécnicadeValencia,Spain
KamelBarkaouiCedric-CNAM,France
JohnBarndenUniversityofBirmingham,UK
RomanBartákCharlesUniversityinPrague,CzechRepublic
TeresaM.A.BasileUniversità degliStudidiBari,Italy
SebastiánBasterrechNationalSupercomputingCenter,TechnicalUniversity ofOstrava,CzechRepublic
NabilBelacelNationalResearchCouncilCanada,Canada
ChristophBenzmüllerFreieUniversitätBerlin,Germany
CaroleBernonUniversityofPaulSabatier,ToulouseIII,France
ElHassanBezzaziFaculté DroitLille,France
LudovicoBorattoEurecat,Spain
MarcoBottaUniversità degliStudidiTorino,Italy
DjamelBouchaffraCentredeDéveloppementdesTechnologiesAvancées (CDTA),Algeria
NouryBouraqadiEcoleDesMinesDeDouai,France
RamónF.BrenaTecnológicoDeMonterrey,CampusMonterrey,Mexico
PaoloBrescianiFondazioneBrunoKessler,Italy
StefanoBromuriUniversityofAppliedSciencesWesternSwitzerland, Switzerland
MarkBurginUniversityofCalifornia,USA
AleksanderByrskiAGHUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Poland
GiacomoCabriUniversità diModenaeReggioEmilia,Italy
PatriceCaireUniversityofLuxembourg,Luxembourg
SilviaCalegariUniversità DegliStudiDiMilanoBicocca,Italy
DavidCamachoUniversidadAutónomadeMadrid,Spain
RuiCamachoFaculdadedeEngenhariadaUniversidadedoPorto, Portugal
ValérieCampsIRIT,Université PaulSabatier,France
AmilcarCardosoUniversityofCoimbra,Portugal
JohnCartlidgeUniversityofNottinghaminNingboChina,China AnaCasaliUniversidadNacionaldeRosario(UNR)andCIFASIS, Argentina
CristianoCastelfranchiInstituteofCognitiveSciencesandTechnologies, NationalResearchCouncil,Italy PatrickDeCausmaeckerKatholiekeUniversiteitLeuven,Belgium AmedeoCestaCNR,ConsiglioNazionaledelleRicerche,Italy Wen-ChungChangNationalTaipeiUniversityofTechnology,Taiwan Mu-SongChenDa-YehUniversity,Taiwan AdamCheyerSRIInternational,USA AndersLyhne Christensen InstitutoSuperiordasCiênciasdoTrabalhoedaEmpresa, Portugal
RobinCohenUniversityofWaterloo,Canada CarloCombiUniversità degliStudidiVerona,Italy GabriellaCortellessaISTC-CNR,Italy
PauloCortezUniversityofMinho,Portugal MassimoCossentinoNationalResearchCouncil,Italy MatteoCristaniUniversityofVerona,Italy
DarrylN.DavisUniversityofHull,UK
AndreasDengelGermanResearchCenterforArti ficialIntelligence (DFKIGmbH),Germany EnricoDentiAlmaMaterStudiorum,Università diBologna,Italy
IoanDespiUNE,Australia
VIIIOrganization
DraganDoderUniversityofLuxembourg,Luxembourg
AgostinoDovierUniversità degliStudidiUdine,Italy
MarekJ.DruzdzelUniversityofPittsburgh,USA
BéatriceDuvalLERIA,France
MichaelDyerUniversityofCaliforniaLosAngeles,USA
StefanEdelkampUniversitätBremen,Germany
ThomasEiterTechnischeUniversitätWien,Austria
FabrícioEnembreckPonti ficalCatholicUniversityofParaná,Brazil
FlorianaEspositoUniversità degliStudidiBari,Italy
MariaFasliUniversityofEssex,UK
ChristopheFeltusLuxembourgInstituteofScienceandTechnology, Luxembourg
StefanoFerilliUniversityofBari,Italy
AlbertoFernándezUniversityReyJuanCarlos,Spain
VladimirJ.FilipovicBelgradeUniversity,Serbia
KlausFischerGermanResearchCenterforArti ficialIntelligenceDFKI GmbH,Germany
RobertoFloresChristopherNewportUniversity,USA
AgostinoForestieroICAR-CNR,Italy
ClaudeFrassonUniversityofMontreal,Canada
MuhammadMarwan
MuhammadFuad AarhusUniversity,Denmark
NaokiFukutaShizuokaUniversity,Japan
SarahAliceGagglTechnischeUniversitätDresden,Germany
CatherineGarbayCNRS,France
LeonardoGarridoTecnológicodeMonterrey,CampusMonterrey,Mexico
AlfredoGarroUniversità dellaCalabria,Italy
MaxGathCenterforComputingandCommunicationTechnologies, UniversitätBremen,Germany
BenoitGaudouUniversityofToulouse1Capitole,France
AndreyGavrilovNovosibirskStateTechnicalUniversity, RussianFederation
Jean-PierreGeorgé UniversityofToulouse,IRIT,France
MariaGiniUniversityofMinnesota,USA
AdrianGiurcaBrandenburgischeTechnischeUniversitätCottbus, Germany
HermanGomesFederalUniversityofCampinaGrande,Brazil
MadhuGoyalUniversityofTechnology,Sydney,Australia
PerryGrootRadboudUniversityNijmegen,TheNetherlands
SvenGroppeUniversityofLübeck,Germany
JamesHarlandRMITUniversity,Australia
HisashiHayashiToshibaCorporation,Japan
PedroRangelHenriquesUniversityofMinho,Portugal
JaapvandenHerikLeidenUniversity,TheNetherlands
HannoHildmannUniversidadCarlosIIIdeMadrid,Spain
RolfHoffmannDarmstadtUniversityofTechnology,Germany
OrganizationIX
WladyslawHomendaWarsawUniversityofTechnology,Poland Wei-ChiangHongOrientalInstituteofTechnology,Taiwan
MarkHoogendoornVrijeUniversiteitAmsterdam,TheNetherlands
AlesHorakMasarykUniversity,CzechRepublic
JomiFredHübnerFederalUniversityofSantaCatarina,Brazil
Marc-PhilippeHugetUniversityofSavoieMont-Blanc,France
LukeHunsbergerVassarCollege,USA
DieterHutterGermanResearchCentreforArti ficialIntelligence, Germany
CarlosIglesiasUniversidadPolitécnicadeMadrid,Spain
HiroyukiIidaJAIST,Japan
ThomasIoergerTexasA&MUniversity,USA LuisIribarneUniversityofAlmería,Spain
SherifIshakLouisianaStateUniversityandA&MCollege,USA
MichaelJenkinYorkUniversity,Canada
JanuszKacprzykPolishAcademyofSciences,Poland OzgurKafaliNorthCarolinaStateUniversity,USA
GeylaniKardasEgeUniversityInternationalComputerInstitute,Turkey PetrosKefalasCITYCollege,InternationalFacultyoftheUniversity ofSheffi eld,Greece
GrahamKendallUniversityofNottinghamMalaysiaCampus,Malaysia
GabrieleKern-IsbernerTUDortmundUniversity,Germany
Sung-DongKimHansungUniversity,RepublicofKorea
StefanKirnUniversityofHohenheim,Germany
FernandoKochSamsungResearchInstitute,Brazil
Ah-LianKorLeedsBeckettUniversity,UK
JohnKorahIllinoisInstituteofTechnology,USA
HristoKoshutanskiUniversidaddeMálaga,Spain
AndrewKosterSamsung,Brazil
IgorKotenkoSt.PetersburgInstituteforInformaticsandAutomation oftheRussianAcademyofSciences(SPIIRAS), RussianFederation PavelKralUniversityofWestBohemia,CzechRepublic
Uirá KuleszaFederalUniversityofRioGrandedoNorte(UFRN),Brazil
AmruthN.KumarRamapoCollegeofNewJersey,USA
Yau-HwangKuoNationalChengKungUniversity,Taiwan CatKutayUTS,Australia
MilaKwiatkowskaThompsonRiversUniversity,Canada
JérômeLangUniversité Paris-Dauphine,France
RamoniLasisiVirginiaMilitaryInstitute,USA LetiziaLeonardiUniversità diModenaeReggioEmilia,Italy
RenatoLevyIntelligentAutomation,Inc.,USA
Churn-JungLiauAcademiaSinica,Taiwan
Francesca AlessandraLisi
Università degliStudidiBariAldoMoro,Italy
Chao-LinLiuNationalChengchiUniversity,Taiwan
XOrganization
WeiruLiuQueen’sUniversityBelfast,UK
FaraónLlorens-LargoUniversidaddeAlicante,Spain
StephaneLoiseauLERIA,UniversityofAngers,France
AntónioLopesUniversityInstituteofLisbon,Portugal NoelLopesIPG,Portugal
ManuelLópez-IbáñezUniversityofManchester,UK
EmilianoLoriniIRIT-CNRS,France
AdolfoLozano-TelloUniversidaddeExtremadura,Spain BerndLudwigUniversityofRegensburg,Germany
DanielaLopézDeLuiseCIISLab,Argentina
José MachadoCentroALGORITMI,UniversityofMinho,Portugal
LorenzoMagnaniUniversità degliStudidiPavia,Italy
LetiziaMarchegianiOxfordUniversity,UK
ElisaMarengoFreeUniversityofBozen-Bolzano,Italy
GoretiMarreirosPolytechnicInstituteofPorto,Portugal
NicolaDiMauroUniversità diBari,Italy
MiguelAngelMayoskyNationalUniversityofLaPlata,Argentina
FionaMcNeillHeriot-WattUniversity,UK
PaolaMelloUniversità diBologna,Italy
EduardoMenaUniversityofZaragoza,Spain
BenitoMendozaCUNY,NewYorkCityCollegeofTechnology,USA
EmanuelaMerelliUniversityofCamerino,Italy
DanielMerkleUniversityofSouthernDenmark,Denmark
MarjanMernikUniversityofMaribor,Slovenia
ElenaMessinaNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology,USA
BerndMeyerMonashUniversity,Australia
John-JulesMeyerUtrechtUniversity,TheNetherlands
AmbraMolesiniAlmaMaterStudiorum,Università diBologna,Italy
RaulMonroyTecdeMonterreyinMexico,Mexico
José MoreiraUniversidadedeAveiro,Portugal
PedroMoreiraEscolaSuperiordeTecnologiaeGestão,Instituto PolitécnicodeVianadoCastelo,Portugal
MaximeMorgeUniversityofLille,France
BernardMoulinUniversité Laval,Canada
ConorMuldoonUniversityCollegeDublin,Ireland
Konstantinos
Nikolopoulos BangorUniversity,UK
JensNimisHochschuleKarlsruhe,TechnikundWirtschaft,Germany
FaridNouiouaLSISUMR7296duCNRS,Aix-MarseilleUniversity, France
LuisNunesInstitutoUniversitáriodeLisboa(ISCTE-IUL) andInstitutodeTelecomunicações(IT),Portugal
AndreasOberweisKarlsruheInstituteofTechnology(KIT),Germany
MichelOccelloUniversité Pierre-Mendès-France,France
DimitriOgnibeneUniversitatPompeuFabra,Spain
Haldur ÕimUniversityofTartu,Estonia
OrganizationXI
SanchoOliveiraInstitutoUniversitáriodeLisboa(ISCTE-IUL),Portugal
AndreaOmiciniAlmaMaterStudiorum,Università diBologna,Italy
StanislawOsowskiWarsawUniversityofTechnology,Poland NandanParameswaranUniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia
AntonioGonzalezPardoUniversidadAutonomadeMadrid,Spain
AndrewParkesUniversityofNottingham,UK
KrzysztofPatanUniversityofZielonaGora,Poland
ManuelG.PenedoUniversityofACoruña,Spain
CéliadaCostaPereiraUniversité deNiceSophiaAntipolis,France
WimPetersUniversityofSheffi eld,UK
TuanPhamUniversityofAizu,Japan
GauthierPicardHubertCurienCNRSLaboratory,France
AskePlaatTilburgUniversity,TheNetherlands
AgostinoPoggiUniversityofParma,Italy
FilipePortelaCentroALGORITMI,UniversityofMinho,Portugal RiccardoRasconiNationalResearchCouncilofItaly,Italy
MarcelloRestelliPolitecnicoDiMilano,Italy
LluísRibas-XirgoUniversitatAutònomadeBarcelona,Spain
PatriziaRibinoICAR-CNR,Italy
AlessandroRicciAlmaMaterStudiorum-Università diBologna,Italy
EvaOnaindíadela Rivaherrera
UniversitatPolitécnicadeValencia,Spain
FátimaRodriguesInstitutoSuperiordeEngenhariadoPorto(ISEP/IPP), Portugal
DanielRodriguezUniversityofAlcalá,Spain
AndreaRoliUniversità diBologna,Italy
JavierCarbó RubieraUniversidadCarlosIIIdeMadrid,Spain
AlvaroRubio-LargoUniversityofExtremadura,Spain
RubenRuizUniversidadPolitécnicadeValencia,Spain
LucaSabatucciNationalResearchCouncil,Italy
FaribaSadriImperialCollegeLondon,UK
LorenzaSaittaUniversità degliStudidelPiemonteOrientaleAmedeo Avogadro,Italy
FrancescoSantiniUniversità diPerugia,Italy
JorgeGomezSanzUniversidadComplutensedeMadrid,Spain
FabioSartoriUniversità degliStudidiMilanoBicocca,Italy
ChristophSchommerUniversityLuxembourg,CampusKirchberg,Luxembourg
JohanSchubertSwedishDefenceResearchAgency,Sweden
ValeriaSeiditaUniversityofPalermo,Italy
LeticiaMaríaSeijasUniversityofBuenosAires,Argentina IvanSerinaUniversityofBrescia,Italy
EmilioSerranoUniversidadPolitécnicadeMadrid,Spain
MohammadShojafarUniversitySapienzaofRome,Italy
DanielleRousy
DiasdaSilva UFPB,Brazil
XIIOrganization
FlavioS.Correa DaSilva
UniversityofSaoPaulo,Brazil
VivianeSilvaIBMResearch,Brazil
RicardoSilveiraUniversidadeFederaldeSantaCatarina,Brazil
DavidSislakCzechTechnicalUniversityinPrague,AgentTechnology Center,CzechRepublic
AlexanderSmirnovSPIIRAS,RussianFederation
MarinaV.SokolovaInstitutodeInvestigaciónenInformáticadeAlbacete, Spain
MargaritaSordoHarvardMedicalSchool,USA
ArmandoJ.SousaUniversidadedoPorto,Portugal
BerndSteinbachFreibergUniversityofMiningandTechnology,Germany OlivieroStockFondazioneBrunoKessler,Italy
EmmanuelleGrislin-Le Strugeon LAMIH,Université deValenciennes,France
ThomasStützleUniversité LibredeBruxelles,Belgium
ToshiharuSugawaraWasedaUniversity,Japan
VijayanSugumaranOaklandUniversity,USA
Boontawee Suntisrivaraporn
SirindhornInternationalInstituteofTechnology,Thailand
PavelSurynekNationalInstituteofAdvancedIndustrialScience andTechnology(AIST),Japan
YasuhiroSuzukiGraduateSchoolofInformationScience,Nagoya University,Japan
RyszardTadeusiewiczAGHUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Poland NickTaylorHeriot-WattUniversity,UK
MarkTerwilligerUniversityofNorthAlabama,USA
JanTozickaCTUinPrague,CzechRepublic
ThomasTranUniversityofOttawa,Canada
FrancoTuriniKDDLab,UniversityofPisa,Italy
PauloUrbanoFaculdadedeCiênciasdaUniversidadedeLisboa,Portugal
MarcoValtortaUniversityofSouthCarolina,USA
EloisaVargiuEURECAT,Spain
SrdjanVesicCNRS,France
SerenaVillataCNRS,France
MarinVladaUniversityofBucharest,Romania
GeorgeVourosUniversityofPiraeus,Greece YvesWauteletKULeuven,Belgium
StephanWeissAlpen-Adria-UniversitätKlagenfurt,Austria
JianshuWengHPLabsSingapore,Singapore
CeesWitteveenDelftUniversityofTechnology,TheNetherlands
T.N.WongTheUniversityofHongKong,HongKong,SARChina
Bozena Wozna-Szczesniak
JanDlugoszUniversity,Poland
NingXiongMälardalenUniversity,Sweden
OrganizationXIII
FeiyuXuDeutschesForschungszentrumfürKünstlicheIntelligenz (DFKI),Germany
BrunoZanuttiniGREYC,NormandieUniversité,UNICAEN, CNRSUMR6072,ENSICAEN,France
PascaleZaraté Université Toulouse1Capitole,France
HaibinZhuNipissingUniversity,Canada
Jean-DanielZuckerUMIUMMISCO,France
AlejandroZuninoISISTAN,UniversidadNacionaldelCentrodelaProvincia deBuenosAires,Argentina
AdditionalReviewers
ViktorAyzenshtadtUniversityofHildesheim/DFKI,Germany
XenofonFafoutisUniversityofBristol,UK
StefanoFerilliUniversityofBari,Italy
BrunoFernandesUniversidadedePernambuco,Brazil
CarmeloBastosFilhoUniversityofPernambuco,Brazil
SebastianPalacioDFKIGmbH,Germany
AndreaPazienzaUniversityofBari,Italy
PascalReussUniversityofHildesheim,Germany
AndreaTundisUniversityofCalabria,Italy
AlessandroUmbricoUniversità deglistudiRomaTre,Italy
AutiliaVitielloUniversityofSalerno,Italy
RobertoYusUniversityofZaragoza,Spain
InvitedSpeakers
KatiaSycaraCarnegieMellonUniversity,USA
TomHeskesRadboudUniversityNijmegen,TheNetherlands
JérômeLangUniversité Paris-Dauphine,France
JaimeSichmanUniversityofSãoPaulo,Brazil
EricPostmaTilburgUniversity,TheNetherlands
XIVOrganization
Contents
Agents
PerceptionofMasculinityandFemininityofAgent’sAppearance andSelf-adaptors..........................................3 TomokoKoda,TakutoIshioh,TakafumiWatanabe,andYoshihikoKubo
TwoModelCheckingApproachestoBranch-and-BoundOptimization ofaFlowProductionSystem..................................19 ChristophGreulichandStefanEdelkamp
AdaptiveSwitchingBehavioralStrategiesforEffectiveTeamFormation inChangingEnvironments....................................37 MasashiHayano,YukiMiyashita,andToshiharuSugawara
FromReviewstoArgumentsandfromArgumentsBack toReviewers’ Behaviour.....................................56 SimoneGabbrielliniandFrancescoSantini
ArtificialIntelligence
IntegratingGradedKnowledgeandTemporalChangeinaModalFragment ofOWL.................................................75
Hans-UlrichKrieger
AnAgent-BasedArchitectureforPersonalizedRecommendations.........96 AmelBenOthmane,AndreaTettamanzi,SerenaVillata, NhanLEThanh,andMichelBuffa
EnhancingSupportVectorDecodersbyIntegratinganUncertaintyModel...114 JörgBremerandSebastianLehnhoff
NaturalLanguageArgumentationforTextExploration................133 ElenaCabrioandSerenaVillata
InstanceSelectionandOutlierGenerationtoImprovetheCascadeClassifier Precision................................................151
JudithNeugebauer,OliverKramer,andMichaelSonnenschein
QualitativePossibilisticDecisions:DecompositionandSequential DecisionsMaking..........................................171 SalemBenferhat,KhaoulaBoutouhami,HadjaFaizaKhellaf-Haned, andIsmahaneZeddigha
EnhancingVisualClusteringUsingAdaptiveMovingSelf-Organizing Maps(AMSOM)...........................................189
GerasimosSpanakisandGerhardWeiss
DiscreteMulti-agentPlanRecognition:RecognizingTeams,Goals, andPlansfromActionSequences...............................212
ChrisArgentaandJonDoyle
KeepingSecretsin ELþ KnowledgeBases.........................229 GopalakrishnanKrishnasamySivaprakasamandGioraSlutzki
AnAutomaticApproachforGenerationofFuzzyMembershipFunctions....247 HosseinPazhoumand-Dar,ChiouPengLam,andMartinMasek
FacilitatingMulti-agentCoalitionFormation inSelf-interestedEnvironments.................................265
TedScullyandMichaelG.Madden
ModelingtheDirectionalityofAttentionDuringSpatial LanguageComprehension....................................283
ThomasKluth,MicheleBurigo,andPiaKnoeferle
DetectingHiddenObjectsUsingEfficientSpatio-Temporal KnowledgeRepresentation....................................302
JoannaIsabelleOlszewska
AuthorIndex ............................................315 XVIContents
Agents
PerceptionofMasculinityandFemininity ofAgent’sAppearanceandSelf-adaptors
TomokoKoda1(
&),TakutoIshioh1,TakafumiWatanabe2,
andYoshihikoKubo2
1 GraduateSchoolofInformationScienceandTechnology, OsakaInstituteofTechnology,Osaka,Japan tomoko.koda@oit.ac.jp,m1m16a03@st.oit.ac.jp
2 DepartmentofInformationScienceandTechnology, OsakaInstituteofTechnology,Osaka,Japan
Abstract. Thispaperreportshowourperceptionofvirtualagentsdifferbythe combinationofthegenderoftheirappearancesandgestures.Weexaminedhow weperceivemasculinityandfemininityofagentsandhowourperceptionof agent’sgenderaffectourimpressionoftheagent.Human-humaninteractions amongJapaneseundergraduatestudentswereanalyzedwithrespecttousageof gender-specificself-adaptorsinapre-experiment.Basedontheresults,amale andafemaleagentwereanimatedtoshowtheseextractedself-adaptors.Evaluationoftheinteractionswiththeagentsthatexhibitself-adaptorstypically exhibitedbyJapanesehumanmaleandfemaleindicatedthattherearecross genderinteractionsbetweenparticipants’ genderandagents’ gender.Male participantsshowedmorefavorableimpressionsonagentsthatdisplayfeminine self-adaptorsthanmasculineonesperformedbythefemaleagent,whilefemale participantsshowedrigorousimpressionstowardfeminineself-adaptors. Althoughtheobtainedresultswerelimitedtoonecultureandnarrowagerange, theseresultsimpliesthereisapossibilitythatthecombinationofmale appearanceandmasculinegesturesis “safer” inordertofacilitateneutral impressionsandavoidanycrossgenderinteractionsmadebythegenderof humanusers.Designersofvirtualagentsshouldconsidergenderofappearance andgestureanimationsofvirtualagents,andmakethemcustomizableaccording totheuser ’sgenderandpreferences.
Keywords: Conversationalagents Intelligentvirtualagents IVA Gesture Self-adaptors Non-verbalbehavior Gender Evaluation
1Introduction
Intelligentvirtualagents(IVAs)thatinteractface-to-facewithhumansarebeginningto spreadtogeneralusers,andIVAresearchisbeingactivelypursued.IVAsrequireboth verbalandnonverbalcommunicationabilities.Amongthosenon-verbalcommunications,Ekmanclassifi esgesturesinto fivecategories:emblems,illustrators,affectdisplays,adapters,andregulators[1].Self-adaptorsarenon-signalinggesturesthatarenot
© SpringerInternationalPublishingAG2017 J.vandenHerikandJ.Filipe(Eds.):ICAART2016,LNAI10162,pp.3–18,2017. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-53354-4_1
intendedtoconveyaparticularmeaning[2].Theyareexhibitedashandmovements whereonepartofthebodyisappliedtoanotherpartofthebody,suchaspickingone’s nose,scratchingone’sheadandface,moisteningthelips,ortappingthefoot.Many self-adaptorsareconsideredtabooinpublic,andindividualswithlowemotionalstabilityperformmoreself-adaptors,andthenumberofself-adaptorsincreaseswith psychologicaldiscomfortoranxiety[2–4].AccordingtoCasoetal.self-adaptorgestureswereusedmoreoftenwhentellingthetruththanwhenlying[5].
Becauseself-adaptorshavelowmessagecontentandarelowinrelevancytothe contentsofconversations,theyarebelievedtobeactionsthatareeasilyignoredduring aconversation.Thus,therehasnotbeenmuchIVAresearchdoneonself-adaptors, comparedwithnonverbalcommunicationwithhighmessagecontent,suchasfacial expressionsandgazes.AmongfewresearchthathasdealtwithanIVAwith self-adaptors,Neffetal.reportedthatanagentperformingself-adaptors(repetitive quickmotionwithacombinationofscratchingitsfaceandhead,touchingitsbody,and rubbingitshead,etc.),wasperceivedashavinglowemotionalstability.Although showingemotionalunstablenessmightnotbeappropriateinsomesocialinteractions, their findingsuggeststheimportanceofself-adaptorsinconveyingapersonalityofan agent[6].
However,self-adaptorsarenotalwaysthesignofemotionalunstablenessorstress. Blackingstatesself-adaptorsalsooccurincasualconversations,whereconversantsare veryrelaxed[7].ChartrandandBarghhaveshownthatmimicryofparticulartypesof self-adaptors(i.e.,foottappingandfacescratching)cancausethemimickedpersonto perceiveaninteractionasmorepositive,andmayleadtoformrapportbetweenthe conversants[8].
Wefocusonthese “relaxed” self-adaptorsperformedinacasualconversationin thisstudy.Ifthoserelaxedself-adaptorsoccurwithaconversantthatonefeels friendliness,onecanbeinducedtofeelfriendlinesstowardaconversantthatdisplays self-adaptors.Weapplythistothecaseofagentconversant,andhypothesizethatusers canbeinducedtofeelfriendlinesstowardtheagentbyaddingself-adaptorstothebody motionsofanagent,andconductedtwoexperiments.
The firstexperimentevaluatedcontinuousinteractionsbetweenanagentthat exhibitsself-adaptorsandwithout[9].Theresultsshowedtheagentthatexhibited relaxedself-adaptorswasmorelikelytopreventanydeteriorationintheperceived friendlinessoftheagentthantheagentwithoutself-adaptors.However,whenwe considerevaluatorssocialskills,thereisadichotomyontheimpressionontheagents betweenuserswithhighsocialskills(HSShereafter)andthosewithlowskills(LSS hereafter).Socialskillsaredefinedas “skillsthatareinstrumentalinconductingsmooth personalcommunication” [10].PeoplewithHSSareabletoreadnonverbalbehaviors oftheirconversantsandtendtouseagreatamountofnonverbalbehaviorsthemselves inordertomakessmoothinteractions.Wefocusedonthischaracteristicofsocialskills andconsideredthatitcouldhavethesameeffectwhenappliedtonon-verbalbehavior ofanagent.Theresultsofthe firstexperimentindicatedpeoplewithHSSharboura higherperceivedfriendlinesswithagentsthatexhibitedrelaxedself-adaptorsthan peoplewithLSS.Moreover,HSS’sfriendlinessfeelingtowardtheagentwith
4T.Kodaetal.
self-adaptorsincreasedovertime,whileLSSfelthigherfriendlinesstowardtheagent thatdoesnotexhibitself-adaptors.Thedichotomybetweentheuse’ssocialskills suggeststhatitispossibletocontinuallyimproveusers’ senseoffriendlinesstoward IVAsbycombiningthepresenceofself-adaptorswiththeuser ’slevelofsocialskills duringcontinuedinteractionswithagents.
Thesecondexperimentevaluatedinteractionswithagentsthatexhibiteitherrelaxed self-adaptorsorstressfulself-adaptorsinadesertsurvivaltask[11].Theresultsindicatedthattheexhibitingofanytypesofself-adaptorsininteractionsthatexchange seriousopinions,suchasadesertsurvivaltask,causeddeteriorationintheagents perceivedfriendlinessandempathy,althoughsuchdeteriorationdoesnotoccurduring acasualconversationwiththeagentdisplaysself-adaptors.Thisresultssuggeststhat usersunconsciouslyexpectagentstobehaveinamannerthatisappropriatetothetopic ofconversationaswedowithhumans.Thusnon-verbalbehaviorsofagentsshould adapttotheconversationaltopics.Takentogetherwiththeresultsofpreviousresearch, theresultsshowsthatitwillbenecessarytomakethenon-verbalbehaviorofanagent, atleast,self-adaptors,adapttothesocialskillsoftheotherpersoninaninteraction,and totheconversationalcontent.
Thispaperreportsaresultofourconsecutiveexperimentofself-adaptorsthatdeals withgenderissues.AsCassellpointsoutin[12, 13],consideringgendereffectis essentialforsuccessfulandcomfortablehuman-computerinteraction,soasfor human-agentinteraction.
2RelatedResearchonGenderandVirtualAgents
Socialpsychologystudieshaveindicatedgenderstereotypesandroles.Menare regardedasmoredominant,influentialandmoreeffectiveleadersthanwomen,while womenaresubmissive,supportive,andbetterlistenersthanmen[14, 15].Commerciallyusedvirtualagentsmainlyserveasvirtualassistantchatbotstohelponlineusers. Theyareoftenrepresentedasfemaleduetotheabovegenderstereotypes,i.e.,Aetna’s virtualonlineassistantAnn(Fig. 1(a)1),IKEA’svirtualassistantAnna(Fig. 1(b)2),and AlaskaAirline’svirtualassistantJenn(Fig. 1(c)3).
However,itisstillanopenquestionwhetherfemaleappearanceisadequateforany virtualagentapplicationsanddomains.Zanbakaetal.examinedtheroleofgenderin anapplicationwherevirtualagentsactaspersuasivespeakers,andfoundcrossgender interactionsbetweentheagents’ genderandtheparticipants’ gender.Themaleparticipantsweremorepersuadedbythefemaleagentthanthemaleagent,andfemale participantsaremorepersuadedbythemaleagentthanthefemaleagent[16].
Ourtwopreviousexperimentsusedafemaleagentonlyanddidnotconsiderthe effectsofappearanceoftheagent’sgender.Moreover,assomeself-adaptorsare gender-speci fic[17],i.e., “crossingarms” self-adaptorsaremorefrequentlyfoundin
1 https://member.aetna.com/AskAnn/agent.aspx
2 https://twitter.com/IKEA_jp_Anna
3 https://www.alaskaair.com/content/about-us/site-info/ask-jenn.aspx
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(b)IKEA's virtual assistant Anna
(c)Alaska Airline's virtual assistant Jenn
Fig.1. Femalevirtualagentsusedforcommercialpurpose.
males,and “coveringmouth” self-adaptorsaremostlyfoundinJapanesefemales,we needtoconsidergenderoftheagent,gender-specifi cself-adaptors,andgenderof participants.
Hence,weevaluatetheimpressionoftheagentswithmale/femaleappearanceand masculine/feminineself-adaptorsinthisexperimentinordertoexaminewhethercross gendereffectssimilarto[16]canbefoundinourexperimentalsettings.Wehypothesizethat(1)whentheagent’sgender,andgenderofthegender-specifi cself-adaptors areconsistent,participantsfeelhighernaturalness.(2)Maleparticipantshavebetter impressiontowardtheagentwithfemaleappearanceandfeminineself-adaptors,while femaleparticipantshavebetterimpressionontheagentwithmaleappearanceand masculineself-adaptors”,andconductanexperiment.
3VideoAnalysisofSelf-adaptorsandImplementation ofAgentAnimation
3.1VideoAnalysisofSelf-adaptors
Weconductedapre-experimentinordertoexaminewhenandwhatkindof self-adaptorsareperformed,andwhether/whatkindofgender-specifi cself-adaptorsare foundduringacasualconversationbetweenfriendsinaJapaneseuniversity.We invitedtenpairs(5malepairsand5femalepairs)whoarefriendsformorethanthree years(theyareuniversitystudentswhostudytogether)torecordtheirfreeconversation for20min.
Thevideoanalysisweremadeintermsofthebodypartstouched,frequencyof eachself-adaptors,andnumberofparticipantswhoperformedeachself-adaptors
(a) Aetna's virtual online assistant Ann
6T.Kodaetal.
duringtheconversationforall20participants.Totalof587self-adaptorswereidentifi edduringthe20minrecordingsofthe10maleparticipants.Totalof617 self-adaptorswereidentifiedduringthe20minrecordingsofthe10femaleparticipants.Figures 2 and 3 showthebodypartstouchedbythemaleandfemaleparticipants
Fig.2. Ratioofbodypartstouchedbythemaleparticipants.
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Fig.3. Ratioofbodypartstouchedbythefemaleparticipants.
respectively.ThemostfrequentlytouchedbodypartbytheJapanesemaleparticipants ishead(66%),followedbyupperbody(26%).Themostfrequentlytouchedbodypart bytheJapanesefemaleparticipantsishead(50%),followedbyupperbody(16%).
Table 1 showsthetop fi vetypesofself-adaptorsperformedmostfrequentlyandmost participants(howandwhichbodypartsweretouched,howmanytimesforeach self-adaptor,andbyhowmanypeopleforeachself-adaptor)bythemaleparticipants andTable 2 bythefemaleparticipants.
Table1. Numberofself-adaptorsperformedbymaleparticipantsinvideorecordings(left: numberoftimes,right:numberofpeople).
Table2. Numberofself-adaptorsperformedbyfemaleparticipantsinvideorecordings(left: numberoftimes,right:numberofpeople).
Weidenti fiedthefollowinggender-specificself-adaptorsfromtherecordingsofthe conversationsamongJapaneseuniversitystudents.Therearethreetypesof self-adaptorsoccurredmostfrequentlyinmostmaleparticipants: “touchingnose” , “touchingchin,” and “scratchinghead.” Wecalltheseself-adaptorsas “masculine self-adaptors” hereafter.Themostfrequentself-adaptorsperformedbymostfemale participantsare “touchingnose” , “strokinghair”,and “touchingmouth(covering mouth)”.Wecalltheseself-adaptorsas “feminineself-adaptors” hereafter.Figure 4 showstypicalmasculineself-adaptorsseeninthevideorecordingsperformedby Japanesemalestudents,andFig. 5 showsthosebyJapanesefemalestudents.
Weimplementthosemasculine/feminineself-adaptorstoourconversationalagents fortheexperiment.Intermsofthetimingofself-adaptors,50%occurredatthe beginningoftheutterancesinthevideorecordings.
8T.Kodaetal.
Fig.4. Maleparticipantsperformthreemasculineself-adaptors(fromleft: “touchingchin,” “scratchinghead,” and “touchingnose”
Fig.5. Femaleparticipantsperformthreefeminineself-adaptors(fromleft: “touchingnose” , “strokinghair“,and “touchinglips(coveringmouth)”
3.2AgentCharacterandAnimationImplementation
Theagentcharacters(maleandfemale)andanimationofthesixtypesofself-adaptors werecreatedusingPoser4.Figures 6 and 7 showtheagentscarryingoutthethree masculineself-adaptorsandthreefeminineself-adaptorsrespectively.Wecreatedthe followingfourtypesofanimationsinordertoexaminethecombinationofgenderof thecharacterandself-adaptors; “maleagentperformsmasculineself-adaptors” , “male
Fig.6. Maleagentperformsthreemasculineself-adaptors(fromleft: “touchingchin,” “scratchinghead,” and “touchingnose”
4 http://poser.smithmicro.com/poser.html
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Fig.7. Femaleagentperformsthreefeminineself-adaptors(fromleft: “touchingnose” , “strokinghair”,and “touchinglips(coveringmouth)”
agentperformsfeminineself-adaptors” , “femaleagentperformsmasculine self-adaptors” , “femaleagentperformsfeminineself-adaptors.”
Wefoundnoliteraturethatexplicitlydescribedtheformofthemovement(e.g., howthenosehasbeentouched,inwhichway,bywhichpartofthehandetc.),we mimickedtheformofthemovementsoftheparticipantsinthevideorecordings.We adjustthetimingoftheanimationofself-adaptorsatthebeginningoftheagent’s utterancesasfoundinthevideorecordings.
Besidestheseself-adaptors,wecreatedanimationsoftheagentmakinggesturesof “greeting” and “placingitshandagainstitschest.” Thesegestureswerecarriedoutby theagentatappropriatetimesinaccordancetothecontentoftheconversation regardlessofexperimentalconditionsinordernottoletself-adaptorsstandoutduringa conversationwiththeagent.
4Experiment
4.1ExperimentalSystem
Theagent’sconversationsystemwasdevelopedinC++usingMicrosoftVisualStudio 2008.Theagent’svoicesweresynthesizedasmaleandfemalevoiceusingtheJapanese voicesynthesispackageAITalk5.Conversationscenarios,composedofquestionsfrom theagentandresponsechoices,werecreatedbeforehand,andanimationoftheagent thatreflectedtheconversationalscenariowascreated.Figure 8 showstheexperiment systemcomponents.Byconnectinganimatedsequencesinaccordanceofthecontentof theuser ’sresponses,thesystemrealizedapseudo-conversationwiththeuser.The conversationsystemhastwostates.The firststatewastheagentspeechstate,inwhich ananimatedsequenceoftheagentutteringspeechandaskingquestionstotheuserwas shown.Theotherstatewasthestandbyforuserselectionstate,inwhichtheuserchose aresponsefromoptionsdisplayedonthescreenabovetheagent.Inresponsetothe user ’sresponseinputfromakeyboard,animatedagentmoviethatfollowedtheconversationscenariowasplayedbackinthespeechstate.
5 http://www.ai-j.jp/
10T.Kodaetal.
4.2ExperimentalProcedure
Theinteractionswiththeagentswerepresentedaspseudoconversationsasfollows: (1)theagentalwaysasksaquestiontotheparticipant.(2)Possibleanswersweredisplayedonthescreenandtheparticipantselectsoneanswerfromtheselectionfroma keyboard.(3)Theagentmakesremarksbasedontheuser ’sanswerandasksthenext question.Thecontentsoftheconversationswerecasual(theroutetoschool,residential area,andfavoritefood,etc.).Thereasonweadoptedthepseudo-conversationmethodwas toeliminatetheeffectoftheaccuracyofspeechrecognitionoftheusers’ spokenanswers, whichwouldotherwisebeused,ontheparticipants’ impressionoftheagent.
Theparticipantsintheexperimentwere29Japaneseundergraduatestudents (19maleand10female),aged20–23years,whodidnotparticipateinthevideo recordingpre-experiment.Theexperimentisconductedas3 2factorialdesign.The experimentalconditionsareparticipants’ gender(male/female),agent’sgender (male/female),genderofself-adaptor(male/female).Eachparticipantinteractedwith allfourtypesofagents(maleagentperformingmasculineself-adaptors,maleagent performingfeminineself-adaptors,femaleagentperformingmasculineself-adaptors, femaleagentperformingfeminineself-adaptors)randomlyassignedtothem.Thus, therearefourconversationsessionswithdifferentcombinationoftheagentand self-adaptorforeachparticipant.Theconversationaltopicsaredifferentforeach interactionandthetopicsarerandomized.Eachagentperformedthreeallgender speci ficself-adaptorsinanyinteractionandthegesturesof “greeting” and “placingits handagainstitschest.”
Aftereachinteraction,theparticipantsratedtheirimpressionsontheagentusinga semanticdifferentialmethodonascalefrom1to6.Atotalof27pairsofadjectives, consistingofthe20pairsfromtheAdjectiveCheckList(ACL)forInterpersonal CognitionforJapanese[10]andsevenoriginalpairs(concerningtheagent’s
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Fig.8. Dialogueandagentanimationcontrolsystem.
Table3. Fourfactorsandadjectivesforinterpersonalimpressions.
“humanness,”“naturalness,”“annoyingness”,and “masculinity” etc.),wereusedfor evaluation.ThelistofadjectivesisshowninTable 3 inSect. 5.Attheendofthe experiment,apost-experimentsurveywasconductedinordertoevaluatetheparticipants’ subjectiveimpressionofoverallqualitiesoftheagents,suchasthenaturalnessof theirmovementsandsynthesizedvoiceandwhethertheyhavenoticedthedifferenceof gestures.
5Results
5.1ResultsofFactorialAnalysis
Factoranalysis(FAhereafter)wasconductedontheagent’simpressionratings obtainedfromtheexperimentinordertoextractthefactorsthatcomposesourinterpersonalimpressionstowardtheagents.TheresultsofFAusingtheprincipalfactor methodextractedfourfactors(showninTable 3).TheFirstfactorisnamedas “Tolerancefactor” (composedofadjectivessuchascalm,broad-minded,kind,soft,and sophisticated),thesecondas “Sociabilityfactor” (composedofadjectivessuchas active,cheerful,confident,andsocial),thethirdas “Genderfactor” (composedof adjectivessuchaslovable,feminine,anddelicate),andtheforthas “Naturalnessfactor” (composedofadjectivessuchasnaturalandhumanlike).
12T.Kodaetal.
Cronbach’scoefficientsalphaforthefactorsare0.84for “Tolerancefactor”,0.79 for “Sociabilityfactor”,0.67for “Genderfactor”,and0.62for “Naturalnessfactor” , whichshowhighenoughinternalconsistencyoftheextractedfactors.Theresultofthe factorialanalysisindicateswhentheparticipantsperceivetheagentsinterpersonally andratetheirimpressions,thesefourfactorshavelargeeffects.Thuswewillusethe factorsandfactorialscoresforlateranalysistoevaluatethegendereffects.
5.2AnalysisofToleranceFactorandSociabilityFactor
Weperformedthree-wayANOVA(repeatedmeasures)withfactors “participantgender” , “agentgender”,and “genderofself-adaptor”.Thedependentvariablesaretotal factorialscoreofeachfactor.
Theresultshowedtherearenomaineffectsofparticipants’ gender,agent’sgender, andgenderofself-adaptoron “Tolerancefactor” and “Sociabilityfactor”.Thereare signifi cantsecond-orderinteractionsinthe “Tolerancefactor” (p 0.05)between participants’ genderandagents’ gender.Figure 9 showsthetolerancefactorscoreof eachcondition.Themaleparticipantsratedthefemaleagentperformingfeminine self-adaptorssignificantlyhigherthanthesameagentperformingmasculine self-adaptors(F:4.58,p 0.05).Whilethefemaleparticipantsshowedtendencyfor higherratingtothefemaleagentperformingmasculineself-adaptors(F:2.55, p=0.122).Therearenodifferenceinthetolerancefactorswhentheparticipants evaluatedthemaleagent.Whiletothecaseofthefemaleagent,thetolerancescores werehigherwhenthefemaleagentperformsdifferentgender ’sself-adaptorsfromthe participants’ gender.Therearenosignificantmaineffectsnorsecond-orderinteractions foundinthe “Sociabilityfactor” (showninFig. 10).
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Male Female Tolerance Factor Self-adaptor MaleAgentFemaleAgentMale AgentFemale Agent Male Par cipantMale Par cipantFemalePar cipantFemale Par cipant * *: p<0.05 Hight ← → Low n=29 Fig.9. Tolerancefactorscoreoffourconditionscomparedbyparticipants’ gender. PerceptionofMasculinityandFemininityofAgent’s13
