PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE #9D4I of 22 Feb 2022 "Where did PNG get to by 1975?" Dr Bob Thistlethwaite.

AUSTRALIAN FORESTERS in PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1922-1975

PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4I of 22 Feb 2022 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PNG’s FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A history of plantation development globally, especially in tropical rainforest areas as pertinent to PNG’s forest tree plantation development.

PNGAF MAG 9D4I Where did PNG get to by 1975? by Dr Bob Thistlethwaite

Dr Robert ‘Bob’ Thistlethwaite1 (31/8/41-9/5/21) Editor R B McCarthy2 2022.

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Eminent TPNG Forester Dr Robert (Bob) Thistlethwaite 1971 - 1975 Dick McCarthy District Forester TPNG 1963-1975.

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Bob attended the Australian Forestry School in Canberra in the early 1960’s and was always a passionate researcher. He completed his PhD in 1970 from ANU on the topic “Forests and water supply in the Cotter catchment, with reference to P. radiata (D Don) plantations”.

Bob commenced his professional career in 1971 when he was appointed Principal Research Officer with the Papua New Guinea Department of Forests and oversaw forest plantation research, with a wide range of tropical and exotic species. In early 1978 he became Principal Research Officer with the Department of the Interior in Darwin and OIC of the Berrimah Research Laboratory. This followed an 8-year stint working in primary industries with a focus on agriculture, animal industry development and agro-forestry ventures.

In 1986 Bob was invited to join AIDAB’s (now AusAID) Pacific Regional Team as its Natural Resources Advisor to undertake identification, establishment, and appraisal of aidfunded projects for nine Pacific island countries across forestry, agriculture, and artisanal fishery sector. In 1989 Bob established his own natural resources and environmental consulting company which focused mainly on the 22 island nations of the Pacific basin.

In the mid 1990’s and into the 2000s Bob continued to work in Australia as a consultant for companies he established to focus on genomic research for tree improvement.

Bob was a highly active member of the IFA and regularly participated in field trips, functions, and meetings. Bob was the Queensland Divisional Chair for 6 years (2001-2007), and IFA Director for 6 years, a Member of 2009 Conference Committee, Chair of the Tropical Forestry special interest group, and was an Executive Member of the Association of Consulting Foresters of Australia. Bob was the first member of the Queensland Division to obtain accreditation in July 2007 under the Registered Professional Forester scheme in General Practicing Forester, and he was made a Fellow of the IFA in 2009. Source IFA The Forester.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. “FORWOOD”

page 4

Domestication

page 5

The Scope for Tree Domestication

page 6

Further Domestication of PNG’s Indigenous Forest Species Issues Local knowledge and acceptance of species Ease of propagation Suitability as a plantation species Silviculture Pests & Diseases Milling Lyctus susceptibility Seasoning Utility Land Tenure Considerations Species Selection (Industrial use) Issues re Species Selection Species Selection (Village-based/landowner) References - Relevant but dated papers

page 9 page 10 page 10 page 11 page 11 page 12 page 12 page 12 page 12 page 13 page 13 page 13 page 13 page 15 page 16 page 20

Shiitake

page 21

Efogi

page 23

Thistlethwaite’s Travel Snippets

page 27

References

page 30

Acronyms

page 55

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“FORWOOD” Dr Robert ‘Bob’ Thistlethwaite3 (31/8/41-9/5/21) was a valued member of the PNG Department of Forests from 1971 to 1975 as Principal Research Officer overseeing forest plantation research, with a wide range of tropical and exotic species.

Much of the plantation development work of PNG Forests at that time is summarized in Bob’s detailed paper on “Further domestication of PNG’s indigenous forest species.” This work summarized early plantation development in PNG together with detailed trial work of PNG species.

During his time in PNG, Bob was involved with Dr Kisaku Mori D. Agr., supported by a small team of Japanese scientists and officials, to investigate the presence of Shiitake in PNG. Jack Simpson, Department of Forests pathologist based at Bulolo in Morobe Province, guided the Mori team to Castanopsis forests where Shiitake was identified on the first morning of the field visit. After Dr Mori’s field visit, Shiitake was found widely distributed on Fagaceae, especially on Castanopsis in the highlands of PNG. At the Tari market in Hela Province, different varieties of edible mushrooms were being sold. Shiitake was known locally “abus long abus” or meat with meat and was highly prized.

Shiitake party 1973. L to R: Bob Thistlethwaite, Jack Simpson, Dave Lamb (partly obscured at rear), OIC Mori Research, Egon Horak, Kisaku Mori in Castanopsis forest at Bulolo. Photo credit Bob Thistlethwaite

Efogi. A hard Saturday afternoon at Elome Creek a short walk north of Efogi. From left: Alan White, Kev White, Bob Thistlethwaite, Chris Done. Photo credit Bob Thistlethwaite.

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Eminent TPNG Forester Dr Robert (Bob) Thistlethwaite 1971 - 1975

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4Domestication

is the process of taking a wild species, bringing it into cultivation and then improving its desired characteristics. The domestication of plants and animals was a major cultural innovation ranked in importance with the conquest of fire, the manufacturing of tools, and the development of verbal language.

The dog was the first domesticated species and was established across Eurasia before the end of the late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Among birds, the major domestic species today is the chicken, important for meat and eggs. The longest established invertebrate domesticates are the honeybee and the silkworm. Land snails are raised for food.

The domestication of plants began at least 12,000 years ago with cereals as the domestication of wheat in the Middle East 5. Wild wheat shatters and falls to the ground to reseed itself when ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the stem for easier harvesting. This change was possible because of a random mutation in the wild populations at the beginning of wheat's cultivation. Wheat with this mutation was harvested more frequently and became the seed for the next crop.

The bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) plant, used as a container before the advent of ceramic technology, appears to have been domesticated 10,000 years ago. The domesticated bottle gourd reached the Americas from Asia by 8,000 years ago, most likely due to the migration of peoples from Asia to America. As domestication took place humans began to move from a hunter gatherer society to a settled agricultural society. Over time perennials and small trees including the apple and the olive were domesticated. In other parts of the world very different species were domesticated. In the Americas pumpkin, maize, beans, formed the core of the diet. In East Asia millet, rice and soy were the most important crops. Today traits being genetically improved include drought resistance and the plant’s ability to take up potassium.

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Cartoon from Bob Brown’s Grass Roots Guide to PNG Pidgin South Pacific Post.

Farmers with wheat and cattle – Ancient Egyptian art 3,400 years ago.

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The Scope for Tree Domestication.

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Almost 7% of forests worldwide, some 271 million ha, are industrial plantations (Carle et al. 20097), potentially able to supply twothirds of the world’s demand for wood, but at potential risk of pests and disease because of the relatively few species and in some cases, the rather narrow genetic base.

Amongst several thousand tree species in the world only about 30 have been extensively planted. Tropical timber plantations comprise some 50% Eucalyptus, 23% Pinus, 17% Acacia and 10% Tectona 8 (Evans and Turnbull 2004). Varmola and Carle (2002) estimated that out of a net area of 56.3 million ha of tropical and subtropical plantations, there were approximately 32.3 million ha in hardwood plantations.

Nichols and Vanclay9, 2012 undertook a review of tree domestication principles, practices and case studies illustrating the importance of a methodological approach to domestication.

Domestication of new species involves the entire value chain from identification of candidate species, through production and management, to uptake by communities and markets.

Timber plantations are a long-term endeavour, and this means that domestication efforts require sustained commitment. Domestication of timber trees requires a brave but thoughtful ‘best bet’ in choice of species, requires adaptive management to adjust management to new situations (both biological and economic), requires innovation in gathering data and synthesising insights from diverse sources, and above all, requires sustained effort and investment to corral resources and maintain progress. Although there are examples where domestication has not yet succeeded (e.g., Agathis robusta), the evidence with other species suggests that sustained effort leads to success.

Issues affecting hardwood plantations in the tropics include the need for long rotations, the high costs of establishment and maintenance, and potential disease risk. An example is Meliaceae which are handicapped by Hypsipyla shoot borers (Floyd and Hauxwell10 1996, Mayhew and Newton 111998), and Dipterocarpaceae suffer from difficult establishment and erratic growth (Weinland12 1998). The well-known exception for cabinet grade timber is

Source Photo - McCarthy collation of weird tree photos.

Carle, J.B., Ball, J.B. and Del Lungo, A. 2009. The global thematic study of planted forests. In: J. Evans (ed.) Planted Forests: Uses, Impacts and Sustainability. CABI. 8 Varmola, M.I. & Carle, J.B. 2002. The importance of hardwood plantations in the tropics and sub-tropics . International Forestry Review 9 Nichols D & Vanclay J 2012 Domestication of Native Tree Species for Timber Plantations: Key Insights for Tropical Island Nations Article in International Forestry Review · December 2012 DOI: 10.1505/146554812804715892 10 Floyd, R.B. and Hauxwell, C., ed. 2001. Hypsipyla Shoot Borers in Meliaceae. Proceedings of an International Workshop, Kandy, Sri Lanka 20–23 August 1996. ACIAR Proceedings No. 97, 189pp.

11 Mayhew J E, Newton A C 1998 The Silviculture of Mahogany. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK 12 Weinland G 1998 Cpt 9 plantations pp 151-187 in A review of dipterocarps: taxonomy, ecology, and silviculture. CIFOR ISBN 979-8764-20-X 6 7

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Tectona grandis but for the most part tropical plantations are of the fast-growing “industrial” species, despite the large number of tropical species with premium timber.

Dramatic gains in productivity of plantations can be achieved through genetic improvement programs and targeted silvicultural techniques, such as use of fertilizers. For instance, Campinhos13 (1991) observed that Eucalyptus grandis productivity increased from 17.4 to 60 m3 /ha/yr. through several stages of selection and vegetative propagation during the period 1966–90. Aracruz Celulose S.A. achieved increases in dry pulp yield from 5.9 to 10.9 t/ha/yr.

(Campinhos14 1999).

For example, in eucalypts if the objective is pulpwood, then basic density needs to be below 600 kg/m3 and the wood should contain a minimum of extractives (Eldridge 15et al. 1994).

Firewood needs to be produced close to where it will be burned and should be assessed in terms of tonnes (or preferably calorific value) per unit area rather than on volume. Sawn timber has its own requirements, including minimum sizes of logs and manageable growth stresses; and poles need to be straight, strong, and not subject to splitting. Characteristics that are often measured are: survival, growth and form, wood density and fibre length (Eldridge et al. 1994) and, where there are serious issues of pests or diseases, resistance to those agencies.

In Vietnam, large areas of degraded land have been planted to several Australian Acacia species, namely A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and a hybrid of these two species. These were planted in difficult situations, eroded sites in pastures dominated by Imperata cylindrica, where establishment of native trees would have been problematic, but the Acacia plantations succeeded and now provide a more hospitable environment for rainforest seedlings, with shade and improved nutrient status. In central Vietnam 8-year-old stands of Acacia auriculiformis were thinned and the stands underplanted with commercially valuable native species, including Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata, Parashorea chinensis, P. stellata, Scaphium lynchophorum and Tarrietia javanica (McNamara16 et al. 2006, Lamb17 2011).

Understorey response to the Acacia nurse crop has varied among the native species.

Australia Native conifers have received some attention, but most rainforest species in Australia have been neglected. One success story is the conifer Araucaria cunninghamii (Dieters18 et al. 2007), some 44,000 ha of which was planted by the Queensland Forest Service from the early 1900s, and which was recently sold into private management.

Campinhos, E. 1991. Plantation of fast-growing species for tropical areas. Special Report 10. World Forestry Congress, Paris.

14 Campinhos E. 1999. Sustainable plantations of high yield shape Eucalyptus trees for production of fibre: the Aracruz case. New Forests 17(1–3): 129–143.

15 Eldridge, K., Davidson, J., Harwood, C., Van Wyk, G. 1994. Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

16 McNamara S, Tinh DV, Erskine PD, Lamb D, Yates D, Brown S (2006) Rehabilitating degraded forest land in central Vietnam with mixed native species plantings. Forest Ecology and Management 233, 358–365.

17 Lamb D (Eds M Palo, J Uusivuori (2011) ‘Greening the bare hills: Tropical forest restoration in the Asia-Pacific region.’

(Springer: New York) 18 Dieters, M.J., Nikles, D.G. and Keys, M.G. 2007. Achievements in forest tree improvement in Australia and New Zealand 6: Genetic improvement and conservation of Araucaria cunninghamii in Queensland. Australian Forestry 70(2): 75–85.

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Booth and Turnbull19 (1994) describe an interesting case study of domestication over a period of more than 50 years, that of Acacia auriculiformis, native to Australia and Papua New Guinea. Early domestication efforts were haphazard, but by the 1980s several international organisations became involved in tree improvement and silviculture, and seed was eventually collected systematically throughout the range of the species by the Australian Tree Seed Centre with 3000 seed lots distributed to researchers (Gunn and Midgley20 1991).

Subsequently a system of seed orchards in Australia and Asia was established and tree improvement programmes developed. Today A. auriculiformis, either as a pure species or in hybrids with A. mangium, is a major component of the 3.8 million ha of Acacia plantations in Asia (FAO 2005).

During 1996–2006, the South Pacific Regional Initiative on Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) project focussed on the domestication of key tree species in five countries: Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga (Thomson21 et al. 2001, Thomson 2006, 2011).

SPRIG investigated and initiated tree improvement activities in many species including two Canarium species, Terminalia richii as well as T. catappa (beach almond), the latter with potential to supply large quantities of nuts as well as valuable timber and bark with medicinal properties, Santalum austrocaledonicum, Flueggea flexuosa, and a major effort in Vanuatu on whitewood, Endospermum medullosum.

Booth, T.H. and Turnbill, J.W. 1994. Domestication of lesser-known tropical tree species – the Australian experience. In: R.R.B. Leakey and A.C. Newton (eds) Tropical Trees: The Potential for Domestication and the Rebuilding of Forest Resources. London, HMSO: 189– 194.

20 Gunn, B.V. and Midgley, S.J. 1991. Exploring and assessing the genetic resources of four selected tropical acacias.

Advances in tropical Acacia research. worldagroforestry.org/downloads/publications/PDFs/ WP13809.PDF#page=27.

21 Thompson L, Midgley S, Pinyop8usarerk k, Kalinganire A 2001 Tree domestication: the Australian experience in partnerships with special reference to the Asia-Pacific region. Proceedings of the South east Asian Moving workshop om conservation, management, and utilisation of Forest Genetic Resources. www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648eOk.htm Thompson L 2006 Low input breeding and genetic conservation of Pacific island forest tree species. Low input breeding and genetic conservation of forest tree species Antalya Turkey IUFRO Division 2.

Thompson L 2011 SPRIG. Its implementation and impact on forest genetic resources in the Pacific. Pacific workshop regional training. State of the world’s forest genetic resources. www.fao.org/forestry/279300c96857360908b1b19ef0a37cd4cb41e.pdf 19

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FURTHER DOMESTICATION OF PNG’S INDIGENOUS FOREST SPECIES Paper submitted by Dr Robert Thistlethwaite 20/12/2019 Domestication of indigenous species is certainly the correct approach to plantation establishment in PNG, rather than relying on exotic species with which local people have no familiarity. Early plantation activity in PNG did rely on local species, Hoop Pine, Klinkii Pine and Kamarere. The introduction of Teak was an aberration in this regard, but understandable when directed to the strongly dry monsoon area near Mt Lawes, inland of Port Moresby. However, the establishment of plantations of Teak at Kerevat was less apt when many other domestic species could have been used. The Kerevat plantations were based on the performance of early introductions of Teak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the Germans from Myanmar for trial plantings at Alexishafen near Madang and Kokopo near Rabaul. The Kerevat plantations, which included Kamarere, Teak, Balsa and trials of other species were grown on an area which came under strong land dispute (Baining) and large areas have been cleared for gardens. They are no longer controlled by the Government.

There was also some work undertaken on the domestication of Terminalia brassii and trial plantings were made both at Kerevat and at Baku on the Gogol River. T. sepicana was also evaluated along with some exotic Terminalia spp but proved (at Kerevat) quite susceptible to white ant attack. T. brassii performed satisfactorily, but there was nothing at the time to recommend it over Kamarere. However, it is well to note that there are two forms of T. brassii. One form has good form and no stilt roots, while the other has a more variable form and had stilt roots with lenticels. The stilt root variety grew in swampy ground. As I recall, the stilt root variety came from the Jaba River area of Bougainville, but I have found no information on what may have survived mining activity at Panguna. The variety without stilt roots came from Buin.

Baku Forest Station 1971. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

There were small trials of Intsia bijuga, which proved very slow growing at Baku. There are several E. tereticornis provenances in PNG and some were used in trials, along with E. brassiana. Neither proved particularly promising over other species. However, in the Efogi/Launumu area (on the Kokoda Track), and at Buna/Gona/Dobudura Grasslands (Popondetta area), E. tereticornis was prized as a house post.

Anthocephalus chinensis (Labula) was grown in trial plantations at Baku on the Gogol River, quite successfully, although as would be expected with such an aggressive primary colonizer, its initial very high rate of growth tapered off as the plantation matured. Once established, a restriction of side light from competing vegetation, such as bananas, did not worry Labula.

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Acacia auriculiformis and A. mangium were evaluated in small trials in the Sepik R. area, and commercial plantings of A. mangium were established at Gogol by JANT. The extensive Pinus trials at Bulolo, in the Markham Valley, and in the Eastern, Western, and Southern Highlands were directed to forest establishment on impoverished anthropogenic grasslands.

Eastern Highlands plantations Extension between Lapegu Goroka plantations and Lufa Henganofi towards Kainantu.

Species here P. patula and some P. strobus var chaiapensis. Photo credit Neville Howcroft OBE.

A wide range of Eucalypt trials were established in the Highlands for local wood supply and to meet the needs of the tea and coffee industry for firewood. Highlanders are more familiar with the native species Casuarina oligodon (Yar).

ISSUES It is considered the following issues should be considered in building a matrix to aid selection of commercial potential on which to focus efforts.

• • • • • • • • •

Local knowledge and acceptance of species Ease of propagation Suitability as a plantation species Silviculture Pests & diseases Milling difficulty Lyctus susceptibility Seasoning Utility (range of uses in line with known market need)

Local knowledge and acceptance of species For local plantings, knowledge of the species by villagers is more important than academic knowledge of exotic origin. This should be a key factor in the selection of an appropriate species for a specific area in PNG, especially where the active participation by villagers is sought. However, in the local context, a species like Yar would be as exotic to someone in Bougainville as would Red Cedar in the southern Highlands. Thus, the species to be 10

developed should, wherever possible, be matched to the area. Unfortunately, this requirement is often overlooked globally in plantation establishment.

The corollary is that sites selected for plantation establishment, whether undertaken as a commercial venture or as woodlots by village/landowners, should be a natural habitat for the chosen species. Red Cedar plantings, especially where agroforestry or village-based ventures are sought, should be directed to areas in which Red Cedar grows naturally and with which the people are familiar. When successful plantations have demonstrated their financial attractiveness, plantation establishment can then be extended into other suitable areas, coupled with an appropriate landowner education program and extension support.

Ease of propagation Red Cedar is easy to establish if the ground has been disturbed to provide a seed bed for direct sowing or is suitable for planting seedlings.

Rosewood on the other hand is extremely easy to propagate, especially from cuttings. This provides rosewood with a strong advantage for tree improvement over some other species.

Rosewood thus lends itself to establishment in village gardens or in plantation formation.

Some species are listed in the table below for which there is little knowledge on ease of propagation. Indeed, in the case of many species there is an extremely brief period of seed viability under ambient temperature conditions. An example is T. brassii which has a viability period of only about 3 days. This limitation would severely hamper the utility of such a species as a plantation candidate, unless seed viability can be considerably extended, or longer-term storage conditions are developed.

Suitability as a plantation species From their natural occurrence, some species suggest they could be well suited for plantation monocultures. Such proved to be the case for Hoop and Klinkii pine and for Kamarere, although Araucaria hunsteinii proved it had enhanced performance when early shade was provided. Thus, there was a tendency at one time to plant Klinkii under a nurse crop.

Certainly, where the intent was to convert grassland to Araucaria, then Klinkii establishment under a Pinus spp overstory proved beneficial.

Pometia pinnata (Taun) experience suggests it could be planted as a monoculture, but from its natural occurrence, it may be desirable to mix Taun with Intsia spp. In nature, both species require heavy site disturbance (such as wildfire) for natural establishment.

It is known from elsewhere that Flindersia spp, Endospermum medulosum, Anthocephalus chinensis, Octomeles sumatrana and Terminalia brassii will perform well in plantations. Of these species, Flindersia spp will provide high end-value timber, the others utility grade, and veneers for low-mid-value usage.

It is perhaps neither necessary nor desirable to develop single species commercial plantations.

A combination of species, perhaps along the lines used in Fiji, might be a more useful 11

approach, both in terms of companion-species benefits, reducing the buildup of predatory insect populations, and the prevention of the spread of fungal root attack.

Silviculture Only crude silvicultural information is known about most species listed in the table. The exceptions might be Labula, Calophyllum, and Red Cedar. Silviculture protocols would have to be developed for target species where little information is available.

Pests & Diseases Some knowledge on pests and diseases in PNG is generally available only for species on which research has been conducted. There has been considerable work on Hypsipyla robusta attack on Red Cedar in the past both in Australia and PNG (some also in Solomon Islands).

However, it is interesting to note that even in the Mt Austin trial plots on Guadalcanal, where red cedar plantings had been severely attacked causing multiple leaders, the timber volume of those multiple leaders contained an attractive volume of higher quality timber. Thus, even under conditions of high insect attack, a village-based planting might still yield an attractive income. The length of the period to produce a log might discourage some landowners. (These trees had also suffered wind damage from cyclones.)

All the primary colonizing species such as Basswood, Labula, and Erima experience strong insect attack on the large succulent juvenile leaves, but they seem to weather this phase without any marked ill effect.

Taun can develop a fungal-based condition known as brittle heart, where the timber becomes quite brittle and snaps readily with a sharp blow. The condition was observed particularly in the Madang area where it may have been associated with stress climatic conditions but has been reported from other locations. Little is known of the cause of the condition or its distribution. An investigation of this factor would be advisable before proceeding to evaluate other parameters for this species. In the village context, this is of lesser significance as the trees will be planted more for their fruit than their timber.

Milling Milling should be included as a selection parameter. For example, Anisoptera polyandra has a high silicon content which quickly dulls saws. It could therefore be unsuitable for a villagebased activity where portable sawmills are likely to be used.

Some timbers might have milling difficulties due to compression and tension wood or be subject to severe collapse, etc. I am not competent to comment in this area.

Lyctus susceptibility Likewise, lyctus attack is an important factor in the utilization of PNG timbers for which specialist advice should be sought.

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Seasoning It is one thing to grow wood and another to capture the optimal price for the product in the market. The ease with which the timber can be managed off the green line, etc., is another parameter which should be factored into any species selection. The finish, stability and presentation of timber packs will be crucial in marketing the product. Grade standards would need to be developed to ensure an export product acceptable to the market.

Utility This includes both ease of working the timber and the end uses to which the timber can be put. The wider the range of uses then the higher the score which should be allocated to a species. For example, PNG Rosewood has a multiplicity of end uses and can take a fine finish which makes it highly attractive for furniture manufacture.

LAND TENURE CONSIDERATIONS The history of PNG forestry has been one of a series of ‘difficulties’ or ‘challenges’ through land tenure conflicts, sometimes between government and landowners, but more often between various groups of landowners.

Each landowner wants his land logged earliest and planted soonest so he has income as soon as possible. As it is not possible to satisfy all landowners over a large area of land, some conflict or expressed dissatisfaction is inevitable.

Where the PNG legislation for landowner participation through landowning companies in some joint venture or partnership arrangement with the land ‘developer’ is employed, there is perhaps a better prospect for harmonious relations between developer (whether government, foreign investor, or aid organization) and the landowning groups. However, even within such arrangements, conflicts can arise due, for example, to a perceived or real inequity in the division or distribution of cash payments for land rent, stumpage, or royalty, etc.

Aid organizations would be well advised to use one of several PNG specialists who can mediate a sound arrangement in the first place. The upfront cost may save headaches and expense later, especially where new landowning groups identify themselves only after agreements have been entered into.

The acquisition of propagation material does not present a major problem, although there could well be protracted negotiations on price. The main problem is that where a perceived grievance exists, then it may not be possible to undertaken multiple seed collections over time from the one area or obtain cuttings. Any tree improvement program needs to build into the initial design a greater number of collection sites than may be considered really necessary, so some sites can be lost without seriously hampering the whole exercise.

SPECIES SELECTION (Industrial use) In addition to the current domesticated indigenous species (Eucalyptus deglupta (Kamarere), Acacia mangium, Acacia auriculiformis, Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii), Araucaria 13

cunninghamii (Hoop), the table below includes 27 indigenous species which could be considered for larger scale establishment or enrichment of areas selectively logged.

Agathis spp (Kauri)

Araucariaceae

Anisoptera polyandra *

Dipterocarpaceae

Anthocephalus chinensis (Labula)

Rubiaceae

Calophyllum spp (C. kunstlerii) *

Guttiferae

Campnosperma spp

Anacardiaceae

Canarium spp (Galip)

Burseraceae

Dacrydium cupressum (NG Huon Pine)

Podocarpaceae

Dracontomelon mangiferum (NG Walnut)

Anarcardiaceae

Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Quandong)

Elaeocarpaceae

Endospermum medullosum (NG Basswood)

Euphorbiaceae

Flindersia laevicarpa (Scented Maple)

Rutaceae

Flindersia pimenteliana (Silkwood)

Rutaceae

Flindersia spp (F. schottiana, F. ifflaiana, F. amboinensis) (Silver Ash)

Rutaceae

Gonystylus macrophyllus (Ramin)

Gonystylaceae

Hopea papuana and H. forbesii (Light Hopea)

Dipterocarpaceae

Intsia bijuga (wet lowland/coast) (Kwila)

Leguminoseae

Intsia palembanica (coastal foothills) (Kwila)

Leguminoseae

Koompassia excelsa (Kempas)

Leguminoseae

Octomeles sumatrana (Erima)

Datiscaceae

Palaquium spp (Pencil Cedar)

Sapotaceae

Planchonella torricellensis (Pencil Cedar)

Sapotaceae

Pometia pinnata (Taun)

Sapindaceae

Pometia tomentosa (Taun)

Sapindaceae

Pterocarpus indicus (Rosewood)

Leguminosae 14

Pterocymbium beccarii (Amberoi)

Sterculiaceae

Santalum macgregorii (Sandalwood)*

Santalaceae

Syzygium buettnerianum (Water Gum)

Myrtaceae

Terminalia spp (T. brassii)

Combretaceae

Toona ciliata/ T. sureni (Red Cedar) *

Meliaceae

Vatica papuana

Dipterocarpaceae

Weinmannia spp (NG Mahogany)

Cunoniaceae

Note: Species marked with an asterisk (*) have already been proposed as high value PNG species which have not previously been the target of domestication programs.

To this list of prospect species should be added Sandalwood which is more suited to villagebased commercial activity rather than industrial projects.

ISSUES re SPECIES SELECTION However, there cannot be one simple set of priorities for PNG. The country is too large and too diverse for such an approach to have any validity in the eyes of the landowners. Rather, it is suggested, there should be several priority sets to accommodate such biophysical and ethnic/social diversity. This is particularly important where the national policy for forestry development is one of involving the people in the development process – the landowners, villages, and communities. If a species being promoted in an area is alien to that area, whether it originates elsewhere in PNG or overseas, then there will be little local sense of ‘belonging’ and hence at best an indifferent acceptance of the development. The exception may be where, through judicious extension and education, the promotion of a species captures the national imagination, both culturally and financially. Such is the case with Sandalwood or Kauri in different areas of Vanuatu.

Those who have live in PNG are aware of the contrasting differences between the Highlands and the Lowlands. Both are different from island scenarios, such as Manus, and New Ireland.

And then there are different ecosystems within lowland regions on the northern and southern coasts of the PNG mainland, and in New Britain and Bougainville.

I have suggested elsewhere that the Highlands need species which can reclaim degraded grasslands. These might include Agathis, Palaquium, Dacrydium or Podocarpus. However, grassfires are a real threat.

The supply of firewood for cooking is now at a premium so Yar should be a priority firewood species for the Highlands, not Australian eucalypts. Different sets of priorities need to be built for the various regions of PNG and subsets within them for differing sites.

While the issues addressed by a selection matrix can be engineered to apply across the nation, the weightings applied will vary from region to region. Where Calophyllum spp have always 15

been a major part of the scene, as in Manus, then there will obviously be a greater weighting placed on that species there. Likewise, for Red Cedar in Milne Bay, and Rosewood in Central Province. Flindersia spp would have greater weighting in Morobe, wattles in Western and so on.

SPECIES SELECTION (Village-based/landowner) There are many species which are of vital importance to the village community. These species may be used for any one or a combination of the following purposes.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fruit, edible, planted and wild Nuts, edible and planted Edible leaves: commonly cultivated exclusively or partly for the production of edible shoots or leaves.

Buildings: rot-resistant posts, aerial members Canoes & outriggers Weapons Utensils Rope Fuelwood Live fencing e.g., NG rosewood Ornamental and shade Custom decorations (Bilas) Custom medicine Custom poisons Carving Custom resins and glues Custom boundary markers Custom scents Custom dyes and paints

Some varieties of species, such as Artocarpus, provide timber rather than breadfruit, but fundamentally the fruit trees are not cut. There is thus perhaps little real need to undertake any special conservation measures or a ‘domestication’ programme for such species. They have been domesticated for 1000s of years and are extensively planted.

I provide a list below of species which I consider should receive special attention. Many have both a commercial prospect as well as a custom use. Some are ‘only’ of custom use, but nevertheless important. I consider they should be considered in a ‘domestication’ program, where it has been traditional practice, for example, to collect fruit or nuts from wild trees, but the trees could also provide income beyond immediate village need and barter. Alternatively, where through logging or other activity wild trees are becoming scarce or less readily accessible to villagers, then such species might be included in a ‘domestication’ programme.

We should also not forget that, especially in densely populated Highland areas and in the main cities of Port Moresby and Lae, firewood is now a scarce and expensive commodity for 16

the average household. The proportion of available income spent on firewood has grave social consequences in my opinion. Some visitors might conclude from the heaps of yar or other hot firewood on sale in Mt Hagen markets that firewood is plentiful. That would be quite wrong.

There is a lot of cut firewood on sale because there is an extremely high demand, and a few landowners can reap considerable profit by supplying the need. In the process, other more distant areas are being stripped of wood, and the price goes up. I have seen the need for government support for firewood plantations grow enormously over the past 40 years.

Firewood production systems, in close co-operation with landowners or villages would provide additional employment opportunities and income streams; such firewood production systems would focus on major urban centres; where, not so long ago, we sought to grow teak at Mt Lawes and Brown River, a eucalypt coppice-wood silviculture would be worth further investigation. Some will recall there were firewood plantation trials in the grasslands off the road to Brown River (near Mt. Lawes); they suffered from lack of interest and were abandoned as we foresters sought to grow timber not firewood.

I have also tossed in Balsa, because it is well suited to village production, has a 3-year rotation (gets red heart beyond 4-5 years), is easy to mill and transport and has a remarkably high return. It is of course suited only to those areas where there is a uniformly distributed rainfall with no pronounced dry period.

In the Table below, I suggest 16 species, some specifically of lowland interest, others for the Highlands.

Antiaris toxicaria

Moraceae

Timber, cash. (Aerial house members in round.)

Endospermum medullosum (NG Basswood)

Euphorbiaceae

Timber, cash. (Furniture, utensils, interior work.)

Macaranga aleuritoides Euphorbiaceae

Timber-village construction in the round, light construction, interior finish.

Manilkara kanosiensis

Sapotaceae

Carving, cash, timber. (Well-known carving timber in Sandaun and East Sepik.)

Pterocarpus indicus (NG Rosewood)

Leguminosae

Carving, furniture, posts, houses, firewood, cash. (Most under-rated indigenous spp.)

Octomeles sumatrana (Erima)

Datiscaceae

Cash, village construction timber, utensils.

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Inocarpus fagiferus

Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae

Food (nut), cash, timber, soil improver. (Trees rarely cut while producing nuts.)

Syzygium spp

Myrtaceae

Food (fruit), timber.

Terminalia kaernbachii (Okari)

Combretaceae

Food (nut), cash.

Casuarina oligodon (Yar)

Casuarinaceae

Hot firewood soil improver, timber, cash.

Heritiera littoralis

Sterculiaceae

Hot firewood.

Diospyros spp (Ebony)

Ebenaceae

Carving- D’Entrecasteaux and Louisades, cash.

Elmerrillia papuana (Wau Beech)

Magnoliaceae

Canoes, timber (interior finish or furniture).

Santalum macgregorii (Sandalwood)

Santalaceae

Cash, medicine, timber.

Toona ciliata/T. sureni (Red Cedar)

Meliaceae

Cash -high value end product timber.

Vatica papuana

Dipterocarpaceae

Cash, timber. (Source of damar.

Light construction, moulding, interior finish.)

Casuarina oligodon is the premier tree of the highlands both for maintaining soil fertility, as fuel, charcoal, and a heavy construction timber. Village-based and landowner plantings are feasible. No training for planting or maintenance is required; western Highlanders know more about silviculture of this species than outsiders.

Rosewood has a wide range of uses and a wide distribution. It provides very hot firewood, house posts, live fences, a prized carving wood and a high-end value for furniture and veneer.

The tree does not always have good form in the wild, but there are good prospects for improvement of form. The species is highly prized right throughout Melanesia. In Vanuatu it is one of the most significant custom trees and is cultivated in the gardens and used as a live fence, to prop bananas etc. The tree is easy to establish from cuttings and needs little attention except early vine control.

Taun can provide a sought-after fruit and has a multiplicity of other uses. The species is sometimes planted in gardens close to villages. Like Intsia, it is thought to require land disturbance for successful establishment and can form nearly pure stands. A focus on establishment in gardens during, say Year 2 of garden tending would seem appropriate, with tending (particularly for vines) maintained for 2 years beyond other garden cultivation.

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Sandalwood has been considered by several Pacific Island countries for village-based income generation (e.g., Kadavu in Fiji, and Erromango in Vanuatu. It is regarded as a sound prospect for a village-based investment to produce highly priced oil and incense, as well as timber for specialty furniture items. However, advice should be sought from New Caledonia on technical aspects of production.

Galip (Canarium spp) has a potential as a nut tree, as well as supplying a useful timber for interior finish, utility furniture and flooring. Its main distribution is in East/West Sepik, New Britain, and Central Provinces. It is not included in the list above because of the time to produce nuts.

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References - Relevant but dated papers are: Lane-Poole, C.E. (1925) The Forest Resources of the territories of Papua and New Guinea, Commonwealth Papers, Vol 2.

Dadswell H.E. and Eckersley A.M. (1943) Some Timber Species of Papua and New Guinea with Descriptive Notes on Properties and Uses and Means of Identification. CSIR Division of Forest Products, Report No. 1, 1943.

Dadswell H.E. and Eckersley A.M. (1944) Notes on Some Timber Species of Papua and New Guinea. Additions to Report No 1.

TPNG, Dept of Forests (1957) The Forests and Forest Conditions in the Territories of Papua and New Guinea. Port Moresby.

Louise Morauta, John Pernetta (Eds) (1982): Traditional conservation in PNG: Implications for today. Monograph 16: William Heaney Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research.

Various Tropical Forest Research Notes by Silviculture Research personnel. 1971 onwards.

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SHIITAKE22 Paper submitted by Dr Robert Thistlethwaite 20/12/2019 Dr Kisaku Mori D. Agr., supported by a small team of Japanese scientists and officials, flew into Moresby from New Zealand as part of a theoretical test that the wild distribution of Shiitake would be found along a former equatorial zone passing through New Zealand and PNG at an oblique angle to the current equator. The North pole would have been in southern Greenland, or thereabouts for that to occur. While I could find no evidence of such an equatorial shift, then or since, Mori did find Shiitake in Fagaceae forest in New Zealand. His journey to PNG was primarily intended to investigate the presence of Shiitake there also.

Kevin White and Bob Thistlethwaite greet Dr Kisaku Mori and the OIC Mori Research at the Davara on Ela Beach. Photo credit Bob Thistlethwaite.

Kisaku Mori (1908 – 1977) was, at the time of his visit to PNG in 1972, the head of the Nippon Federation of Shiitake Producers Co-operatives and of the Mori Mushroom Research Institute. Dr Mori had researched edible mushrooms for many years but focussed on the cultivation of Shiitake receiving his doctorate in 1941.

At the time of Mori’s visit, the scientific name of the species was Lentinus edodes (Berk.), Singer (1941)23. He is acknowledged as having led the way in 1943 for large scale commercial Shiitake production with a new inoculation method based on wooden dowels of colonized mycelia inserted into drilled holes in Quercus and Castanopsis logs. [This system has now been replaced by a bagged cultivation process24]. He became more widely known through the publication of his book Mushrooms as Health Foods (Japan Publications, 1974, English) which extolled the health benefits of mushrooms.

Mori research team: The 6-man Mori team arrive at Bulolo.

Little field work was necessary as Jack Simpson had already located Shiitake in higher elevation Castanopsis forest.

Jack Simpson, Department of Forests pathologist based at Bulolo in Morobe Province, guided the Mori team to Castanopsis forests where Shiitake was identified on the first morning of the field visit.

22

Article submitted by Dr Bob Thistlethwaite 29 Dec 2019 Now classified as Lentinula edodes (Berk.), Pegler (1976).

24 Katsuji Yamanaka: Mushroom Cultivation in Japan, Kyoto Mycological Institute, WSMBMP Bulletin (2011) 4:1-10.

23

21

Shiitake party 1: L to R? Bob Thistlethwaite, Egon Horak? Jack Simpson, Dave Lamb, Kisaku Mori Dr Mori was delighted to find that the Shiitake form at Bulolo was like the hanu donko form of Japan, having a thick pileus, which in Japan was produced under slow winter growth conditions, and originally had a garlic flavour.

Shiitake party 2: L to R: Bob Thistlethwaite, Jack Simpson, Dave Lamb (partly obscured at rear), OIC Mori Research, Egon Horak, Kisaku Mori in Castanopsis forest at Bulolo.

Mori said it had taken considerable work to remove the garlic taste then disliked by Japanese; but with increasing westernisation Japanese sought garlic to enhance Asian cuisine and were prepared to pay the higher price demanded for hanu donko. After Dr Mori’s field visit, Shiitake was found widely distributed on Fagaceae, especially on Castanopsis in the highlands of PNG. At the Tari market in Hela Province, different varieties of edible mushrooms were being sold.

Shiitake was known locally “abus long abus” or meat with meat and was highly prized.

In 1974, Dr Mori flew to PNG to meet again with Kev White and Forestry Department staff in Port Moresby and sponsored a small reception. He explained that the PNG form of Shiitake had been crossbred with the Japanese hanu donko form, producing a thick pileus in summer along with the garlic flavour. The new variety had been well received by the pubic in Japan, boosting the value of Shiitake production. In appreciation for KJ’s assistance, this new mushroom variety had been marketed as the “White Forest Mushroom” [after Kevin White and Kisaku Mori (Mori means forest)]. He also presented two badges to Kevin and me, carrying numbers 99 and 100, stating that there were but 100 such badges in existence, and to receive one was an honour and a tribute to the assistance he had received. They would attract several gratis support services (including transport, accommodation, restaurants) when we visited Japan. I was never able to test that offer and whether Kev White did so on his travels I do not know. But I did receive a package of the new variety which helped me develop a high regard for Shiitake, both fresh and dried, which I consider essential to Asian cuisine today.

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“EFOGI” Paper submitted by Dr Robert Thistlethwaite 20/12/2019

Fig 1: Source: Adventure Kokoda Treks – a useful borrowed depiction.

Kev White phoned to say he had arranged a flight to Efogi for the coming Saturday and did I want to come. Early on Saturday (no date but around the 30th anniversary of the Battle of Brigade Hill), we flew from Jacksons, Kev in the jump seat while Alan White, Chris Done and I piled into the rear. An uneventful short flight and landed at Efogi airstrip after an interesting approach among the hills. We taxied up to the eastern end where the Kokoda Track leads to Efogi, cargo, botanical presses, etc., and looked for the usual porters and bevy of children who greet visitors on arrival at more remote PNG airstrips. A radio message had been sent to Efogi advising our short visit and need to use the Haus Kiap for the night —but no-one was in sight.

Chris Done on left and Kevin White on right reach Efogi village.

An SDA village, clean and attractive, with many fruit trees. We waited, but still no one appeared, so carried the cargo to the village ourselves. All was silent. Had we offended the people in some way and were receiving the treatment? or perhaps our radio message had not reached the right ears? The village was immaculate, 23

clean, and swept, well-maintained houses, etc., but no people, old or young, to be seen anywhere. There was no point in speculating on causes, so we made our way to the Haus Kiap and dumped the gear. While no human being was to be seen, we soon realised from faint murmurs of human voices that there were people inside the closed-up houses. But incredibly quiet for a village; no dogs barking, no pigs grunting, hens clucking, or cocks crowing. Extraordinary! We had hoped to arrange some cooked food for dinner that evening but it looked like we were in for a lean time. We ate some crackers, collected the gear we needed, stowed some refreshments in a haversack, and headed north from the village.

Belatedly in our stupidity, it dawned on us that we were in an SDA village, where Saturday is their Sabbath and strictly observed. Had we done our homework better, we would have been reminded that the SDA church had many adherents in that area and flown in another day. Well, we were there, and not tourists, so we headed for the forest and trees we wanted to see. I was interested particularly in E. tereticornis in that part of the Owen Stanleys.

[A little Aside. The Efogi Village we visited was not the wartime village. That village had been on the wartime Track which veered left at Brigade Hill along Mission Ridge. This was the scene of bitter fighting in September 1942 when 6 Battalions of Japanese troops of the 144th South Seas Island Regiment attacked Brigadier Potts ragged remnants of his 21st Brigade numbering nominally about 1,000 retreating Australian troops with the greatest losses during the Kokoda campaign of 87 killed and 77 wounded. The wartime track on Mission Ridge passed through the former Efogi Village and then on to Kagi, the then largest village in the area. In the accounts of the Kokoda campaign, you will read that the Track crossed Efogi Creek; it did in 1942, but in 1972 the track out of (new) Efogi crossed Elome Creek and then climbed steeply up to Launumu (marked on the map as Launumu). Today’s Efogi is the largest village along the track with a population said to be about 350.]

A couple of miles north of Efogi we decided to take a break from our exercise at Elome Creek, which at that time was much less than the 10m width stated on the map - although with heavy rain, the stream would rise very fast. It was hot and the water in the creek was inviting. Alan and Chris could not resist a dip, but the water was too cold for me.

Elome Creek: From left: Allan White, Kev White, Chris Done. I was taking the photo. (B&W clearer)

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Efogi. A hard Saturday afternoon at Elome Creek a short walk north of Efogi. From left: Alan White, Kev White, Bob Thistlethwaite, Chris Done. Photo credit Bob Thistlethwaite.

The walk up to Launumu was stiff for the four of us, but more so for Kev. Of course, he would not admit that but happened upon an excellent spot at a bend in the track from which to enjoy the vista. We had no objection to gazing at the scenery either. While having a breather, two young boys ran past us uphill to Launumu with a cherry apinun masta.

Reinvigorated by their youthfulness and mountain legs, we carried on, reaching Launumu with thoughtful admiration for those Aussie soldiers who had fought through this country carrying very heavy loads rather than the skimpy weight we carried.

At Launumu (Launumu in the 1970s) near which the Track forks. Launumu had a few people out and about. I was impressed by form, diameter, and bole length of some E. tereticornis along the ridge, and we were taken to the site of a church being rebuilt to examine the stumps of the prior church which had stood for many years.

The photo of the kapset posts tells the story of only a thin skin of external rot, and posts which would support the new church for many years to come. The large posts are Eucalyptus tereticornis stumps from the old lotu. The posts had been kapset with a thin skin of punky wood shaved off at the post top (originally in the ground). Tereticornis is highly prized for posts. No wonder this species is prized by the Koiari people.

DoF later collected seed from E. tereticornis at Dobodura (for firewood production) which was sent to Dehra Dun in India. Parcels of that seed had been distributed to drier areas of India, and seed of Australian provenances had been imported to Tamil Nadu in the 1800s and used in some tea growing areas for high shade. During a visit in Himachal Pradesh in the Western Himalayas, I was impressed by plantings on dry southerly aspects to help stabilise land slip and for firewood. I tried to find out more about those plantings in the Forestry Office in Simla, the capital, and was confronted by a copy of a DoF Phytosanitary Certificate signed by yours truly. It was the seed from Dobodura. But the Efogi provenance was more

25

impressive, and I regretted DoF was unable to collect seed there at the time or for that matter from other known stands in the Owen Stanleys.

The light was waning, and we hurried back to Efogi arriving about 5.30pm. Still all quiet.

Then at 6pm a bell rang and suddenly the Efogi area was awash with people, cheerful, friendly, and courteous. The Sabbath had ended. We had many offers of food and purchased a couple of chickens for supper. We did not display alcohol of course, and we did not need to be concerned about savage pigs under houses.

Efogi airstrip.

The white spot in the centre background is our plane making its approach.

Photo credit Bob Thistlethwaite.

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Dr Robert Thistlethwaite Travel Snippets25 Travel went with the job in PNG and, except for road travel around Port Moresby or inland to Brown River, was by air. For main internal travel it was in the main TAA, Air Niugini, or Talair, with an assortment of plane types ranging from DC3, Fokker Friendship, Pilatus Porter, and many different light aircraft e.g., with MAF, Adventist Aviation, Bush Pilots.

Most flights were uneventful unless you were in a light aircraft at lower attitude when it completely clouded in and you stooged around waiting for a break in the clouds. If aviation gas was running low, then you had to take the risk and make a run for it. Take your hats off for pilots in PNG, especially when landing at places like Laiagam, Tapini, Efogi.

But in all the travel I did during my time there and subsequently as a consultant, only once when I was really concerned on a flight from Moresby to Madang on a Fokker, when in the Okapa area the pilot realised he was flying up the wrong valley for his approach to Goroka.

A cliff appeared ahead and disturbingly close. He stood the plane almost on its tail, hung on the props and side-slipped out of danger. We exited the aircraft at Goroka a bit white around the gills, decided we would stay in Goroka for the night and forget flying on to Madang. I did not know that the Fokker was so versatile but subsequently learned that it was originally designed for military operations. The pilot was of course feted by all but fit enough to fly on to Madang in the morning.

No matter how you got there, you did your work and then hoped to get home. However, in the early 1970s there were several pilot strikes which, while inconvenient, could prove quite entertaining. One was at Madang where I had flown with Prof Lindsay Pryor of botanical fame and whose name graces the National Arboretum in Canberra. We were stuck in Madang for a few short days but made the most of it and, with the loan of a DoF 4x4, explored the Gogol JANT operations, made some WW II forays (the area had seen very heavy fighting during the Japanese retreat to Wewak where they surrendered), and more casually up the north coast accompanied by a couple of TAA hostesses. I did glean some botanical knowledge, but more importantly greatly enjoyed Lindsay’s company. We had both started our forestry careers as Assistant Foresters at Uriarra Forest west of Canberra, and had some things in common, but not his botanical knowledge I am afraid!

Another occurrence was on a trip to the Western Province with Kevin White during the dry season. We boated up the Oriomo River to Peawa and travelled a little distance along the road to Morehead. Items of interest included the microtopography which governed ground moisture and drainage during the wet season when swamp covered much of the area except for small hummocks which would have been above the flood level. Along the road was what was then known as Eucalyptus polycarpa, Flindersia and Oreocallis. In wetter areas were E. brassiana and Melaleuca spp. There were also Wattle species. The Oreocallis was in flower and with the reasonably straight boles an extremely attractive tree. The timber was prized locally, and I have always thought Oreocallis to be a grossly undervalued species.

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Article submitted by Dr Bob Thistlethwaite 29 Dec 2019

27

In Daru we spent some time examining the E polycarpa in the grounds of the Kalabus. It seemed to be quite variable in form and appearance, ranging from gnarled trees of small diameter to larger specimens with better form. The Kalabus area was obviously burnt regularly, and the rough barked trees seemed resistant to fire damage.

Daru. Source Wikipedia.

Daru is the capital of the western Province of PNG. The township is entirely located on an island that goes by the same name, which is located near the mouth of the Fly River on the western side of the Gulf, just north of Torres Strait and far North Queensland in Australia.

And, yes, there was a pilot strike, and we were stranded on Daru Island and lucky to get a small room at the Daru Hotel which was adequate, with good plain food and a congenial host.

Daru Island Source Wikipedia.

There was not much to see on Daru then except it is massive tarmac. After a morning sampling liquid refreshment, we searched for the plug which in our state we were told existed to keep Daru Island afloat.

But no luck! Our publican had a strong focus on the till during this bonanza for him as many people were trapped. The influx was such that the stock in the private bar was rapidly depleted, and when all the beer was gone, we gradually worked our way through all other offerings on the bar shelves. Rum and Scotch disappeared quickly, and anything else, with one lone survivor on Sunday, a bottle of Tullamore Dew, which delighted KJ (Kevin White) as an emblem of Ireland. We cuddled that for as long as a small bottle takes and then were forced to turn to the wine collection in the public bar, and a most impressive collection of wine labels were displayed. Wine, at least the cheaper variety, was not really our tipple, but when in Rome…!

The Daru Pub was locally called the Cerberus Arms, because all the crockery and cutlery were branded with “HMAS Cerberus”. How, we did not ask. I decided to do a little exploration of the hotel and in a shed tucked away under a couple of trees at the back I found a hotel employee beavering away filling bottle. He had two huge casks from which to choose, both branded with Portuguese markings, one containing red wine and the other white 28

– perhaps emulating Mateusz Rose and Casals Inhos – but unfortunately not the same calibre.

The bottles were already labelled with what they had originally contained, and it was interesting to see a white wine in a bottle labelled Beaujolais. To feed the thirsty throng in the public bar, waiters moved through selling fried fish heads, some with backbones attached.

A roaring trade and the kina were rolling in. Tuesday came, the strike was off, and we gratefully boarded the flight to Moresby.

The Western Province grew on me. I returned each year, roaming inland as far as Morehead and Weam near the West Papua border, and along the southern coast to Mabaduan (which boasted a large solid church built in the 1850s (or thereabouts) by the London Missionary Society), with deer hunting inland of the village. Extra-large mud crabs, fish, plantain, sago and of course rice along with a couple of tins of bully beef. And you ask why I always carried a small bottle of Tabasco Sauce?

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REFERENCES FOR PLANTATION PNGAF MAG SERIES 9D4 9D4A. WHY FOREST PLANTATIONS? 9D4B. WHY CERTAIN SPECIES in PNG? 9D4C. GLOBAL ISSUES AND TRENDS 9D4D. GLOBAL TIMELINE PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT 9D4E. PNG PLANTATION TIMELINE 9D4F. PNG PLANTATION STATISTICS 9D4G. PNG PLANTATION INDUSTRIES 9D4H. DES HARRIES WAU FOREST PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT 9D4I. WHERE DID PNG GET TO BY 1975? - DR BOB THISTLETHWAITE 9D4J. APPENDICIES 9D4-A HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT RE SPECIFIC COUNTRIES ABARE & Jaakko Pöyry (1999). Global outlook for plantations. ABARE research report 99.9, Canberra, ABARE Australia, 107 pp. ISSN 1037-8286 ISBN 0 642 26647 6 ABARE – Jaakko Pöyry, ABARE Research Report 99.9, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics.

ABARES (2021) Australian plantation statistics and log availability report 2021. P Legg, I Frakes, M Gavran. Australian Government.

Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Australia. (2003). The Farm Forestry Program 1996 – 2002. http://www.affa.gov.au/content/ Annandale, M., Bristow, M., Storey, R. and Williams, K. (2003). Land suitability for plantation establishment within 200 kilometres of Cairns. Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2001.

Appanah S & Weinland G (1993) A review of planting quality timber trees in Peninsular Malaysia. Malaysian Forest record # 38 FRI Malaysia.

Apsey, TM and FLC Reed. (1996). World timber resources outlook: current perceptions with implications for policy and practice. Commonwealth Forestry Review 75: 155-160.

Arnold, J.E.M. (1991) The long-term global demand for and supply of wood. In: Forestry Expansion: a Study of Technical, Economic and Ecological Factors. U.K. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh (U.K.).

Asabere, P.K. (1987) Attempts at sustained yield management in the tropical high forests of Ghana. In: Natural Management of Tropical Moist Forests: Silvicultural and Management Prospects of Sustained Utilisation (Eds. F. Mergen and J.R. Vincent). Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (USA).

Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study ii Working Paper Series Working Paper no.

APFSOS ii/wp/ (2009)/19 Papua New Guinea Forestry Outlook Study by Papua New Guinea Forest Authority. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, 2009. APFSOS ii.

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Australian Forest History Society Newsletter No. 75 (June 2018) Special Issue Early Forestry and 100 Years of Timber Research in Queensland.

Fintan.OLaighin@agriculture.gov.au AFHS Address: PO Box 5128, KINGSTON ACT 2604 Web: www.foresthistory.org.au ISSN 1033-937 X Ball J B (1993) Development of Eucalyptus Plantations - an Overview. RAP publication: 1996/44 Proceedings Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus spp. 4-8 October 1993 Bangkok vol 1 and vol 2. FAO. Ball, JB, TJ Wormald and L Russo. (1995). Experience with mixed and single species plantations. Commonwealth Forestry Review 74: 301-305.

Ball, J. and Pandey, D. (1998), The role of industrial plantations in future global fibre supplies. Unasylva, Vol. 49, No. 193. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 7pp.

Ball, J.B. (2001). Global forest resources; history and dynamics. The forests handbook.

Oxford, Blackwell Science.

Barnard R. C. (1954) Manual of Malayan Silviculture for Inland Lowland Forests. Malaysian Forest Research Institute pamphlet #14.

Barnes, R.D., and Simons, A.J. (1994). Selection and breeding to conserve and utilise tropical tree germplasm. Tropical Trees: the potential for domestication and the rebuilding of forest resources. Edinburgh, HMSO. Baur G. (1962) The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management Andre Mayer Fellow 196162 UN FAO 499p.

Baur, G. N. (1968). The Ecological Basis of Rainforest Management. Blight Government Printer, New South Wales.

Beard JS (1943) The importance of race in teak, Tectona grandis L. Caribb Forester 4(3):135–139.

Beekman, H.A.J.M. (1949). Silviculture in Indonesia. Wageningen, the Netherlands, Veenman. 386 pp. (in Dutch).

Bennett B M (2014) The origins of timber plantations in India. The Agricultural History Review Vol. 62, No. 1 (2014), pp. 98-118 (21 pages). Published by: British Agricultural History Society.

Bennett B M (2010) The El Dorado of Forestry. The Eucalyptus in India, South Africa, and Thailand, 1850-2000. Journal Globalisation, Environmental Change and Social History. Published online by Cambridge University Press.

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Bennett B & Kruger F (2015) Forestry and Water Conservation in South Africa: History, Science and Policy, published ANU Press, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

Berenschot, L.M., Filius, B.M. & Hardjosoediro, S. (1988). Factors determining the occurrence of agroforestry systems with Acacia mearnsii in Central Java. Agrofor. Syst., 16: 119-135.

Blakesley D, Marks T (2003). Tissue Culture and Plant Breeding. Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences.

Boland D.J. (ed.) (1989) Trees for the Tropics: Growing Australian Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs in Developing Countries. ACIAR Monograph No. 10. 247 pp.

Boomgaard, P. (1992). Forest management and exploitation in colonial Java, 16771897. Forest Conserv. Hist., 36: 4-14.

Booth, Doris R., (1929), ‘Mountains, Gold and Cannibals’, Cornstalk Press, Australia.

Booth, T.H. and Turnbull, J.W. (1994). Domestication of lesser-known tropical tree species – the Australian experience. In: R.R.B. Leakey and A.C. Newton (eds) Tropical Trees: The Potential for Domestication and the Rebuilding of Forest Resources. London, HMSO: 189– 194.

Bourke R. M. & Harwood T. (eds) (2009) Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. ANU Press ANU ISBN 9781921536601.

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ACRONYMS AAD ACT ACIAR ACLMP ACP ADB AEC AFAP ADB AFLEGT AFPNG AFS AFTA AIF AMF ANBG ANGAU ANU APEC APMF APPM ARD ASEAN ASIO ASOPA ATIBT ATL ATO AusAID BA BCOF BDV “Beer Time” BFC BGD BNGD BUC C cm CALM CBD CDM CEFACT CEPT CERFLOR CFA CFE

Australian Antarctic Division Australian Capital Territory Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research AusAid funded World Bank Land Mobilisation program.

African, Caribbean and Pacific States Asian Development Bank Administrators Executive Committee Australian Foundation for the Peoples of Asia & the Pacific Ltd. African Development Bank African Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Association of Foresters of PNG Australian Forestry School Asean Free Trade Area Australian Infantry Forces Australian Military Forces Australian National Botanical Gardens Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit Australian National University Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Australian Paper Manufacturers Forestry Pty Ltd Australia Paper and Pulp Manufacturers Afforestation, Reforestation and avoided Deforestation Association of South East Asian Nations Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Australian School of Pacific Administration Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux Accelerated Tariff Liberalization African Timber Organization Australian Aid Agency basal area British Commonwealth Occupational Force 1945-52 Brussels Definition of Value Any time.

Bulolo Forestry College Bulolo Gold Dredging Company British New Guinea Development (Company Limited) Bulolo University College Commonwealth centimetre Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management Convention on Biological Diversity Clean Development Mechanism United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business Common Effective Preferential Tariff Certificate of Origin of Forest Raw Material, Brazil Commonwealth Forestry Association Community forestry enterprise 55

CGTM CIF CIFOR CITES C&I CNGT CO2 COC COP CPF CRE CRE

CSIRO CHAH C&I C&L CSD CTE DASF DBH/ dbh DEPT DESA DIES DIY DPI DOF DSB EC ECE ECOSOC EEA EFI EIA EMAS EMS ENB e.g.

ENGO Etc EU EVSL FAO F &TB FIM FMA

Cintra for Global Trade Model cost, insurance, freight Centre for International Forestry Research Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Criteria and indicators Commonwealth New Guinea Timbers Bulolo carbon dioxide chain of custody Conference of Parties Collaborative Partnership on Forests Commander Royal Engineers CRE is a term inherited by RAE from RE and is the term for the Commanding Officer of a RAE unit which is headed by a Lt Col. Although the officer is called the CRE the name is also used for the name of his unit.

E.g., CRE Aust Forestry Group or 1(NG Forests).

Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Criteria and Indicators Certification and Labelling Commission on Sustainable Development (United Nations) Committee on Trade and Environment Dept of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Diameter at breast height Department United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Department of Information and Extension Services Do-it-yourself Department of Primary Industry Department of Forests Dispute Settlement Body European Commission ECA Export credit agency Economic Commission for Europe Economic and Social Council of the United Nations European Economic Area European Forest Institute Environmental Investigation Agency Eco-Management and Audit Scheme of European Union Environmental Management System East New Britain Province.

For example Environmental Non-governmental Organisation et cetera (more of the same) European Union Early Voluntary Liberalisation Food and Agriculture Organisation Forest and Timber Bureau Canberra Forest Information System Forest Management Agreement 56

FPRC FRA FRG FRI Forkol FSP/PNG FCCC FD FDI FIELD FLEGT FLEG FLONAS FOB FSC FTAA GAB Gbhob Gubab GIS G8 GATT GDP GEF GFTN GFPM GHG GIS GMO GNP GPA GSP GTZ ha IBRD IEA IFA IFY IADB IBAMA ICA ICCI IDB IEA IEC IFC IFF IHPA IIED

Forest Products Research Centre Hohola Forest Resource Assessment Forest Red Gum Forest Research Institute Lae Bulolo Forestry College Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific See UNFCCC Forest department Foreign direct investment The Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Forest Law Enforcement and Governance National Forest logging concessions, Brazil free on board Forest Stewardship Council Free Trade Area of the Americas Girth above buttress Girth breast height over bark Girth under bark above buttress Geographic Information Systems Group of Eight (leading economies) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Global Forest and Trade Network Global Forest Products Model greenhouse gas Geographical information system genetically modified organism Gross National Product Plurilateral Government Procurement Agreement Generalized System of Preferences Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit hectare International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Energy Agency Institute of Foresters of Australia International Year of the Forest Inter-American Development Bank Amazon Environmental Institute, Brazil International Commodity Agreement International Conference on C&I for Sustainable Forest Management Inter-American Development Bank International Environmental Agreement International Electrical Commission International Finance Corporation Intergovernmental Forum on Forests International Hardwood Products Association International Institute for Environment and Development 57

IMF INGO IPC IPCC IPF ISO ITC ITTA ITTC ITTO IUCN IWPA JICA L of N LRRS LCA LEEC LEI LULUCF m3 MCCAF MHA MM MUS MEA MFN MIGA MOU MTTC n.a.

NAA NARI NB NAFTA NGO NHLA NRRP NT NTB NTCC NTFP NTM NWFP NDS NFCAP NGM no.

NG NGF NGIB

International Monetary Fund International Non-Governmental Organisations Integrated Programme for Commodities Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel on Forests International Organization for Standardisation International Trade Centre International Tropical Timber Agreement International Tropical Timber Council International Tropical Timber Organization The World Conservation Union International Wood Products Association Japanese International Cooperation Agency League of Nations Land Resource Soils Survey (branch of CSIRO) Life Cycle Analysis London Economic and Environmental Centre Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests cubic metre McCarthy & Associates (Forestry) Pty. Ltd. Member of House of Assembly PNG Military Medal Malayan Uniform System Multilateral Environmental Agreement Most Favoured Nation Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Memorandum of Understanding Malaysian Timber Certification Council not available National Archives Australia National Agriculture Research Institute New Britain North American Free Trade Agreement Non-Governmental Organisation National Hardwood Lumber Association Natural Resources and Rights Program National Treatment non-tariff barrier National Timber Certification Council non-timber forest product non-tariff measures non-wood forest product Northern District Sawmills PNG National Forestry and Conservation Action Plan New Guinea Mainland number New Guinea New Guinea Forces (relates to plant collection of Lae Herbarium) New Guinea Infantry Battalion 58

NGI NGO NGVR NZ NSW NTSC OECD OTO OIC OISCA OTML P or p PEFC PIB PIR PNG PNGAA PNGAF PNGFA PNGFIA PNGRIS PNGUT POM P&C PEFC PGA PPM PPP QLD QF RAE RPC RRA RIIA RIL RFE RTA RWE SAP SPS SFM SGS SMS SP SPWP sq m TAG TSS TBT

New Guinea Islands Non-Government Organisation New Guinea Volunteer Rifles New Zealand New South Wales National Tree Seed Centre PNG Bulolo Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Office of Trade and Investment Ombudsman Officer in Charge Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement International Japan.

Ok Tedi Mining Ltd page Pan European Forest Certification Scheme Papuan Infantry Battalion Pacific Islands Regiment Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Australia Association Papua New Guinea Australian Foresters Magazine Series Papua New Guinea Forest Authority PNG Forest Industries Association Papua New Guinea Resource Information System PNG University of Technology Port Moresby Principles and Criteria Pan-European Forest Certification Framework Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement production and processing method Polluter Pays Principle (other meaning Purchasing Power Parity) Queensland Queensland Forestry Royal Australian Engineers/Australian Army Royal Papuan Constabulary Rapid Resource Appraisal Royal Institute of International Affairs reduced impact logging Russia Far East Regional Trade Agreement roundwood equivalent structural adjustment programme Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Sustainable Forest Management Société General de Surveillance Selective Management System Malaysia South Pacific Secondary Processed Wood Products square metres Trade Advisory Group of ITTO Tropical Shelterwood System Technical Barriers to Trade 59

TFF TFRK TNC TRAINS TREM TRIM TRIP UK UN Unasylva UNCCD UNCED UNCSD UNCTAD UNESCO UNDP UNECE UNEP UNFCCC UNFF USTR UNE UNEP UNI UNITECH UNRE UPNG UQ US USA USD TPNG TUBL TA TA TRP Vol VSF WA WB WCMC WCO WSSD WTO WWF

Tropical Forest Foundation traditional forest-related knowledge Transnational corporation Trade-Basic Indicators of UNCTAD trade-related environmental measures Trade Related Investment Measures Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights United Kingdom United Nations Journal of FAO of UN United Nations Programme to Combat Desertification United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Committee on Sustainable Development United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Economic and Social Council United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Programme Framework Convention on Climate Change of United Nations United Nations Forum on Forests US, Office of the US Trade Representative University of New England Armidale NSW United Nations Environment Program University University of Technology Lae PNG University of Natural Resources and Environment University of Papua New Guinea University of Queensland United States United States of America United States dollar Territory of Papua and New Guinea Territory United Brewery Ltd Timber Area Timber Authority Timber Rights Purchase volume Victorian School of Forestry Western Australia World Bank World Conservation Monitoring Centre World Customs Organisation World Summit for Sustainable Development World Trade Organization World Wide Fund for Nature

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