PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4D of 15th March 2022 - global timeline forest tree plantations

AUSTRALIAN FORESTERS in PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1922-1975

PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4D of 15th March 2022 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PNG’s FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A history of plantation development globally, especially in tropical rainforest areas as pertinent to PNG’s forest tree plantation development.

PNGAF MAG 94D. Global Timeline of Forest Tree Plantation Development.

Editor R B McCarthy1 2022.

4000 BC

Mediterranean lands. Olives (Olea europea) selection and planting across Mediterranean lands.

Edible fig (Ficus carica) cultivated across Mediterranean lands.

Turnbull /Evans

3000 BC

The oldest record of oil palm use date from 3,000 BC when in the late 1800s archaeologists discovered several kegs of palm oil in a tomb located in Abydos, Egypt. It is believed that Arab traders had brought the oil to Egypt.

Asia. Chinese cultivating fruit trees. (Valder 1999)

Wikipedia

2000 BC 1500 BC 1100 BC to 256 BC 589 BC to 420 AD

543 BC 256 BC to 208 BC 234 BC 161 BC to 137 BC 57 BC 4BC A few centuries before BC 850 AD

15th century 1400-1500 16th Century 1500-1600 15th & 16 th Century

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Mediterranean lands. Myrrh trees (Commiphora myrrah) introduced into Egypt from Somalia as a source of perfume Asia. Chinese Chou Empire the Emperor established a forest service with responsibility of preserving natural forests and reforesting denuded land Asia. Chinese Sung Dynasty direct planting of tree seeds for reforestation practised and public lands reforested by farmers became the property of the farmer. Monographs prepared describing methods of planting and protection of the tung tree (Aleurites spp.), bamboos and other woody species. (Wang 1988). Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata), which today forms millions of hectares of planted forest in central and southern China, has a cultivation history of over 1000 years.

Asia. Sri Lanka Sinhalese King Vijaya village communities planted home gardens with flowering and fruit bearing trees Asia. Chinese Han and Tang Dynasties encouraged people to plant trees important for both food and timber production. Olives, Walnuts, almonds moved from Middle East and western Asia into China.

Mediterranean lands. Cato records planting of willows (Salix spp.), poplars (Populus spp.) and a conifer for ship timbers.

Asia. Sri Lanka King Dutugemunu forest plantations raised and rules for forest protection and use of forest products promulgated Asia. Korea Shilla Kingdom trees planted around king’s tombs, in royal gardens, along roadsides, as shelterbelts, along rivers and coastlines for erosion control.

Mediterranean lands. Trees of frankincense (Boswellia spp.) and myrrh plantings in Southern Arabia. Aristotle establishing probably the first arboretum in Greece The apple (Malus pumila) cultivated by Greeks and Romans before it was spread throughout Europe and Asia because of their travels and military conquests. The Romans introduced the edible nut bearing sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) into GB. According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in Ethiopia by a goat herder named Kaldi who observed increased activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans. The first coffee plant was found in the mountains of Yemen. The genus Coffea) is of about 125 species of flowering plants of the family Rubiaceae, mostly native to tropical Africa. Two species are of major economic importance as the source of coffee.

Coffee beans first exported out of Ethiopia to Yemen by Somali Merchants, then exported to the rest of the World through the port of Mocha, Yemen. Sufi monasteries in Yemen employed coffee as an aid to concentration during prayers. It soon spread to Mecca and Medina.

Coffee reached the rest of the Middle East, South India, Persia, Turkey, India, Northern Africa.

Coffee then spread to the Balkans, Italy, rest of Europe and Southeast Asia. 1600 Coffee first cultivated in India (Chikmagalur0 Voyages of discovery by Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, and other European navigators provided new opportunities for the transfer of tree germplasm between distant countries. E.g., tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) were early introductions from USA to Europe.

Dick McCarthy District Forester TPNG 1963-1975.

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Turnbull/ Evans Turnbull/ Evans Turnbull/ Evans Turnbull/ Evans

Turnbull Turnbull

Turnbull Turnbull Turnbull Turnbull Turnbull

Wikipedia

Wikipedia

Wikipedia

Turnbull

TABLE OF CONTENTS “FORWOOD”

page 3

History of Global Development of Forest Tree Plantations Period 1400- 1900 Development of Tropical Forest Tree Plantations Worldwide translocation of teak Genus Eucalyptus Sri Lanka PNG Vietnam Spain Portugal Irrigated Plantations South Africa Genus Pinus Period 1900-1950 Scotland Brazil New Zealand Chile USA Uruguay Canada New Guinea and Papua in 1948

page 5 page 5 page 6 page 10 page 11 page 11 page 11 page 11 page 12 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 17 page 17 page 17 page 18 page 21 page 23 page 27 page 29 page 30 page 31

The Development of the Australian Plantation estate APMF Phase 1 (up until the early 1960s) Victoria South Australia NSW WA Tasmania Queensland ACT Phase 2 (the early 1960s to the early 1980s) Phase 3 (mid to late 1980’s) Phase 4 (late 1980’s to late 1990’s) Phase 5 (2000’s to 2007) Phase 6 (2007 to present)

page 33 page 34 page 35 page 35 page 36 page 37 page 37 page 38 page 39 page 42 page 42 page 42 page 42 page 42 page 43

Status Forestry & Forest Products Research Australia & PNG 1947

page 44

Global Timeline Origin Forest Tree Plantations

page 53

REFERENCES

page 80

ACRONYMNS

page 106 2

“FORWOOD” The world’s natural forests, separated by great distances, contolled by disparate political systems, and distinguished by different ecological characteristics, are increasingly linked through international trade and global effects of environmental degradation (Kalio et al 1988)2.

In developing a global timeline of forest tree plantation development, the editor has been fortunate throughout his career, to have witnessed (map below) the growth of plantation development to satisfy the world’s appetite for wood fibre.

Europe Spain Portugal Canada USA Brazil Chile Urugay

South Africa

Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, PNG, Australia, New Zealand By 2000, 3FRA 2000 had achieved a global summation of the distribution of forest tree plantations.

Why plantation development? It was and is the need for wood fibre. Whether for fuelwood and shelter, railway transportation, industrial development and today even personal hygiene.

The slow growing global natural forests have been unable to meet ongoing demands.

Plantation forestry including the role of biotechnology in tree stock improvement programs, can achieve much greater yield of wood fibre on much shorter rotation times, providing large increases in public and private capital investment are undertaken.

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Kalio M, Dykstra DP, Binkley C S (1988) The global forest sector: an analytical perspective. ISBN 978-0444875877.

FRA (2000) Terms and Definitions (18 pp. - E/F/S/P) 2. http://www.fao.org/FORESTRY/FO/FRA/index.jsp.

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The question raised by McCarthy4 in 1993 remains unanswered.

Is Australia (including PNG) prepared financially, socially, and physically to become major international plantation wood suppliers and processors?

The technology, expertise and land exist.

McCarthy R B (1993) Review of Fast Grown Plantations in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Spain, Portugal, and South Africa. Paper presented to IFA 15th Annual Conference September 1993 Sunshine Coast Qld. 4

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History of Global Development of Forest Tree Plantations Period 1400-1900.

Turnbull5 (2009) described the global development of forest plantations in the period 14001900.

In Europe, the medieval forests of Europe were maintained principally as hunting grounds for the aristocracy. In Britain, the natural forests declined through uncontrolled selective cutting and lack of management and from the latter part of the 1400’s there were local scarcities of fuelwood. Early in the 16th century, there were signs that demands for timber for house construction, ship building, fuelwood for glass making, iron smelting and domestic use were starting to exceed supply.

During the seventeenth century, there were increasing concerns for the continuing availability of timber in Britain and proposals for developing plantations emerged.

The plantation movement in Britain owes much of its impetus to John Evelyns, a court official in the reigns of Charles I and Charles II, who was particularly concerned at the apparent shortage of timber for building and repairing ships. In the eighteenth century nearly all timber requirements could be met from growing hardwood plantations, although there was a significant demand for softwood timber for general construction purposes. Gradually, it became general practice to use conifers as nurse trees for young hardwoods. Many aristocratic English and Scottish landowners undertook major long term plantation activities on their estates. Government aid was made available for tree planting in Scotland in 1713.

Best known of the Scottish tree planters was John, fourth Duke of Atholl who planted 14 million trees on more than 4000 hectares of woodlands in Perthshire between 1764 and 1826.

The main species was European larch (Larix decidus) together with native Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies).

It is claimed that one of the larches planted by the second Duke of Atholl at Dunkeld in 1738 is still standing.6 It is thought to have been first cultivated in Britain in 1629. John Evelyn7 encouraged its wider planting and use. Three successive Dukes of Atholl planted it widely8. The fourth Duke wrote "Observations on Larch"9 in 1807 encouraging further its cultivation, which he practiced on a large scale.

Grounds of Dunkeld Hilton House. Source Dunkeld & Birnam Tourism Association History of Dunkeld Hilton House.

Turnbull J W 2009. Tree Domestication and the History of Plantations. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems Vol 2 The role of Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in Human Nutrition. Chp 6 pp48-74ISBN – 9781-84826-585-1 EOLS Publishers Co Ltd. Oxford UK 2009.

6 Dunkeld & Birnam Tourism Association History of Dunkeld Hilton House.

7 The Gardener's Dictionary, Vol.1, Philip Miller, 1835.

8 A History of British Forest-trees: Indigenous and Introduced, Prideaux John Selby, 1842.

9 The Philosophical Magazine and Journal, Vol. 53, 1819.

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Picea abies – Norway Spruce Pinus sylvestris. – Scots pine or Baltic pine Larix decidua European Larch Source Wikipedia.

A series of Acts of Parliament between 1698 and 1785 also encouraged tree planting in Ireland where large areas of Scots pine and European larch were planted by landlords in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. From about 1809, enclosure and planting were increasingly adopted in the crown forests and oak (Quercus spp.) and subsequently Scots pine were planted. There was increasing interest in growing conifers for timbers, and this received a great stimulus form 1827 onwards when Douglas fir, Sikta spruce and other conifers were introduced from Western North America. In the latter part of the nineteenth century this major afforestation effort began to wane. Many reasons including other forms of investment made possible by the Industrial revolution and the growth of international commerce.

Clear cutting native forests followed by planting or artificial seeding became increasingly common in the middle of the eighteenth century, notably in parts of Germany and adjacent countries where German foresters were influential.

In Saxony there was widespread planting of Norway spruce (Picea abies) on sites formerly occupied by degraded hardwood or mixed hardwood-conifer forests. The first rotation grew fast but in places there was a serious decline in subsequent plantings in part due to problems with cycling of nutrients and organic matter.

The important lesson from the Saxony experience was the need to understand the biological processes of the plantation ecosystem as the basis for sustainable management. Prior to 1880, forestry practice in Germany and France had been developing and this played a crucial role in the development of forestry elsewhere in Europe, North America, and tropical countries as India.

Development of Tropical Forest Tree Plantations.

Turnbull described development of tropical plantations can be traced back to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with the expansion of European influence as colonial powers. From about 1600, the spread of European navies and colonizers from Portugal, Spain, holland, France and Britain around the globe encouraged exploitative timber export trade. The colonizers encouraged an exploitative timber export trade, often seriously damaging natural forests. Until the late 1800’s there was generally sufficient tropical natural forest and little need to plant trees for industrial wood production.

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The scientific study of plants and animals led to systematic collections, botanical gardens flourished, and the domestication of several tropical tree species began (Turnbull, 2002).

Plantation activities before 1900 included the introduction and testing of exotic species, especially teak and eucalypts, and the introduction of taungya and irrigated plantations. The establishment of government agencies, use of trained foresters and definition of forest policies and legislation provided an institutional framework on which the extensive forest plantations of the 20th century could be based.

There is a long history of planting teak in the tropics. In Asia there was extensive planting of teak for timber in Java under the control of the Sultans in the fifteenth century. (It may have started as early as the tenth century under Hindu influence).

With the arrival of the Portuguese in the fifteenth century and then the Dutch in the seventeenth century, the demand for durable teak timber for general construction and ship building intensified.

By 1784, the Dutch East India Company had acquired control of all teak forests and a monopoly on teak trading. The Company used a selective felling system, but when control was handed over to the Dutch Republic in 1800, selective felling was abolished, and clear felling followed by complete replanting was adopted. Under the influence of three German foresters, all the Javanese teak forests were brought under regular management in the late 1800’s.

The taungya regeneration method was introduced in 1873 and from 1985 almost all teak forests were regenerated by this system. Taungya is a system of forest plantations in which farmers plant the seeds or seedlings and tend the trees. As an incentive they are allowed to cultivate crops for the first few years between the seedlings of the plantation.

The term taungya originated in Myanmar and its application in government forestry is usually attributed to Dietrich Brandis, a forest officer in charge of Burmese teak forests from 1856 to 1862. In Myanmar, teak plantings began in 1856 and continued into the twentieth century. However, most plantations were damaged during World War 2. Planting was again started on a modest scale in 1963. It increased to more than 10,000 ha/yr. after 1984.

During the early 1800’s, teak was in short supply for ship building in India. In 1840, Conolly the Collector of Malabar, suggested teak should be planted - the first plantations were established in the Nilambur Hills (Puri, 1960). Between 1841 and 1855, some 600 ha were established and since 1840, this species has been planted both within and outside its area of natural occurrence. The taungya method was generally used to establish plantations in Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and most parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu, although many forests were naturally regenerated.

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Teak was probably translocated outside its natural distribution range some 400 to 600 years ago, when it was naturalised in Java, Indonesia (Pandey and Brown10 2000) Verhaegen11 et al. 2010). Later plantations were established in Sri Lanka (Year 1680 Perera12 1962). In Africa, the Germans introduced teak to Tanzania at the end of the nineteenth century using seed from Calcutta, India (Madoffe and Maghembe13 1988). Later, before the First World War, many provenances of teak were introduced by the German colonial administration, with seed sources being from locations such as Tenasserim in southern Myanmar, Travancore in southern India and possibly also from Java (Wood14 1967).

Teak harvesting Sri Lanka. Photo credit Dick McCarthy member World Bank Forestry Appraisal Mission 1989.

In 1902, teak was planted for the first time in Nigeria, with seed first from India and subsequently from Myanmar or Thailand (Chollet15 1958; Horne16 1966). The species was introduced in Togo and Ghana in 1905 with seed from Nigeria (Chollet 1958) and in the Ivory Coast in 1926 with seed from Togo (Tariel17 1966).

In tropical America, the first pure teak plantations were started in 1913 in Trinidad and Tobago (Brooks18 1941). This was based on seed from Tenasserim in Myanmar (Beard19 1943, Keogh20 1978), and in the next 3 years, two additional seed lots were imported from the same source (Moore21 1966, Keogh 1978). This would later become known as the Tenasserim-Trinidad strain (Keogh 1978). Another important introduction in Central America was made in 1926 from Sri Lanka (at that time Ceylon) to Summit Gardens in Panama, where a rather small seed lot produced offspring that was later spread throughout the D. Pandey and C. Brown, “Teak: A Global Overview,” Unasylva, Vol. 51, No. 201, 2000. pp. 3-12.

Verhaegen D, Jesus Fofana Inza, A. Z´enor Logossa, Daniel Ofori. What is the genetic origin of teak (Tectona grandis L.) introduced in Africa and in Indonesia? Tree Genetics & Genomes, Springer, 2010, 6, pp.717-733. <cirad-00846130.

12 Perera W.1962. The development of forest plantations in Ceylon since the 17th century. Ceylon Forester 5: 142–156.

13 Madoffe S. S., Maghembe J. A., 1988. Performance of teak (Tectona grandis L. f.) provenances seventeen years after planting at Longuza, Tanzania. Silv. Genet. 37, 5-6, 175-178.

14 WOOD P. J., 1967. Teak planting in Tanzania. In: Proceedings of the “World symposium on man-made forests and their industrial importance,” Canberra, Australia, 14-25 April 1967. FAO Section II silviculture, 1 631-1 643.

15 Chollet MA (1958) Le Teck au Togo. Bois For Trop 49:9–18.

16 Horne JEM (1966) Teak in Nigeria. Nigerian information bulletin (New Series) No. 16.

17 Tariel J (1966) Le Teck en Côte-d’Ivoire. Bois For Trop 107:27–47.

18 Brooks RL (1941) Notes on pure teak plantations in Trinidad. Caribb Forester 3(1):25–28.

19 Beard JS (1943) The importance of race in teak, Tectona grandis L. Caribb Forester 4(3):135–139.

20 Keogh RM (1978) Teak (Tectona grandis) provenances of the Caribbean; Central America; Venezuela and Colombia.

Unpublished. Original document at FAO headquarters, Rome. 16 p.

21 Moore D (1966) The formation of teak plantations by the Group Planting System. Proceedings of the 6 th World Forestry Congress, Vol. II, Madrid.

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Panama Canal Zone and surrounding countries. This strain was named the Ceylon-Panama strain (Keogh 1978). Seed of these two above-mentioned strains was widely distributed in the region. A third significant strain, introduced into Honduras from Trinidad in 1927, probably originated in Myanmar, although not necessarily from the same place as the TenasserimTrinidad strain (Keogh 1978).

Most of the early introductions mentioned above were on a pilot basis, with large-scale planting only initiated more recently. However, the historical records presented above suggest that later upscaling of plantation forestry was often based on seed from the early introductions. The introduction and domestication history combined with the diverse environmental conditions present in the new teak growing areas could obviously have led to the formation of various landraces. This is supported by observations from international provenance trials where some landraces were found to deviate substantially in growth, stem form or early flowering from populations in the natural distribution area (Keiding22 et al. 1986). However, it has not been possible to test to what degree the landraces differ from their original source population because the genetic origin of the landraces has been uncertain or imprecisely described in almost all cases.

Teak planting Morobe Province PNG 23. PNG original seed source was old German plantings prior 1914 Kokopo ENB. Source PNG FRI 2016

Keiding, H., Wellendorf, H., & Lauridsen, E. B. (1986). Evaluation of an International Series of Teak Provenance Trials.

Forskningscentret for Skov & Landskab. Research and Documentation.

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23Lata

A (2016) Teak Plantations & Woodlots in PNG Teak Conference, LAO PDR 14-18th Nov 2016 PNG Forest Research Institute Anton Lata PNG Forest Authority Teak Domestication Manager alata@fri.pngfa.gov.pg Presentation.

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. Worldwide translocation of teak—origin of landraces and present genetic base.

Hansen, O.K., Changtragoon, S., Ponoy, B. et al Tree Genetics & Genomes 13, 87 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11295-017-1170-8. Teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) is native to India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos in South East Asia but was translocated to several countries in Africa and Central and South America during the past century. Today, large areas of plantations are grown outside the species native range. It is speculated that genetic bottlenecks and founder effects combined with new selection pressures under new growing conditions have led to the formation of distinct landraces; this hypothesis is supported by results from international provenance tests. In their study, they applied genetic markers to identify the likely origin of teak grown outside its native range and examine if the landraces show signs of reduced genetic diversity. They found large variation in the level of diversity among landraces, although not larger than that observed among native populations. They concluded that variation in the studied teak landraces probably reflects their areas of genetic origin rather than severe founder effects created during their introduction. The genetic data suggests that the studied landraces originated from either the semi-moist east coast of India, southern Myanmar, or western Thailand. These results indicate that translocation of teak has mainly come from a certain part of the native distribution and that this did not include the widespread natural teak areas of southern, dry interior or western India or northern Myanmar.

Map showing the origin of the 29 natural populations of teak which constitute the reference population in the current study. The six sub-clusters identified via cluster analysis by Hansen et al. (2015) are depicted by colour coding. The dotted line indicates the approximate outer boundaries of the natural distribution of teak

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Genus Eucalyptus As early as 1790 several eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp.) were planted in the Palace Garden at Nandi Hills near Mysore, India and became the seed source for widely planted Mysore gum (E. tereticornis). In South America eucalypts were introduced in 1823 to Chile, and specimens of E. robusta and E. tereticornis in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil date back to 1825 (24Jacobs, 1981).

Eucalypt plantings Sri Lanka including cover crop for tea plantations. Photo credit Dick McCarthy member World Bank Forestry Appraisal Mission 1989.

E. deglupta (kamarere) plantations Kerevat ENB PNG. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1995. Map: Source Wikipedia.

E. camaldulensis project Mekong Delta Vietnam. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1994. Map: Source Wikipedia.

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Jacobs M R. 1981 Eucalypts for planting. 1981 ed.2 xxiv + 677 pp + 36 pl. ISBN 9789251005705 FAO.

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Eucalyptus globulus was one of the first eucalypts to be used for plantations. By 1900, it could be found in Europe (Spain, Portugal, and Italy). Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, and South Africa), Asia (India and China) and South America (Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, and Peru). At that time, it was primarily planted for ornamental purposes or fuelwood.

Northern Spain CEASA. Mosaic of E. globulus farm woodlots. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Portugal

Celbi Portugal 53,000 ha plantations. Rotation length 12 years. MAI 8-9 me/ha/yr.

Species E. globulus, and hybrids as E. globulus/viminalus, E. globulus gunnii, etc.

Photo row 1. Left mother plants, planting cuttings (3 leaves/cutting), completed trays. system rotating tray. Photo Row 2. Left, controlled shade areas, 12-month-old E. globulus/globulus cutting. Bottom photo – on left cuttings 12 months old, on right 2year-old E. globulus. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

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Portugal SORPOCEL. E. globulus. Left roadside 4 years old. Right roadside 8 years old. CF 12 years old then two coppice rotations. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Two important silvicultural practices saw their introduction during the latter part of the 19th century.

Use of the taungya system to plant teak (T. grandis) has already been mentioned.

The other was irrigated planting, which is generally associated with arid sites, where the annual rainfall rarely exceeds 200 mm, or semi-arid areas with a very short rainy period.

Irrigated plantations are usually close to major rivers.

In the Indus basin of Pakistan, irrigation of Dalbergia sissoo (called North Indian Rosewood, photo source Wikipedia.) and other species has been practised for more than 140 years. The first plantings were in the Punjab in 1866 to supply firewood for a new railway and fuelwood for Lahore and other cities.

Notable irrigated plantations have subsequently been established in Iraq, Egypt, and central Sudan. Species such as eucalypts, casuarinas and poplars are commonly grown in these irrigated systems.

Eucalypts as they are fast growing, were established in plantations from the mid-1800’s to supply fuel wood for railway steam locomotion. World War 1 highlighted the deficiency in local timber supplies. Governments embarked on large scale plantations to provided fuelwood for the wood burning locomotives in Brazil, East Africa, India, and South Africa but they were inferior for sawn timber production.

Many countries planted eucalypt spp as E. saligna, E. grandis, E. urophylla, E. robusta and E. tereticornis large scale industrial plantations.

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Plantations were initiated in South Africa in the latter part of the nineteenth century.

The first wattle trees (Acacia mearnsii – called black wattle – source Wikipedia.) were planted for tannin in South Africa in 1864 and the first pine plantations in 1884.

Mondi Plantations Natal Region South Africa. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

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SAPPI Plantations Natal region South Africa. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992

Hl & H Mining Co near Pietermaritzburg South Africa with plantation area of 165,000 ha. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Mondi Zululand South Africa 25,000 ha Eucalypt plantation.

9-year-old stand E. grandis CF trialling Bell TH100. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Mondi Zululand. 13-month-old E. grandis/camaldulensis Hybrid. Rainfall 811 mm pa.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Utusu Pulp Co. Swaziland. Pinus patula 18 years old. Mules skidding wood. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

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SAPPI Lothair Forest Southeast Transvaal South Africa. 16,000 ha plantations commenced 1925. 7-yearold E. grandis. Regime plant 1000s/ha, T1 4 yr. thin 750 s/ha, T2 7 yr. thin 500s/ha, T3 12 yr. thin 250s/ha CF 2022 yrs. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Mondi SABIE Plantations South Africa. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

SAPPI Nelspruit Easten Transvaal South Africa 89,000 ha plantations. Nelspruit Mill in valley. Foreground replanted area. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Hans Merensky Holdings Northern Transvaal South Africa. Photo left E. grandis 19 yr. old, mechanically pruned age 3, 5, 9 yrs. to 20 m. for 4 x 4.8m log lengths.

Final stocking 200s/ha. CF age 25. MAI culminates at age 17-18 yr. Photo middle E. grandis planted 1933. Photo right E. grandis/saligna hybrid age 4. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

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Genus Pinus Pines were not commonly planted before 1900. Pinus patula was introduced to New Zealand in 1877 (25Wormald, 1975) and probably other countries at about the same time, though it (1931) was not introduced into South Africa until 1907. Pinus caribaea, now widely planted in the tropics, was little known botanically, let alone planted, until 60 or 70 years ago.

The lack of records of early introductions of pines may be because many quickly failed because of the lack of suitable mycorrhizas on the new sites.

Small scale commercial planting of Pinus radiata began in Australia in 1876. In New Zealand by 1865, P. radiata was well established.

Period 1900-1950 Turnbull addressed the development of forest plantations in the period 1900-1950.

The scale of plantations was small prior to 1900 but declining areas of natural forest stimulated plantings to supplement local supplies. Extensive industrial tree plantations were initiated in Europe. In Great Britain for example, an afforestation program started by the Forestry Commission in 1919, increased the area of productive forest by almost one million hectares between 1919 and 1971 with species as Sitka spruce.

Picea sitchensis Sitka spruce plantations Scotland. Licensed under Creative Commons Wikicommons/MPF). Source Forestry and Land Scotland Inverness ttps://forestryandland.gov.scot

The first half of the 20th century saw the first extensive plantings of industrial tree crops, mostly in countries with little utilizable natural forest or, in the tropics and subtropics, where there had been an early influx of European settlers.

The UK, at the time the world’s largest timber importer and with only 5% forest cover in 1900, instigated an afforestation programme to double its area of forest, Denmark pursued tree planting as the principal tool of silviculture. Australia and New Zealand began their massively successful P. radiata plantation programmes. Well-forested countries like the US embarked on major planting of southern pines (P. elliottii and P. taeda) to augment the 25

Wormald T J 1975 Pinus patula. Dept of Forestry Oxford University xii, 172, (28) p, (7) Tropical forestry paper # 7 Bib ID 4578957 S 634.92850913 FAS.

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industrial resource. Indeed by 1942 26Toumey and Korstian’s substantial Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry was already in its third edition, and the then USSR planted numerous shelterbelts to assist food production in the Ukraine and elsewhere.

In the tropics and subtropics, South Africa had, by 1945, created 180,000 ha of plantations of P. patula, P. elliottii, P. taeda and some Eucalyptus spp. in Mpumalanga (Eastern Transvaal) province alone, Queensland (Australia) had 9800 ha of exotic P. elliottii plantations and native Araucaria cunninghamii (27Ryan and Shea, 1977) and in India, 80,000 ha of teak had been planted (28Griffith, 1942) and many trials of Eucalyptus spp. set up. 29Khan and Chaudhary, 1961).

Before 1945 the main plantations in tropical America were on a small scale for protective purposes around cities, and for fuelwood, railway sleepers and pit props. The most extensive early plantations were in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil from 1905 to 1915 at the instigation of Edmundo Navarro de Andrade, head of forestry services for the Paulista Railway Company.

In 1950 Brazil had close to half a million hectares of planted eucalypts, a larger area than any other country.

Map: Source Wikipedia.

Toumey J, Korstian C (1942) Seeding and planting in the practice of forestry: a manual for the guidance of forestry students, foresters, nurserymen, forest owners, and farmers. Third edition Publisher Wiley New York 1942 27 Ryan T and Shea G (1977) Exotic pine plantations in Queensland and the role of the Beerwah-Beerburrum Forests. Post consultation tour notes No. 8 Third World Consultation of Forest tree Breeding. FAO Canberra 28 Griffith A L (1942) teak plantation technique/ Silviculture. Indian Forest Records 5: 123-219.

29 Khan, M.A.W. and Chaudhary, N.R. (1961) Eucalypt trials in India. Proceedings of the 10th AllIndia Silvicultural Conference, Dehra Dun, pp. 535–545.

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Pisa -Florestal S/A Jaguariaviva P. patula E. grandis plantations. Brazil. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

IKPC (Indústrias Klabin de Papel e Celulose S.A.,) State of Parana Brazil. 70% E. grandis, 30 % E. saligna and some E. dunnii clones. 7 yrs. CF. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

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Aracuaria angustifolia Southern Brazil. Up to early 1980’s, major source of softwood logs till cut out.

Now only exists in reserves on company lands. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Norcell Bahia State Brazil estate 60,000 ha E. grandis, E. grandsi/urophylla clones, E. urophylla, E. pilita, E. citrodoria, E. maulata etc. Photos of 4 year old grandis clones.

Photo credits Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Aracruz Brazil. Annual harvest 4.5 million cubic metres of wood to give 1 million tonnes pulp in 1992. Photo left nursery, middle cuttings E. grandis clones 7 months old, bottom clear felling 7 years old 300m3/ha. Annual planting rate 19,500 ha in 1990.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Between 1900 and 1945, although most of the world’s tropical plantations for wood production were primarily of pines, eucalypts and teak, there were major plantings of trees for non-wood forest products.

Paramount was the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis); first planted in Malaysia in 1898, it boomed in about 1910 when it was enthusiastically taken up by coffee and tea planters whose commodities were experiencing difficulties. Indonesia and Malaysia are currently the world’s largest rubber producers. Photograph Sogeri Plateau Trukai PNG Plantations old rubber wood stands. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2005.

In the period 1920–1930, the private sector began extensive plantations of the Australian black wattle, (A. mearnsii) for tan bark to supply tannin to the leather industries. In 1921 there were about 115,000 ha in South Africa and 25,000 ha in Kenya. It was also planted in Zimbabwe, Tanzania, India, and Brazil. In recent years, the value of the 20

tannin has declined relative to the value of the wood, which makes good charcoal and excellent paper pulp.

In the Indian subcontinent many pioneering developments in tropical silviculture took place and, as early as 1912, Broun30 described in detail afforestation and plantation practice.

Indeed, India’s tree planting programmes were well in advance of those of the then colonial power, the UK. However in most tropical countries forest plantations were still in their infancy, though many silvicultural developments took place that were later to feature strongly, most notable of which were: the introduction of the taungya system in many tropical countries; species and provenance trials; the development of the famous and revolutionary thinning schedules by Craib31 (1934, 1947) in South Africa, which has so impacted plantation silviculture elsewhere; enrichment planting to supplement inadequate natural regeneration; and ‘compensatory plantations’ to augment local wood supplies as areas of natural forest declined.

Arguably, the best early example was the 4000 ha of E. globulus planted between 1900 and 1920 on the amphitheatre of hills around Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, which made up for the loss of indigenous forest in the previous decade, providing a sustained supply of fuel for the city to this day.

In New Zealand, the first Māori in New Zealand cleared vast areas of land for hunting, then came the European settlers who burned and harvested forests to create farms, ships, and buildings.

Radiata pine (Pinus radiata, Monterey Pine, New Zealand Pine), seed was imported from California in the 1840s to grow animal shelter belts. Despite laws to encourage tree planting, mass forest clearance was so rapid that by 1913, some indigenous species faced imminent

Broun, A. F. 1912. Sylviculture in the tropics. London: Macmillan and Co. Craib, I. J., (1931) The Place of Thinning in Wattle Silviculture and Its Bearing on the Management of Exotic Conifer. Zeitschrift für Weltforstwirtshaft, 1 (1931), 77–108.

Craib I J (1939) Thinning, pruning and management studies on the main exotic conifers grown in South Africa. Union Sc. Africa Dept. Agr and forestry Sci, Bul 196,179 pp illus.

Craib I J (1947) The silviculture of exotic conifers. British Empire Forestry Conference 35 pp. illus. City Printing Works Ltd. Pietermaritzburg South Africa.

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extinction. In 1918 timber exports were restricted, and in 1925 the Government introduced financial incentives to create plantations of imported species and reduce the pressure on native forests.

The economic depression in the late 1920’s stimulated massive plantings of P. radiata in Australia and New Zealand. Resulting mass plantings in the 1920s and 1930s, and again in the 1960s, created a robust exotic plantation forestry industry that was soon able to supply all New Zealand’s domestic timber needs and secure the future of the remaining natural forest. Today, one third of the world’s total radiata pine stock is found in New Zealand.

P. radiata planted 1910 Dunedin NZ. Howard Heath NZ Forestry and Dick McCarthy.

Tasman Nursery Te Teki NZ. * year old Pradiata cuttings Tasman NZ. P. radiata 25 years old Rotura. 250 stems/ha looking into 400 stems/ha. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1990.

Prior to 1925, Pinus pinaster from Europe and P. radiata from California dominated plantings in South Africa but after 1935, Mexican pine P. patula and P. elliottii from southern USA were favoured.

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Chile did not start planting P. radiata until 1935 where plantings have been in the private sector.

Forestal Mininco Conception Chile 143000 ha P. radiata, 11,00 ha Eucalyptus spp. plantations. SI 36 planted 1979 3 prunings, 250 s/ha, CF age 27 yr. MAI 3 prunings, reduce 150 s/ha, export log regime CF25 yr. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

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Forestal Mininco Conception Chile CF P. radiata age 20 yr. Cable logging system.

Sawlogs to Korea and Turkey. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Celulosa Arauco Chile301,000 ha P. radiata plantations8000 ha eucalyptus spp plantations. Open rooted E. globulus nursery 5 million plants. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Celulosa Arauco Chile301,000 ha P. radiata plantations 8000 ha eucalyptus spp. plantations.

Second rotation P. radiata planting.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Celulosa Arauco Chile Photo left MAI 24 m3/ha CF 30 yr. Middle photo third rotation 18 yr. old, right photo 25 yr. old 290s/ha MAI 35 me/ha> P. radiata nursery 9 million plants. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

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Celulosa Arauco Chile Cable logging. P. radiata 25 yr. old stand.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Celulosa Arauco Chile Fire control organisation 1992. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Shell Chile. (Santa Fe Project) Los Angles Chile.

E. globulus replanted 1990. Note impact of watering plants in at planting. (SIPCO - non stress planting). Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Shell Chile 27 greenhouses each holding 180,000 plants. 5 million E. globulus & 5 million E. nitens. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Shell Chile 7 month old E.globulus plantings.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Shell Chile E. globulus coppice Plantation 3 crops 9-10 yr. rotation. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

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Acacia melanoxylon 20 years old. Sawn timber $1600 US/m3. It is invading natural Nothofagus forests. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Forestal Valdivia Chile. 60,000 ha. Planation of P. radiata. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Forestal Valdivia Chile. 60,000 ha. Planation of P. radiata. Plant 10,000 ha per year. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

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Forestal Valdivia Chile. Left 23 yr. old Plantation P. radiata. Right 19 yr. stand P. radiata. Thinned using oxen to 450s/ha. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992

USA Plantation Forests Period 2000– 2004.

Source: Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 9, 545–556, 2017 In the USA, forest plantings in the southern states from the 1930’s with Pinus spp as loblolly pine. P. taeda and slash pine P. elliottii.

Mechanised fifth row out row thinning with selection thinning of remaining four rows.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy USA/Canada APMF study tour 1982.

The main plantations in tropical America prior to 1950, were on a small scale for fuelwood, railway sleepers and mine pit props.

The development of Australia’s plantation estate has gone through a series of phases over the past 110 plus years. Motivated by a need for softwood timber and import replacement, radiata pine was the species of choice for the early plantations in temperate eastern Australia and in Western Australia Maritime pine was also planted, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to species selection. In northern east coast Australia, more suitable species of softwood were planted including A. cunninghamii (Hoop pine - a local species), Caribbean pine and Slash

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pine. There was less motivation to develop hardwood species plantations given the available natural forest resources.

Two further points should be noted for this period.

First, the great bulk of tree planting was carried out by the state as a specific tool of forest policy. In many countries this was afforestation of bare land, e.g., in the UK, or conversion of what was deemed unproductive native forest, e.g., pines (P. radiata) replacing eucalypt woodland in Australia (Turner et al., 1999).

The second point is the raising of serious doubts about the sustainability of plantation silviculture in the very country, Germany, where it had been so successful. Many second and third rotation spruce (P. abies) plantations, particularly in Saxony, were showing declining yields and other signs of ill-health, which were attributed to the effects of the clear-cutting and replanting silvicultural system (Weidemann32, 1923).

There was considerable alarm and attacks on the concept of planted forests (Anon., 1923), and specifically that of conifer monoculture (Stickel33, 1928), though many felt it was more to do with planting spruce (P. abies) ‘off site’ in the first place: the issues were never fully resolved (Evans34, 1976). Similar concerns re-surfaced in Australia in the 1960s.

Three post-war trends can be identified for this period, which bear on the development, including expansion, of planted forests. After the Second World War many new international agencies arose, including the UN FAO, which have had an important influence on forest policy and development. But, in addition to their general stimulus through provision of funds, development aid and technical expertise, substantial direct investment in industrial plantations also began. For example, both the major plantation projects in Swaziland date back to this period and were funded mainly by private companies with some institutional backing (Evans and Wright351988).

Declining colonial influence and the newly emerging independent states after the Second World War altered economic and developmental pressures in many tropical countries.

Development became a politically important process: the key to meeting the people’s aspirations in the new countries. Development of forest plantations can claim no great part in aid programmes of this period, but in several countries tree planting increased substantially as part of the overall development process. And, as King36 (1975) pointed out, almost every

32Weidemann, E. 1923. Zuwachsrückgang und Wuchstockungen der Fichte in den mittleren und den unteren Höhenlagen der Sächsischen Staatsforsten. Tharandt. (Translation No 302, USDA, C.P. Blumenthal, 1936) 33 Stickel P (1928) Comparative Forest Fire Hazard in the Northeast. Journal of Forestry, Volume 26, Issue 4, April 1928, Pages 456–463, https://doi.org/10.1093/jof/26.4.456 34 Evans J (1976) Plantations: Productivity and Prospects. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.1976.10674148 35 Evans J and Wright D (1988) Symposium on Forest Tree Breeding, 15 th International Congress on ... South African Forestry Journal 96, 23-6.

36 K.F.S. King (1975) It’s time to make paper in the tropics. Address to the American Paper Institute's Pulp, Fibre and Raw Materials Group meeting in New York. Unasylva Vol 27 (3) 1975.

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tropical country has at one time, or another considered establishing industrial plantations for pulpwood.

Also in this period, several institutions were founded with regional responsibility or influence to assist forestry development, in particular plantation establishment, e.g., Centre Technique Forestier Tropical in many French-speaking countries, the Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico and Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Enseñanza in Costa Rica.

Many university and college courses in forestry in developing countries were introduced at this time.

This increasing momentum was replicated in temperate countries by state or state-subsidized planting programmes with, for example, tens of thousands of hectares of new planting in Chile, New Zealand, Uruguay, and the UK. As they matured, the earlier trials and older plantations demonstrated that plantation silviculture was worthwhile.

The general observation of superior growth compared with native species appeared true of many species on many sites, though the best matching of species or provenances with sites was not always achieved.

Capital Uruguay Shell Uruguay Paysandu. Plan to establish 40,000 ha E. grandis plantations in 8 years. Nursery. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Shell Uruguay Paysandu. Shell forester Australian Michael Brown E.globulus plant ready for planting. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992. Below, Shell Uruguay 5 months Paysandu .

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Shell Uruguay 1 year old E. grandis. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Shell Uruguay plantation layout. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

West Coast 40-year-old Douglas Fir Vancouver. Photo credit Dick McCarthy USA/Canada APMF study tour 1982.

East Coast way north of Montreal. Mechanical delimbing conifers. Photo credit Dick McCarthy USA/Canada APMF study tour 1982.

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FAO in Unasylva Vol 2 # 6 1948 New Guinea and Papua The article viewed the territories as under the administration of the Department of Forests of the Territories in conjunction with the Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau of Australia. They have a land area of over 46 million hectares (115 million acres) about equally divided between Papua and New Guinea. Together they are 60 to 70 percent forested. The population is in the neighbourhood of a million.

Forest types include the lowland rain forest from sea level up to about 700 meters (2,000 ft.) elevation. The midmountain forest consists of Araucaria and oak; and the mossy forest at 2,300 to 3,500 meters (7,000 to 11,000 ft.) elevation is composed of Nothofagus, Phyllocladus, Dacrydium, Libocedrus, and Podocarpus. There are also some swamp forests and savannah types of little economic value except for mangrove. The lowland rain forest resembles the mixed dipterocarps of Indonesia, the Philippines, Indochina, and Malaya. The Araucaria resembles that of northeastern Australia, and the mossy forest is similar to the indigenous type of New Zealand.

The ownership of forest land remains with the inhabitants either as individuals or as village groups. Government ownership must be obtained through purchase from the inhabitants before territorial forest reserves can be established.

There has been extensive coverage of the territories by aerial photographs taken during the war. There has also been considerable botanical collection and classification work by the Australian Forest Products Laboratory of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research at Melbourne, and by the state botanist of Queensland in Australia. There are, however, only very rough estimates of the volume of timber in the territories. Such estimates place the rain forests at 38 to 114 m3 log volume per hectare (640 to 1,630 cu. ft. per acre) and the Araucariaoak forest is said to carry about 1.1 million m3 (40 million cu. ft.) over a total area of 15,000 hectares (37,000 acres). During the war, U. S. Army sawmills produced considerable quantities of lumber. There are now 11 sawmills operating which in 1947 produced about 21,000 m3 (740,000 cu. ft.) of lumber. The Australian government operates a sawmill to train local sawyers and some skilled laborers. As production expands, Australia hopes to meet not only the present annual requirements of the territories, but to obtain considerable quantities of hardwoods for Commonwealth use. Although pre-war annual consumption of timber in the territories was not great, it is estimated that rehabilitation requirements will need almost 23,600 m3 (830,000 cu. ft.) a year for the next five or six years. Minor forest products include sago from the Metroxylon palm, nipa palm leaves for thatching, mangrove bark for tannin, dammar gum, canes, and bamboos.

Among the problems facing any forestry program in the territories, one of the most urgent is the control of shifting cultivation. Territorial forest reservations will have to be made to meet local demands and expanded export industries. A comprehensive inventory should be made, taking advantage of the excellent aerial photographs that are available. It will be necessary to secure trained foresters, and such training is being provided at the Australian Forestry School at Canberra. Plans are under way for a research program in silviculture through the Commonwealth Forestry and Timber Bureau, and in products through the C.S.I.R. at Melbourne.

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Evidence of the increasing awareness of the silvicultural potential of plantations – and the new internationalism – is seen in the resolutions and subject matter of international conferences and meetings. At the Fourth World Forestry Congress (1954) in India, it was recommended that an international commission be set up on the use of exotic species for planting in the tropics. In 1957 the Seventh British Commonwealth Forestry Conference resolved that a book be published about experience with exotic species in the Commonwealth (Streets, 1962). In the 1950s both the International Poplar Commission and the Teak SubCommission were set up by the FAO with the great bulk of their work focused on plantation crops.

The increasing importance of eucalypts for plantations was indicated by the publication by FAO in 1954 of the first edition of Eucalypts for Planting and the establishment of a ‘Eucalypt Clearing House’ service in 1962 by the Forestry and Timber Bureau in Australia to provide information and well-documented seeds for research and commercial plantations.

And, according to Lamb (1973), the FAO Seminar on Tropical Pines in Mexico in 1960 more than anything else awakened tropical countries to the value of these species.

These initiatives and the gathering momentum of interest prompted what became the pivotal FAO World Symposium on Man-Made Forests and their Industrial Importance in Canberra in early 1967. The symposium, with participants from 41 countries and producing over 2000 pages of papers in three weighty volumes, testified to the increasing emphasis on plantations and their expanding role across the world.

Many of the trends initiated in the 1950s and 1960s accelerated in the 1970s, new projects multiplied, afforestation became an important part of national forest policies, incentives were introduced to encourage private sector tree planting, and the importance of trees and forest in the environment became more widely recognized.

In this period, Brazil’s afforestation rate peaked at an astonishing 0.5 million ha per year, Australasia’s, Europe’s, and Africa’s largest man-made forests were all created, namely Kaingaroa in New Zealand, Kielder in England, and Usutu in Swaziland, incidentally all with exotic conifers, and both China and India pursued increasingly ambitious planting programmes in successive development plans.

In these latter two countries at least, equal emphasis was given to the environmental roles tree planting could play. China sought to tackle desertification by planting Populus spp. in the temperate north and for dune stabilization using Casuarina spp., as well as continuing the massive Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) afforestation in the central south of the country. In India one of the key programmes specifically targeted waste land afforestation.

In the tropics numerous attempts to plant mahoganies (mainly Swietenia macrophylla) and other valuable hardwoods of the Meliaceae family failed because of poor silviculture and an inability to cope with Hypsipyla (H. ferrealis and H. grandella) shoot borer damage (Evans and Turnbull, 2004). In many well-wooded countries planting came to be seen as a sensible handmaiden to achieve satisfactory regeneration. For example, in Sweden since the 1940s 32

regeneration has relied on reforesting largely by planting (Savill et al., 1997) and in the Pacific North-West of the USA clearcutting and replanting became the commonest way of regenerating Douglas fir (Ps. menziesii) (Smith, 1986).

Forest plantation development across the world became more important as the mid-20th century progressed, and management practices intensified. It was realized that the genetic principles being applied to agricultural crops could be used to improve the productivity of trees in plantations. Forest geneticists in Denmark, Sweden and the USA led the way by elucidating patterns of variation in commercially important trees and achieving basic understanding of pollination biology and vegetative propagation. Foresters in the tropics also recognized the need to improve seed quality of plantation species and some designated special seed collection areas. These advances paved the way for forest industries in the 1950s to launch with some confidence the large programmes of applied genetics to improve wood production in plantations (Turnbull, 2002). Silviculturally the one uncertainty was a reawakening of the question of the sustainability of yields over successive rotations. Reports from Australia in the 1960s of declining productivity of second rotation P. radiata (Keeves, 1966; Bednall, 1968) led to much research, but incidences elsewhere were sporadic (Evans, 1999). Indeed, Holmsgaard et al. (1961), following up in Denmark with similar crops to the German reports of 30 years before, could find no evidence of yield decline. Nor was this the case for second rotation P. patula in Swaziland.

The Development of the Australian Plantation estate

The focus was on addressing a general lack of native coniferous wood and the first documented importation of P. radiata planting materials occurred in 1857 when a single 33

specimen was received for planting in the Sydney Botanic Gardens. In NSW with a focus was on tannin bark production, the first experimental plantings by the Forestry Branch were of acacia species in 1882 along a railway reserve with P. radiata first planted between 1883 and 1885. The first plantation developments of P. radiata occurred in 1876 in South Australia with the first log processed in 1903 into 28 apple cases. Private companies also developed plantation resources: for example, APM Forestry Pty Ltd was created in 1951, however Australian Paper Manufactures’ (APM’s) first plantings occurred in NSW in 1948 with the Gippsland plantation program commencing in the 1950’s with both softwoods and eucalypts planted as potential resource for the company’s pulp and paper operations.

Photo left and middle aerial View Jeeralang Tree Farm E. regnans plantations APMF 1991. Photo right. E regnans plantations APMF 1991 Photo Credit R B McCarthy.

Extensive planting of P radiata started in Australia in 1907 and by 1925, all the southern Australian States were planting substantial areas of this species.

Clear-felling Mature P. radiata stands 1992 Longford Tree Farm ck age 26-28 yr. APMF. Photo Credit R B McCarthy

Jenkin37 (2018), identified six phases of development of the Australian plantation estate.

• Phase 1: The first phase of the estate development up until the 1960’s witnessed a very slow establishment rate.

• Phase 2: During phase 2 (early 1960s to early 1980s) saw a significant acceleration in development supported by the Commonwealth Government Softwood Loans Scheme.

Jenkin B (2018) Next Generation Plantation Investment Research Project Benchmarking analysis: Part 1 Australia’s history of plantation development, policy, and incentives. Faculty of Science School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences Next Generation Plantation Investment Research Project: Benchmarking Report 1 MU NT Final Report 37

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• Phase 3: During phase 3 (early 1980s to late 1980s) a transition from public softwood to private hardwood investment occurred.

• Phase 4: Phase 4 (late 1980’s to late 1990’s) witnessed the significant expansion in the Tasmanian blue gum estate via managed investment schemes (MIS) vehicles and the rise of the Timber Investment Management Organisations (TIMO).

• Phase 5: A shift to northern Australia commenced in phase 5 (2000’s to 2007) driven by pressure for land and necessitated the inclusion of a new range of species many of which had not been fully commercialised under Australian conditions. Although not captured by the National Plantation Inventory (NPI), sandalwood and oil mallee projects commenced in WA. • Phase 6: Phase 6 has been a period of reckoning with many plantations established on inappropriate sites harvested and not replanted. It is estimated that over 100,000 ha of harvested hardwood plantations (c.10% of the peak estate) were not replanted from 2005/06 to 2015/16.

Phase 1 (up until the early 1960s) Phase1 was characterised by strategic public investment aimed to replace softwood imports, however the development of the plantation estate commenced with hardwoods. During this period, the States formed various Government agencies to administer the natural forest estate, primarily driven by concerns of over-exploitation (e.g., to supply wood resources to the mining sector), to provide building materials and for social and environmental benefits. An import replacement motivation was dominant post the Second World War, and the development of the softwood estate had a very specific focus on P. radiata (Monterey pine), P. pinaster (Maritime pine) and southern pines (P. caribaea - Caribbean pine and P. elliottii Slash pine).

The commencement of Australia’s plantation estate on a State-by-State basis.

Victoria: the first plantations in 1872 - 3. ‘The first stimulus to the establishment of plantations in Australia arose from the discovery and mining of gold in Victoria in the 1850s.

The large-scale destructive cutting of forests to meet the voracious demands of a rapidly expanding population and a frenetic mining industry prompted an otherwise unlikely troika of the Surveyor General, the Assistant Commissioner of Lands and Survey and the Secretary for Mines to strongly recommend in 1865 that the Government establish plantations of indigenous and exotic species. ......Twenty years after the first nursery was established at Mount Macedon in 1872, there were 1,000 hectares of plantations fed by nurseries at Creswick, Havelock, Gunbower Island, and the You Yangs, mainly of hardwoods but with increasing use of radiata pine which had shown sufficient promise for commercial planting to begin in the Macedon area in 1880.

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Miners indiscriminately cleared large areas of forest.

Painting by Edward Roper – gold diggings Ararat 1854.

The creation of the Victorian School of Forestry (VSF) in 1910, was one of the many recommendations of a royal Commission held between 1897 and 1901 into forest degradation. Source Wikipedia Macedon nursery potted seedlings in open beds protected

by Hedges. Creswick Campus Historical Collection.

1872 the first Victorian State nursery established at Macedon to assist in the replanting of degraded mined area. https://omeka.cloud.unimelb.edu.au/cchc/items/show/5478.

The Creswick Nursery was established by John La Gerche in 1897 to grow plants to rehabilitate degraded mining areas. Source State Library of Victoria collection.

South Australia: The first plantations were established in 1876. ‘Within thirty years of first settlement in 1836, people both within and outside government began to express concern at the rate at which the limited native forest resource was being used up and the apparent lack of any planning for future supplies of timber. G.W. Goyder (Surveyor General) and F. E. Krichauff (a member of the House of Assembly) pooled their influence to have the Government legislate to preserve the remaining forest cover, to southeast).

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At Wirrabara and Bundaleer (north of Adelaide) where the first plantation of native hardwoods, exotic hardwoods, and softwoods, was established in 1876. South Australia's policy was supported by the United Kingdom in 1926 by a grant of migration funds toward 2000 hectares per year for ten years to assist migrant employment. ‘ NSW

Snapshot historical photos NSW Forest Activities. Source NSW Forest Commission In NSW, the first plantations were established in 912. ‘The establishment of nurseries and plantations of timber trees was near the top of the list of duties of the Forest Conservancy Branch of the Mines Department of 1882, which is taken as the origin of today's Forestry Commission. John Duff, successor to the poet, Henry Kendall, who was the first Inspector, tried to respond to this with some arboreal trials. These were extended considerably by his successor, J.E. Brown (erstwhile first Conservator in South Australia), who was still eager to demonstrate that 'forests attract rain clouds'. But the first plantation of any size was established at Tuncurry (on the north coast near Taree) around 1912.

WA: Diamond Tree Fire Tower, Donnelly State Forest 2015. Source Wikipedia Forest Dept WA CALM. The first plantations in WA were in 1897. The increasing rate of exploitation of the native forest in the 1870s prompted citizens, members of Parliament and even the Colonial Office to pressure the Government into some thoughts of a policy of conservation and replacement. However, it was nearly another thirty years before J. E. Brown, erstwhile first Conservator in South Australia and Inspector in New South Wales, was engaged to report on the situation. As a result of Brown's report, the Government appointed him in 1896 to head what he named the Woods and Forests 37

Department to develop the 'woods' of conifers, which the Colony lacked, as support for the 'forests' of eucalypts, which it had in abundance, the Government's instructions being 'to form plantations of some of the softwoods of commerce and thus to a certain extent make the Colony independent of outside supplies which are daily increasing'. Brown began planting particularly maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and wattle on 'the seaside commonage' near Bunbury in 1897. His successor, in his annual report for 1899, was of the view that 'it is well known that the pine timber supplies of the world are reaching a visible termination and that in the future there will be certain market for colonial pine wood'. If similar plantations were established at intervals amongst the barren sandhills of the coastline from Geraldton to Albany 'the pines would self-sow themselves ...and in years to come would form on continuous stretch of forest as in the...French Landes... representing untold wealth to the State'.

Tasmania: the first plantations in 1920s. Though a Conservator was appointed as early as 1886, and even by that time rate of depletion of the magnificent Huon pine (Dacrydium franklinii) resource were prompting numerous people, official and private, to press the Government on the matter of softwood afforestation, there was too much to do in trying to exert some sort of control over the profligate use of what looked like an unlimited natural hardwood resource for the successive forestry authorities to consider anything but simple arboreal trials until well into the 1920s.

Though, in the event, results were to fall short of aspirations, Tasmania brought a novel and imaginative response to the enthusiasm of the interstate conference for expansive coniferous planting. In 1921, the newly formed Tasmanian Forestry Association proposed 'the planting of the great waste areas of Tasmania with exotic conifers...the establishment of forest plantations, (and) homes or colleges in which destitute and waif boys of the Empire may find their place, their manhood and their citizenship in planting the waste and in leaving a heritage of enormous value to those who come after'. The sixth conference (Brisbane, 1922) applauded this 'bringing into a forestry partnership of practical usefulness the waste lands of Tasmania and the waste childhood of the Empire'.

Surrey Hills, northwest Tasmania – the birthplace of industrial scale eucalypt plantations in Australia Robert Onfray, Ian Ravenwood, Geoff Dean & David de Little.

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Queensland: 1914 planting of Red cedar in 2016. Photo credit Keith Gould.

Keith Gould38 provided the following history re the development of plantations of North Queensland Rainforest species.

The first planting in NQ was the cedar planting 1903 -1906 (See attached report in the 1904 Agricultural journal, pages 738-744). This planting program ceased after the 1906 year’s planting because of public opinion about the waste of Government money on tree planting when there was perceived to be such an abundance of natural forest.

A program was recommenced in 1911 with the establishment of a nursery and trial plantings of a whole host of species, some native and some exotic. Aside from cedar, the two most promising species to emerge from these trials were hoop pine and kauri pine.

As well as a great range of constructional hardwoods and some of the fine cabinet timbers in the world, Queensland was also blessed with a group of the best utility coniferous timbers in hoop (Araucaria cunninghamii), bunya (Araucaria bidwillii) and kauri (Agathis robusta) pines. But, growing as they did on the scrub soils most sought after for settlement, forest conservators from the first appointment in 1905 saw the major replacement for the supply of these soft timbers, which was rapidly being depleted, in exotic varieties of inferior quality, secured by importation in a manufactured state or from local plantations on land not capable of producing the indigenous varieties. From N. W. Jolly's appointment as head of the Qld Forest Service in 1911, the softwood plantation policy became two-pronged: maintain as much rainforest as possible for clear-felling and hoop pine replacement; and carry out extensive trials of exotic conifers over the State, particularly on sites where large areas might be ceded to forestry for the purpose.

In 1914 there was a sizable area clear-felled, burnt, and planted with red cedar. This planting still exists today (photo above). However, this planting saw the emergence of the cedar tip borer and further trials were carried out planting cedar under nurse crops to minimise tip borer impact.

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Personal communication Keith Gould Queensland Forestry 27/12/2021

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About the end of WW1, the planting program halted again – the Government was probably short of money at that time. It was recommenced in 1929 with the onset of the depression and the availability of labour from Government sponsored employment schemes. Some research plantings with red cedar continued, but the routine plantings were all hoop and kauri.

Planting ceased again with the onset of WW2.

In the 1950’s research commenced on under-planting logged (and sometimes silviculturally treated) rainforest. A variety of species were tried but Qld Maple (Flindersia brayleyana) emerged as the main species of promise, and it was used extensively in subsequent routine operations. There were substantial areas of rainforest underplanted with Maple during 1950 – 1970.

Following the world heritage listing of the NQ Wet Tropics in 1988 two more planting schemes arose – the Community Rainforest Reafforestation Program (CRRP) and the Wet Tropics Tree Planting Scheme (WTTPS). Each of these two planting programs had defined objectives which were distinctly different. The WTTPS was planting purely for environmental purposes and aimed to establish a rainforest ecologically as close as possible to what was thought to exist on the site before land clearing. The CRRP had multiple objectives one of which was to establish a plantation timber resource to replace the resource of rainforest timbers locked away in the World Heritage Listing.

1904 Agricultural Journal pages 738744.

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ACT: The first plantations in ACT were in 1925. The success of radiata pine in reducing the effects of erosion on Mount Stromlo caused by grazing and rabbits, and in enhancing the environs of the infant capital, allied with Lane-Poole's strong recommendations (as Commonwealth Forestry Adviser) that the Territory should have its own industrial plantation program, prompted the Federal Capital Commission to appoint G. J. Rodger as Chief Forester in 1925 and approve an annual planting program of 200 hectares. By 1938, the annual rate had been lifted to 400 hectares and visiting hydrologists were commenting favourably on the reduction of erosion in the city's water catchment because of the planting there.

Phase 2 (the early 1960s to the early 1980s) A policy of self-sufficiency during phase 2 again focussed on development of softwood plantations supported by the Commonwealth Government Softwood Loans Scheme. While the bulk of the loans funded development was by the state agencies, Governments developed various farm forestry loan agreements to assist private noncorporation investment in plantations. The bulk of the areas planted were Radiata pine, but farm forestry loans could be used for poplars (NSW and Victoria) or eucalypts (Victoria).

Phase 3 (mid to late 1980’s) A transition from public softwood to private hardwood investment in new plantations occurred in phase 3.

Phase 4 (late 1980’s to late 1990’s) Phase 4 witnessed the greatest expansion rates, a shift from Radiata pine to Tasmanian blue gum plantation development (for export pulpwood) in south west Western Australia and south west Victoria and a commencement of a shift in ownership from public to private. The driver of the expansion rate was investment via managed investment schemes (MIS) and private ownership of State developed plantation assets via institutional funds facilitated by specialist intermediaries known as Timber Investment Management Organisations (TIMOs).

This was not new, as private investment in plantations in Australia has occurred since the start of last century via a range of vehicles and instruments (e.g., the last wave of MIS was not the first). It has been reported that “during the 1920s and 1930s Australia and New Zealand saw a rash of small investment companies offering interests to the public. The majority of these were dismal failures where the investor received little or no return.”

Phase 5 (2000’s to 2007) 42

Phase 5 involved moving north with new species and the embryonic start of new industries.

New species were established for sawn timber production: endemic species such as E. pellita (Red mahogany), E. dunnii (Dunn’s white gum) and Corymbia species were planted in northern Australia, along with exotic species such as Tectona grandis (teak) and Khaya senegalensis (African mahogany). Biomass species such as E. polybractea (blue mallee) and E. kochii subsp plenissima (oil mallee) were developed in dryer areas. Santalum spicatum (Australian sandalwood) and S. album (Indian sandalwood) were new species managed for aromatic oil production, in the southwest and far north of WA, respectively. During this period planting rates fluctuated greatly (e.g., in some cases due to change to the taxation system).

Phase 6 (2007 to present) Phase 6 has been a period of reckoning for many projects where poor species performance compared to expectations has resulted in exit and establishment of pasture, compounded by the collapse of the main MIS companies. The actual loss of hardwood plantation area from 2009/10 to 2015/16 is under-stated when simply looking at the gross area change, because new planting areas mask the impact of areas that were not replanted after harvest. Over the period from 2005/06 to 2015/16, 100,620 ha (10.2% of the peak estate) were not re-planted after harvest and over the same period the softwood estate expanded by a modest 35,648 ha, with limited new plantings over the most recent two financial years. Analysis of change in the area of plantations highlights events that had significant impact on the plantation estate: for example, the 2003 Canberra wildfires reduced the area of Radiata pine estate recorded in 2004/05 (Figure 3) and write-off of MIS hardwood projects in southern Queensland reduced the area of hardwoods in 2009/10.

New plantation investment in Australia has effectively ‘stalled’ for long-rotation plantations.

Jenkin39 (2018) described some projects which have included a very large number of species e.g. the Community Rainforest Reforestation Project (CRRP) was a Government-landowner projects operating in the wet tropics areas of north Queensland which commenced in 1992/9364 and included over 100 species: the main species based on numbers planted were Red mahogany, Hoop pine, E cloeziana (Gympie messmate) and Flindersia brayleyana (Queensland maple) and by number of blocks planted, Queensland maple, Elaeocarpus angustifolius (Quandong), Agathis robusta (Kauri pine) and Red mahogany.

Gould40 (2011) described Queensland research in the 1950’s commenced on under-planting logged (and sometimes silviculturally treated) rainforest. A variety of species were tried but Qld Maple (Flindersia brayleyana) emerged as the main species of promise, and it was used extensively in subsequent routine operations. There were substantial areas of rainforest underplanted with Maple during 1950 – 1970.

Jenkin B (2018) Next Generation Plantation Investment Research Project Benchmarking analysis: Part 1 Australia’s history of plantation development, policy, and incentives. Faculty of Science School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences Next Generation Plantation Investment Research Project: Benchmarking Report 1 MU NT Final Report.

40 Keith Gould personal communication 27th Dec 2021.

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1947 History of Research Work in Forestry and Forest Products in Australia and PNG. (Extracts article by G Rodger Unasylva Vol 1 # 3 Nov-Dec 1947 FAO) Research in forestry may be said to have been carried out from the earliest days of Australia's settlement, although in the beginning it consisted largely of systematic botanical investigations and experiments in the development of exotic trees.

About 1919 the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry formed the Forest Products Laboratory. The activities of this institution, which were confined to chemical investigations, laid the foundation for the establishment of the tannin-extraction industry in Western Australia and of the Australian pulp and paper industry in the eastern states. Much of the work of the original laboratory was done in co-operation with the Western Australia Forests Department; and when in 1926 the Institute of Science and Industry was replaced by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, this co-operative work was continued without a break, although there was a lapse of three years before the new CSIR Division of Forest Products was created.

At the eighteenth meeting of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Perth, Western Australia, in 1926, the following resolution was passed: In the opinion of the Council there is need in every State of Australia for more systematic investigation of those Forestry problems which come under the heads of Silviculture and Forest Management. A central coordinating authority is necessary if this work is to be carried out satisfactorily. The Council suggests that the Commonwealth Government having established an Australian Forestry School might with advantage extend the scope of the work by embracing general research into Forestry problems.

The Commonwealth Forestry Bureau was established at Canberra ACT in 1927, and it was decided that in addition to its other functions the Bureau should undertake responsibility for initiating and carrying out investigation and research in three main divisions of forestry: silviculture, forest management, and forest protection.

In 1928 initial steps were taken to institute forestry research under the Commonwealth Forestry Bureau by the appointment of research scholars in silviculture, management, and forest engineering. These research scholars underwent a short course of training at the Australian Forestry School, Canberra, before proceeding abroad for more advanced studies. On the completion of their course abroad they returned to Australia and were engaged in various branches of forestry research work. The Bureau received parliamentary sanction in 1930 by the Forestry Bureau Act No. 16. The field research work suffered severely as a result of the depression years. Of the initial staff of four officers, three were lost to other services. For several years, the work was carried on with the assistance of the staff of the Australian Forestry School. In 1935 the national recovery made an extension of the work possible and in 1937 a staff of three qualified men and five assistants was engaged on research work.

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In 1938 a research station was established in the southeast of South Australia, in co-operation with the Woods and Forests Department of that state, to undertake work on problems connected with the forests of the district and to extend the work being carried out at the main research station in the Australian Capital Territory.

In January 1941, a joint arrangement was entered into with the Tasmanian Forestry Department by which the Bureau established a branch of the research organization in Tasmania; but owing to the war the work of this station had to be suspended early in 1942, and the officer in charge was seconded to the Tasmanian Forestry Department until the cessation of hostilities.

Forestry and Timber Bureau 1946 In 1946 the Forestry Bureau was reconstituted as the Forestry and Timber Bureau under a director-general. Its research functions were extended to cover the supply, production, distribution, and use of timber and incorporating the timber planning and co-ordinating responsibilities of the wartime organization of Commonwealth Timber Control, which lapsed 31 December 1946.

The functions of the Forestry and Timber Bureau were to advise the-Administrations of the Territories on all matters pertaining to the management of forests; to manage forests placed under its control by the Governor-General; to establish experimental stations for the study of silviculture, forest management, and forest protection; to provide educational facilities for the training of professional foresters; to establish and award forestry scholarships; to collect and distribute forestry information;. To publish reports and bulletins dealing with forestry.

The Forestry and Timber Bureau comprised five main divisions: (1) Forestry Education (Australian Forestry School); (2) Forest Research, (3) Forest Resources; (4) Timber Statistics and Planning; and (5) Administration and Management.

Division of Forest Products, CSIR 1929 Following the replacement in 1926 of the Institute of Science and Industry by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, the Division of Forest Products came into being in 1929. Before the formation of this Division, two young graduates were selected and sent overseas for training at the United States Forest Products Laboratory. This policy was continued for several years until there was at least one officer soundly trained in each branch of forest products research. The first two of these to return to Australia, together with several officers having forest products research experience in state departments in Australia, formed the original staff of the Division. Owing to lack of central facilities this small staff was at first scattered, one member-remaining in Western Australia, one working in Canberra, A.C.T., and the rest in Melbourne, Victoria.

This was the first Division of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research to devote its activities to secondary industry. Lacking research facilities in the first instance, much of its initial work consisted of surveying the needs of the Australian timber industry and of conducting an educational campaign throughout the industry along the lines of sound practice in timber seasoning and general factory procedure.

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State Forestry Departments. Each state has its own forestry department, responsible under the government of the state for the administration of the forests within its own boundaries. As a result of the growing demand for investigation and research into many problems of forestry and forest products, the state governments through their forestry services have in recent years considerably expanded their research activities on problems associated with the growth and protection of their own forests; the establishment of plantations of exotic trees, particularly conifers; and the utilization of forest products Other State Governmental and Semigovernmental Bodies. In several states research work in the field under review is also carried out by other state governmental or semigovernmental bodies and officers, such as universities, government botanists and entomologists, and departments of agriculture, in co-operation with the State Forestry Departments.

Private Companies and Organizations. In connection with their industrial requirements, various private organizations, principally pulp and paper companies, have conducted considerable research into the utilization of the native timber species and to some extent of plantation-grown exotics.

Funding The research activities of both the Forestry and Timber Bureau and the Division of Forest Products are financed annually on a Commonwealth Government vote of funds.

The Division of Forest Products, the vote of funds provided by the government is supplemented by regular fixed grants from the three Australian paper companies.

Research work by the various state forestry departments is mainly financed by a yearly vote of funds by the state governments. In some cases, finance is provided from reforestation funds under the administration of the forestry departments and also from loan funds made available by the state governments. Private companies and organizations provide their own funds for research.

Forestry Research Work and Results Forestry and Timber Bureau Canberra, A.C.T. Sections include Silviculture, Plant Physiology, Dendrology, Nutrition, Genetics, Factors Influencing the Form of the Tree Trunk, Nursery Technique, Pruning, Arboreta, Seeds, Forest Management, Forest Protection State Forestry Departments. All states of the Commonwealth carry out research in connection with their normal work of silviculture, management, protection, and utilization.

This includes: (1) studies in the phenology and natural regeneration of the native species; (2) studies in nursery technique and the establishment of both native and exotic species; (3) pruning and thinning practices; (4) collection of information regarding growth and yield and the determination of site qualities; (5) investigations in connection with fire control, forest pathology, and forest entomology; (6) logging studies

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Division of Forest Products, CSIR. The following summary indicates the main types of work carried out by the various sections of the Division.

Wood Structure Section. - This Section has made a comprehensive study of the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of Australian timbers and has applied the results of its work to identification keys on the one hand and to certain features of investigation of other sections on the other. During World War II, card-sorting keys developed for the timbers of the Pacific Islands were of considerable aid to the Allied forces fighting in that zone.

Wood Chemistry Section. – continues the work of the pulp and paper investigations initiated by the old Forest Products Laboratory.

Timber Physics Section. - In addition to purely fundamental research into the physical properties of timber, this Section has carried out valuable work in connection with the selection of suitable timbers for such specialty uses as battery separators.

Timber Mechanics Section. - Its earlier work on the mechanical properties of various Australian timbers made it possible, when World War II began, for this Section to suggest species worthy of further test for such critical uses as aircraft construction, and during the war the whole of its effort was devoted to mechanical tests of timber and plywood for such uses. Other major projects include a study of the bending properties of Australian timbers and, more recently, projects designed to meet the need of materials for housing.

Seasoning Section. – Major activity was developing a high standard of kiln drying in Australia. In 1929, timber-drying kilns in this country were relatively few and, for the most part, inefficient. Mainly because of the activities of the Timber Seasoning Section, kiln drying is established practice throughout the Commonwealth and most kilns been built to designs provided by the section. Further, many kiln operators have either been trained in the Section or have taken its correspondence course in kiln operation. The section has also ears undertaken several major projects related to utilization problems, the most important of these being sawmill studies and investigation of sawdust-cement and wood-wool-cement mixtures.

Preservation Section. - Some of the earliest projects of the Division were concerned with field tests of poles, sleepers, and fence posts treated with various preservatives.

These are still in progress, but some valuable information has been obtained already, The Section was responsible for the boric acid treatment of lyctus-susceptible timbers, a process which has now been adopted in both Queensland and New South Wales and is made compulsory for certain timbers in the latter state. Original work towards a systematic study of wood-destroying fungi was interrupted by the war but is now being resumed.

Veneer and Gluing Section. - Assistance in the peeling, drying, and gluing of Australian timbers. Work on adhesives is taking an increasingly important place in its program.

Utilization Section. - Dealing with production problems in general, this section applies information obtained by the other sections and gives advice to the industry in accordance with the data so gathered.

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Dr Eric Dadswell Yalu Forest Resource Workshop July 1944 photo credit Linda Cavanaugh Manning.

An example below of a card sorting system like that Dadswell produced for timbers of New Guinea and neighbouring islands in 1940’s.

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State Forestry Departments. All the state forestry services carry out investigations with a view to improving utilization and extending the field of uses for the different species. They are also actively engaged in investigations covering mill studies, timber grading, seasoning, preservation, and other treatment as well as general utilization economics. In New South Wales and Queensland, the forestry departments maintain sections carrying out detailed research work in connection with the characteristics, properties, and uses of timbers growing in their own states.

Private Companies and Organizations. Considerable research in the utilization of forest products for commercial purposes has been carried out by various private companies and organizations. The chemical investigations in Western Australia resulted in the establishment of the tannin-extract industry in that state, were carried out in cooperation with a private firm.

The research work on distillation of sandalwood oil and perfume from flowers of Boronia megastigma was also carried out by private companies in association with other organizations.

The major research work has been carried out by the pulp and paper companies. Australian Paper Manufacturers, Ltd., operating in Victoria, producing kraft paper from eucalypt timbers; Associated Pulp and Paper Mills, Ltd., operating in Tasmania, producing fine writing and typing papers from eucalypt timbers; Australian Newsprint Mills Pty., Ltd., operating in Tasmania, producing newsprint; Cellulose Australia, Ltd., operating in South Australia, producing paperboard from planted forests of radiata pine; Masonite Corporation (Australia), Ltd., operating in New South Wales, producing hardboard manufactured from eucalypt timbers. Of the companies mentioned, those using eucalypt timbers in the manufacture of their products are actively concerned with the numerous problems associated with the pulping of these short-fibered timbers.

In the chemical pulp plants, established practices had to be modified, particularly in the beating processes; while shortage of long-fibered pulps, which used to be imported from overseas, has necessitated investigations into the possibility of increasing the strength of short-fibered pulps and of producing suitable pulps from other raw materials available in Australia.

During the war, success was attained in producing nitrocellulose from locally grown pine by the kraft process. Much work has been carried out in connection with the bleaching of kraft pulp.

Investigations relating to the utilization of lignin and other organic by-products of soda pulping have been made, and the semichemical pulping of Australian hardwoods has been tested. The manufacture of newsprint has also involved research into new manufacturing methods, particularly in the matter of improved colour and quality.

Tests show that Pinus radiata is little inferior to spruce for the production of sulphite pulp and better than other pines for either sulphite or sulphate pulp. This timber promises to be capable of providing Australia's future requirements in long-fibered pulp.

In the production of hardboard from eucalypts, the main problems encountered are those dealing with the utilization of a variety of species and the effects of moisture content, the presence of king, et cetera.

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Future Work of the Various Organizations in 1947 Forestry and Timber Bureau Silviculture. - Studies of the silviculture of Australian and introduced forest-tree species.

Physiology. - Fundamental research into the physiology of Australia's forest trees.

Tree Breeding. - With a view to improving the form and selecting the most suitable races of the various forest species.

Arboreta. - The establishment of arboreta for the purpose of testing the suitability of forest species for the various climatic and other regions to be found in this country.

Growth and yield studies. - Including the preparation of yield tables and the determination of site quality indices.

Other studies. - Studies in soils, nutrition, forest pathology, and forest entomology.

Forest Products Division, CSIR Silvicultural Project. - The major purpose of the investigation proposed under this project will be to study the properties of the wood laid down by the tree before and after silvicultural treatment. Work previously begun along these lines was seriously interfered with by the war. It is now proposed to recommence investigations in cooperation with the state forestry services and the Forestry and Timber Bureau.

Investigation of Building Boards. - This project covers extension of investigations into the greater utilization of wood waste and secondary timber species by conversion into some form of building board.

New Guinea Timbers. - Acting in close co-operation with the New Guinea Forests Department, the Division proposes to continue and extend the work on the examination of physical and mechanical properties of New Guinea timbers.

State Forestry Departments Future research work of the forest services will cover investigations into natural regeneration methods, thinning practices, growth and yield problems, soil and climatic requirements of exotic species, and protection against fire, insects, and disease.

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“Graveyard” timber durability trials CSIRO/TPNG Forests Dec 1967 Jan 1968 Bob Willis TA. Photo credit Ian Whyte.

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Hawkins BT & Ryan A 1975 Light timber framing for Papua New Guinea CSIRO Division of Building Research Bolza E & Kloot N H 1976 The Mechanical Properties of 81 New Guinea Timbers CSIRO Building Research

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Phillips F H and Harries E D 1975 The Pulping and Papermaking Potential of Tropical Hardwoods 1 CSIRO Phillips F H, Logan A F and Balodis V 1975 The Pulping and Papermaking Potential of Tropical Hardwoods 11 CSIRO 45 Powter A 1976 Papua New Guinea Shake and Shingle Manual Department of Forests 44

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GLOBAL TIMELINE ORIGIN FOREST TREE PLANTATIONS (time belong diwai) 4000 BC

3000 BC

2000 BC 1500 BC

1100 BC to 256 BC 589 BC to 420 AD

543 BC

256 BC to 208 BC

234 BC

161 BC to 137 BC 57 BC

4BC

A few centuries before BC

Mediterranean lands. Olives (Olea europea) selection and planting across Mediterranean lands. Edible fig (Ficus carica) cultivated across Mediterranean lands.

The oldest record of oil palm use date from 3,000 BC when in the late 1800s archaeologists discovered several kegs of palm oil in a tomb located in Abydos, Egypt. It is believed that Arab traders had brought the oil to Egypt.

Asia. Chinese cultivating fruit trees. (Valder 1999)

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Mediterranean lands. Myrrh trees (Commiphora myrrah) introduced into Egypt from Somalia as a source of perfume Asia. Chinese Chou Empire the Emperor established a forest service with responsibility of preserving natural forests and reforesting denuded land Asia. Chinese Sung Dynasty direct planting of tree seeds for reforestation practised and public lands reforested by farmers became the property of the farmer. Monographs prepared describing methods of planting and protection of the tung tree (Aleurites spp.), bamboos and other woody species. (Wang 1988). Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata), which today forms millions of hectares of planted forest in central and southern China, has a cultivation history of over 1000 years.

Asia. Sri Lanka Sinhalese King Vijaya village communities planted home gardens with flowering and fruit bearing trees Asia. Chinese Han and Tang Dynasties encouraged people to plant trees important for both food and timber production. Olives, Walnuts, almonds moved from Middle East and western Asia into China.

Mediterranean lands. Cato records planting of willows (Salix spp.), poplars (Populus spp.) and a conifer for ship timbers.

Asia. Sri Lanka King Dutugemunu forest plantations raised and rules for forest protection and use of forest products promulgated Asia. Korea Shilla Kingdom trees planted around king’s tombs, in royal gardens, along roadsides, as shelterbelts, along rivers and coastlines for erosion control.

Mediterranean lands. Trees of frankincense (Boswellia spp.) and myrrh plantings in Southern Arabia. Aristotle establishing probably the first arboretum in Greece The apple (Malus pumila) cultivated by Greeks and Romans before it was spread throughout Europe and Asia because of their travels and military conquests. The

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850 AD

15th century 1400-1500

16th Century 1500-1600 1600 15th & 16 th Century

Romans introduced the edible nut bearing sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) into Britain.

According to legend, the coffee plant was discovered in Ethiopia by a goat herder named Kaldi who observed increased activity in his goats after they consumed coffee beans. The first coffee plant was found in the mountains of Yemen. The genus Coffea) is of about 125 species of flowering plants of the family Rubiaceae, mostly native to tropical Africa. Two species are of major economic importance as the source of coffee.

Coffee beans first exported out of Ethiopia to Yemen by Somali Merchants, then exported to the rest of the World through the port of Mocha, Yemen. Sufi monasteries in Yemen employed coffee as an aid to concentration during prayers. It soon spread to Mecca and Medina.

Coffee reached the rest of the Middle east, South India, Persia, Turkey, India, Northern Africa. Coffee then spread to the Balkans, Italy, rest of Europe and Southeast Asia.

Coffee first cultivated in India (Chikmagalur)

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1616

Voyages of discovery by Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, and other European navigators provided new opportunities for the transfer of tree germplasm between distant countries. E.g., tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) were early introductions from USA to Europe.

France – a tree collection by Rene du Bellay – Bishop of Mans, who received seeds from Pierre Balon. a physician and traveller in western Asia.

Coffee first cultivated in Europe

1699

Coffee first cultivated in Java

1700

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Myanmar. A plantation of teak is reported to have been established around the year 1700 in the Paletwa area of Chin State Coffee first cultivated in Caribbean (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamica, Puerto Rico) Coffee first cultivated in Dutch East Indies

1723

Coffee plants introduced into the Americas

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1730

Coffee first cultivated in South America

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1709

Movement of seed of ornamental Asian trees as magnolias Turnbull (eg Magnolia kobos) tourope was stimulated by Engelbert Kaempfer (1651-1716)- a German physician who travelled to China and Japan and published his observations on Japanese trees between 1690 and 1692. Eg Japanese cypress (Cryptomeria japonica).

John Bertram established a botancial garden in Turnbull Philadelphia.

1550

1715-1730

1728

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1755

1788

1788

1790

1792

Early 1800’s

1803

1807 Early 1800’s 1800’s

1820 1823 to 1831

France – Duhamel de Monceau – head of French navy assembled a collection of more than 1000 European and American trees and shrubs on his estates and formed the first arboretum with a scientific purpose and published a critical study of the trees and shrubs.

British colonisation Australia with collection of seed of Eucalyptus spp and Acacia spp for global botanical gardens and private arboreta.

France has played an important part in developing knowledge about eucalypts, in their culture as plantation and ornamental trees and in their spread around the globe.

The French botanist L'Héritier gave the genus its name the year before the French Revolution India -The first introduction of eucalypts was in 1790, when several species were planted in the palace garden at Nandi Hills near Mysore Archibald Menzies (a botanist with Captain Vancouver’s expedition to the Pacific in 1792) introduced the Californian redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and the Chilean monkey puzzle tree (Araucaria Araucana) to Britain.

Two French botanists, De Candolle, father, and son, were active in the study of the growth habits of the genus and in the naming of certain species early in the nineteenth century. Countries in which French foresters were active have become important planting countries. A French forester, M. André Métro, prepared the draft of the first edition of the book Eucalypts for planting by FAO/Jacobs.

Italy has many fine specimens of eucalypts in different parts of the country and has played an important part in the development of knowledge of the genus. The famous botanical gardens, Hortus Camaldulensis, from which E. camaldulensis was given its name, were situated near Naples. The director of the gardens, Dehnhardt, named several Australian plants. Eucalypts were recorded planted as specimen trees near Naples by 1803 and the first introduction was probably a few years earlier.

Eucalypts were first introduced into South Africa in 1807 from Mauritius in containers European-run oil palm plantations were set up in Central Africa and Southeast Asia.

Botanic gardens established in the European colonies to assemble and evaluate the suitability of economic plants.

Netherlands – botanic gardens in Leiden, Ghent, Utrecht received many new species from Asia and elsewhere.

Timber cutting licences are issued by the government 'to persons of good character' David Douglas (Scottish botanist) sent by Horticultural Society of London to British Columbia and introduced several new conifers including Sitka spruce (Picea 55

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sitchensis) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), both of which now planted commercially in Western Europe on a significant scale.

Brazil E robusta, E tereticornis Botanical Gardens Rio de Janeiro Powered sawmills were established in Tasmania

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The USSR has experimented with the introduction of eucalypts for more Soviet Socialist than 150 years, mainly for the purpose of providing shelterbelts for tea and Republics citrus plantations in Georgia and other southern areas.

France arboretum at Les Barres near Orleans by Pierre Philippe Andre de Vilmorin who undertook pioneering studies on the geographical variation of the principal timber trees of Europe.

The first eucalypts to be planted in Portugal are thought to be those planted in 1829 at Vila Nova de Gaia near Oporto of E. obliqua. Reliable records are not available before 1852. Large blocks were first planted in 1875.

At least 30 species of eucalypts were growing in Britain.

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1838

Powered sawmills were established in Western Australia in Mt Eliza.

Powered sawmills were established in NSW in 1838,

1840

India teak plantations

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1841

Powered sawmills were established in Victoria in 1841,

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1840’s to 1870’s

Bennet assessed the origin and evolution of the Nilambur teak plantation in Malabar and the 'Australian' timber plantations on the Nilgiri plateau, two of the largest and most famous timber plantations in British India during the second half of the nineteenth century. He argues that both timber plantations arose as part of the broader expansion of agricultural plantations and botanical gardens in southern India during the 1840s-1870s rather than developing from European forestry practices imported into India.

Kew gardens England established and developed an extensive exotic tree collection.

India- Regular trials were started in 1843 when Captain Cotton of the Madras Engineers successfully introduced Eucalyptus globulus at Wellington in the Nilgiri hills. The oldest surviving stand of this species was planted in 1863 and is maintained as a preservation plot.

Robert Fortune sent by Royal Horticultural society London to China to collect garden flowers, ornamentals, and economic woody plants.

Steam powered sawmill at Guilford

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1825

1829

1830 1833

1841 1843

1843 to 1845

1844

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1840’s to 1850’s

1845 1848 1850

1853 1853 1853-1856

1854

1850’s 1854-1860 1856 1857

1860 to 1874

1867 to 1895

1861 1862

1865 1865

Philipp Franz von Siebold (1796-1866) travelled officially for Holland in Japan and was responsible for sending the seeds of many Japanese trees to Botanical Gardens in Holland and Java. Large forest trees with potential for timber production as Cryptomeria japonica, Pinus densiflora, Pinus thunbergia were introduced to Holland.

WA- sandalwood exports established.

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Powered sawmills were established in South Australia in 1848, Steps taken to cultivate cinchona trees (Cinchona ledgeriana) for its bark containing quinine. Dutch production in Indonesia till World War 2.

Initial plantings were made in California (during the Californian gold rush) and the Hawaiian Islands Powered sawmills were established in Queensland in 1853

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Eucalyptus spp introduced Argentina by President Domingo F Sarmiento, who had brought the seeds from Australia. E. globule, E. viminalus and E. robusta. Initially in shelterbelts The first steam railway in Australia, opened in Melbourne in 1854, heralded an Australian revolution in timber transport and enabled the fledgling sawmilling industry to move inland away from the coast.

Convict labour provided for forest industry

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Eucalypts introduced to Algeria Main species E. camalduensis Myanmar Regular planting of teak by the taungya method was initiated in 1856 The first documented importation of P. radiata planting materials occurred in 1857 when a single specimen was received for planting in the Sydney Botanic Gardens French missionary collector in China Father Armand David sent seeds of trees and shrubs to French Botanic gardens.

French missionary collector in China Father Jean Marie Delavay sent seeds of trees and shrubs to French Botanic gardens.

Introduction to England of Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) by John Gould Veitch In Greece, eucalypts were imported in 1862 by botanist Theodoros Georgios Orphanides. The principal species is Eucalyptus globulus India - regular planting, mainly of teak, began in 1865

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Ecuador the main eucalypt species planted is E. globulus, first introduced in 1865

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FRA 2000 Jenkin

FAO

FAO

Turnbull Wilkipedia

FAO

1866

1867

1850’s – 1900’s

1869/70

1869 1870 1871 1871 1872 1872-3

Pakistan - Dalbergia sissoo the main species in the irrigated plantations as Fuewood for train system for copper mines.

Eucalypts are useful plantation species in Pakistan, which has planted several species since 1867. Many species have been tried in irrigated plantations, riverain forests and foothills. Eucalyptus seeds of the species E. globulus were imported into Palestine in the 1860s but did not acclimatise well. Later, E. camaldulensis was introduced more successfully and it is still a very common tree in Israel. The use of eucalyptus trees to drain swampy land was a common practice in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The German Templer colony of Sarona had begun planting eucalyptus for this purpose by 1874, though it is not known where the seeds came from.

Ferdinand von Mueller – state botanist for Victoria (18531896) and Joseph Maiden Director of Sydney Botanic Gardens and herbarium (1896 -1924) helped to popularize the Eucalyptus genus during this period by sending hundreds of thousands of eucalypt seeds to private individuals and botanical gardens throughout the British Empire and the rest of the world. From botanical gardens in Melbourne and Sydney, eucalypts spread to gardens in Mauritius, Cape town, Durban, Pietermaritzburg, Grahamstown, Calcutta, Ootacamund and Bangkok and then throughout India, Southern Africa, and Thailand.

Seeds of blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) given by botanist Baron Ferdinand von Muller to Archbishop Gould of Melbourne who passed them to Trappist monks at Tre Fontaine near Rome. The eucalypts grew rapidly, assisted the monks in drying out the Campagna marshes and highlighted the potential value of eucalypts. The first eucalypt plantations were those planted by the Trappist Fathers at the Abbey of Tre Fontane near Rome in 1870.

83 sawmills in NSW Forest plantations in Peru with the introduction of Eucalyptus globulus to produce fuelwood Reinwardt established the famous Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens at Bogor in Java.

Bangladesh Teak plantations WA. First large sawmill at Jarrahdale with its own port at Rockingham.

Victoria: the first plantations in 1872 - 3. ‘The first stimulus to the establishment of plantations in Australia arose from the discovery and mining of gold in Victoria in the 1850s Victoria Mt Macedon Nursery - Hardwoods (Euc) wattles, exotic softwoods to rehabilitate mined areas 58

FRA 2000

FAO/Jacobs

Bennett

FAO

NSW Forest Commission FRA 2000 FAO FRA 2000 CALM Carron

1873 1873 1870’s

1876

1875/76

The first stimulus to the establishment of plantations in Australia arose from the discovery and mining of gold in Victoria in the 1850s. Twenty years after the first nursery was established at Mount Macedon in 1872, there were 1,000 hectares of plantations fed by nurseries at Creswick, Havelock, Gunbower Island, and the You Yangs, mainly of hardwoods but with increasing use of radiata pine.

Indonesia teak plantations Forest Trees Planting Encouragement Bill is issued to stimulate tree planting in South Australia Eucalypts have been planted in Sri Lanka for about a century and are intended to meet the following domestic requirements: sawn timber, railway sleepers, transmission poles, firewood, and the supply of essential oils.

In South Africa, the first commercial plantation of Eucalypts was established in 1876 (Nordin, 1984, in Zobel et al., 1987 The developmental process can be divided into three main phases (FSA, 2002). Phase 1: 1870-1914 Purposeful afforestation started in the late 1870s as both public and private concerns sought to provide an alternative to fast disappearing natural forests. By 1914, the afforested area was estimated to have reached 175 000 ha. Thus, early wood processing industries began to appear following the increased supply of wood. These early afforestation efforts demonstrated the capability of afforestation to meet the wood needs of the country. Phase 2: 1914-1945 Afforestation efforts accelerated significantly during the years that followed the First World War. years. By 1945, the afforested area had reached around 600 000 ha. Phase 3: 1945 to date 2000 (FSA, 2002). The period is further marked by an increased involvement of the private sector and the emergence of the domestic pulp and paper industry as a major driving force.

The major plantation owners and the areas of plantations held by them are Mondi Paper Company Ltd (400 000 ha); the South African Pulp and Paper Industry (SAPPI) (265 000 ha); the South African Forestry Company (SAFCOL) (265 000 ha); Masonite (Africa) Ltd (18 000 ha); and the Hans Merensky Holdings (11 000 ha) (SADC FSTCU, 1997). By the year 2001, around 1.1% of the land area of South Africa is under commercial plantation. Of all the reported commercial plantations, 72% or 970 000 ha are under private sector ownership while the remaining 28% or 380 000 are under public ownership. On the average, 80 000 ha are harvested annually and somewhat more is planted and replanted.

South Australia first plantations native hardwoods, exotic hardwoods, and softwoods e.g., P. radiata at Bundaleer.

The first plantation developments of P. radiata occurred in 59

FRA 2000 SA Woods and Forests FAO/Jacobs

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Carron Jenkin

1876 1876-1898 1877 1879 1880 1880’s

1880 1880

1881 1882

1882 1882 1883 1883 1884 1884 1884

1876 in South Australia with the first log processed in 1903 into 28 apple cases. South Australia: the first plantations in 1876. Wirrabara and Bundaleer (north of Adelaide) where the first plantation of native hardwoods, exotic hardwoods, and softwoods, was established in 1876.trhis was followed by followed by Wirrabara and Mount Gambier.

First Forestry Board appointed, chaired by G.W. Goyder.

Sir Henry Wickham took viable seedlings rubber tree seedlings (Hevea brasiliensis) to Kew Gardens.

Experiments at Fraser Island with kauri pine. Failed due to “poor soil and neglect” Nine seedlings rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) from Kew Gardens planted in Malaysia in Kuala Kangsar WA. Report on forests by Baron von Mueller.

SA Woods and Forests

The first eucalypt introduced to Spain was E. globulus, around 1880 Eucalyptus trees were introduced to Sri Lanka in the late 19th century by tea and coffee planters, for wind protection, shade, and fuel. Forestry replanting of eucalyptus began in the 1930s in deforested mountain areas, and currently there are about 10 species present in the island.

Victoria commercial planting P. radiata Macedon area

FAO/Jacobs

The first Forestry Commission nursery opens near Gosford. Seeding production begins and plantations are established.

Poet Henry Kendell is appointed Inspector of Forests NSW NSW Forestry branch trials plantation species for tannin with experimental plantings of acacia species along a railway reserve.

WA. First Inspector of Forests appointed.

NSW Forest Commission

South Australian Woods and Forests Department is formed NSW P. radiata first planted between 1883 and 1885

SA Woods and Forests Jenkin

Early plantings of E. robusta were established with seedlings grown from seed from Queensland in 1883 German settlers established coconut plantations in East New Britain.

Malaysia Small trials of exotics started

FAO/Jacobs

Israel Eucalypts were first introduced into the area late in the nineteenth century, primarily to drain malaria-infested swamps along the coastal plain. The first planting of E. camaldulensis, the most important species, was at Mikve in 1884 from seed of a source unknown but thought to have originated from the lower reaches of the Murray

FAO/Jacobs

60

Turnbull Qld Forestry Malayan Forest Record # 38 CALM

FAO

VFC

NSW Forest Commission Jenkin

CALM

Lewis FAO

1887 1889 1890 1892 1893 1894/95

1895 1896 1896

1890’s 1890’s

1895 1895

River. All E. camaldulensis trees in the country, except for recent provenance trials, are descendants from this early introduction.

Indian Forest service Conservator F. d’A Vincent Roche/Dargavel recommends a forestry school in Victoria A sawmill near Bombala is powered by a water wheel NSW Forest Commission Victoria’s Conservator of Forests G.S. Perrin recommends Roche/Dargavel a forestry school.

International Union of Forest Research Organizations Johnann et al (IUFRO) foundation meeting Germany IUFRO World Congress Austria Johnann et al The French took eucalypts to Ethiopia around 1894 or 1895, either by Emperor Menelik II’s 's French advisor Mondon-Vidailhet or by the Englishman Captain O'Brian.

Menelik II endorsed its planting around his new capital city of Addis Ababa because of the massive deforestation and need for firewood.

Oregon Association (established by a group of British landowners) made further introductions into Europe including the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) from Western North America.

Trees from the West Coast of USA were introduced into countries with similar climate as Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Chile. E.g., Pinus radiata which would form the basis of substantial plantations for timber and pulpwood.

WA – J Ednie Brown detailed forest report and recommended a new Forest Department.

WA – Dept of Woods and Forests established.

Sandalwood plantations established.

Uruguay – Antonio Lussich introduced Eucalypts. The principal eucalypt planted is E. globulus, followed by E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis. All were first planted over a hundred years ago, from seed of unknown origin, to provide shade and shelter for cattle, to serve as windbreaks, and to provide fuelwood and fenceposts.

Later, introductions of E. saligna and E. grandis NSW Ednie Brown established conifer arboreta in various parts of New South Wales in the 1890s, The first eucalypts to be planted in China through the Chinese Consul in Italy and French Jesuit priests working in southwestern China.

Sir Henry Wickham arrives in PNG- planter in Conflict group Ethiopia Initial establishment of energy plantations (of Eucalyptus globulus) dates back to 1895 (Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990)

61

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Lewis FAO

1896

FAO

1897

Establishment of forest plantations in South Africa to meet need for fuel, props for mines and timber Western Australia first plantations P pinaster and wattles near Bunbury. WA: the first plantations in 1897. Brown began planting -particularly maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and wattle on 'the seaside commonage' near Bunbury in 1897.

IUFRO World Congress Germany

1898

Teak plantations Thailand

FRA 2000

1898

1890’s

Ghana It is on record that Cedrela odorata was introduced in Ghana in 1898 (Truope 1932).

Zimbabwe The introduction of Eucalyptus spp. dates back to the early 1890s.

Plant collector in China and Japan was Ernest H Vilmorin for English nursery firm of James Veitch and also Harvard University’s Arnold Arboretum. He introduced many trees and shrubs into Europe and USA. e.g., dove tree (Davidia involucrate).

Plantations Zimbabwe

1899

Planting begins at Kuitpo in the Mount Lofty Ranges.

1890’s

Madagascar Plantations were first made at the end of the last century by missionaries, settlers, and the forestry administration. E. robusta, E camaldulensis Eucalypts were first introduced into Nepal in the late nineteenth century as ornamentals and many fine specimen trees still exist in Kathmandu city The Kerevat plantations were based on the performance of early introductions of Teak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the Germans from Burma for trial plantings at Alexishafen near Madang and Kokopo near Rabaul.

Between 1890 and 1900 by German New Guinea Administration • First entry provinces were Madang and Rabaul Provinces • Seeds of Burmese origin • Recommended for reforestation and afforestation plantations in PNG in 1925. • Teak plantation commenced in 1950 at Keravat in East New Britain and 1955 at Brown River near Port Moresby.

1880s Experiments on Fraser Island with nursery stock to plant in native forest - disappointing results Eucalypts introduced Boliva E globulus. Seed from Argentina IUFRO World Congress Switzerland

1897

1890’s 1899 to 1911

Late 1800’s

1890/1900

Late 1800’s 1900 1900 1900-1913

Plantations of Palaquium gutta and rubber established in Perak Malaysia. Line planting chengal (Neobalanocarpus heimii). Experimental planting on abandoned mining lands.

62

Carron Jenkin

Johnann et al

FAO/Jacobs

FAO SA Woods and Forests FAO/Jacobs

FAO/Jacobs

ACIAR

Kowald FAO/Jacobs Johnann et al Malayan Forest Record # 38

1902 -1916 1902

1902-1916 Red cedar raised in nurseries in north Queensland - affected by red cedar twig borer Milling begins at Wirrabara.

1903

IUFRO World Congress Austria

1903

Commercial rubber was first planted in PNG in 1903.

Most production was in the Australian Territory of Papua (now the Southern Region of PNG). In German New Guinea, attempts to build a rubber industry were based on assam rubber (Ficus elastica), which is inferior to para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Consequently, very little rubber was produced in German New Guinea.

In Papua, plantations were first developed at Galley Reach, Sogeri and Cape Rodney in Central Province and in the Kerema area of Gulf Province. They subsequently expanded into the Kokoda area of Oro Province and parts of New Ireland Province. The principal exports from Papua in the 1930s and 1940s were copra and rubber, and rubber contributed almost 30% by value in the 1930s.

The first planting in NQ was the cedar planting 1903 1906 (See attached report in the 1904 Agricultural journal, pages 738-744). This planting program ceased after the 1906 year’s planting because of public opinion about the waste of Government money on tree planting when there was perceived to be such an abundance of natural forest Kenya has an extensive experience with eucalypts. In earlier years plantations were established to provide firewood for the railway line to Nairobi and Uganda.

Between 1903 and 1906 some 19 species were tried out and E. saligna and E. globulus were selected as the bestyielding trees Ghana Tectona grandis trials in the country dates back to 1905 under the German administration in the Volta Region of the country (Kadambi 1972).

WA- Bunning Bros expand from building to sawmilling and becoem largest timber company in WA. IUFRO World Congress Germany

1903

1903-1906

1905

1905 1906 1907 1908

1905-15

Planting of large areas of Radiata pine begins in the Green Triangle.

Eucalypts introduced to Ireland. After trials in the 1930’s Eucalypts now grow wild in the mid climate of South Western Ireland.

Edmund Navarro de Andrade, the father of Brazilian plantation forestry, established a wide series of trials of 144 species of eucalypts on behalf of the Paulista Railway Company and later established the famous arboretum and forest at Rio Claro in the state of Sao Paulo. Eucalypts were introduced for timber substitution and the charcoal industry.

63

Queensland Forestry SA Woods and Forests Johnann et al Tok pisin Lewis

Gould

FAO/Jacobs

FAO

CALM Johnann et al

FAO/Jacobs

FAO/Jacobs

1906

Galley Reach Holdings Rubber Plantations Central Province.

Chile P radiata plantations

Lewis

Kenya The first systematic planting programme was begun in the late 1900’s, by D.E. Hutchins, then Chief Conservator of Forests, 1907-1911. The first exotic plantations were of Eucalypts and Acacia mearnsii (black wattle), both from Australia, to supply firewood for the railway engines. Later, with a view to producing saw timber, Cupressus lusitanica and C. macrocarpa were planted.

Teak plantations Vietnam Teak introduced from Laos

FAO

Roche/Dargavel

1910

Victoria – School of Forestry opens at Creswick.

NSW -opens forester training school at Narara.

South Australia – forestry course starts at Adelaide University Eucalypt plantions India introduced in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu state.

IUFRO World Congress Belgium

1910

Teak plantations Philippines

FRA 2000

1910

South Australian Government land purchases for forestry reaches 45,290 hectares.

Queensland: the first plantations in c1911. As well as a great range of constructional hardwoods and some of the fine cabinet timbers in the world, Queensland was also blessed with a group of the best utility coniferous timbers in hoop (Araucaria cunninghamii), bunya (Araucaria bidwillii) and kauri (Agathis robusta) pines. But, growing as they did on the scrub soils most sought after for settlement, forest conservators from the first appointment in 1905 saw the major replacement for the supply of these soft timbers, which was rapidly being depleted, With N. W. Jolly's appointment as head of the forest service in 1911, the softwood plantation policy became twopronged: maintain as much rainforest as possible for clearfelling and hoop pine replacement; and carry out extensive trials of exotic conifers over the State, particularly on sites where large areas might be ceded to forestry for the purpose First interstate forestry conference recommends national forestry school North Queensland experiments with nursery stock for enrichment planting in forests 1911 Experimental station on Fraser Island compared growth rates of native hoop, bunya, cypress, and exotic pine species and assisted natural regeneration in eucalypt forests

SA Woods and Forests Jenkin

1907 1907-1911

1908 1910

1910

1911

1911 1911

64

FRA 2000

FRA 2000

FRA 2000 Johnann et al

Roche/Dargavel Kowald

1911

1912

1912

1913 1913 1913

1913-1928 1913

Prior 1914

1914

1914 1914-1919

1915

The Commonwealth assumed control of what was called the Federal Capital Territory as the site for the federal seat of government A nursery was established at Acton under Thomas Charles Weston to test a variety of species for their suitability for the Canberra environment NSW: the first plantations in 1912. ‘The establishment of nurseries and plantations of timber trees was near the top of the list of duties of the Forest Conservancy Branch of the Mines Department of 1882, which is taken as the origin of today's Forestry Commission. John Duff, successor to the poet, Henry Kendall, who was the first Inspector, tried to respond to this with some arboreal trials. These were extended considerably by his successor, J.E. Brown (erstwhile first Conservator in South Australia), who was still eager to demonstrate that 'forests attract rain clouds'. But the first plantation of any size was established at Tuncurry (on the north coast near Taree) around 1912.’ 4 1913 Experimental station at Brooloo, Mary Valley native pines Longworth’s tramway near Laurieton opened for horse traction in 1913 and steam engines in 1916 1913 Improvement felling (thinning) of hoop pine on Fraser Island. At Yandina, hardwood forests logged of best timber, non-commercial species ringbarked, and debris burnt, area left to regenerate with hand sowing if needed Rattan (Calamus spp) planting in mangrove forests Weston was appointed Officer-in-Charge of Afforestation in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Among other responsibilities, he was charged with founding a forestry industry in the capital The former German Administration had established Teak trials prior to 1914 at Kokopo. Those few Australian foresters who got to see these post-1945, must have been impressed enough by the species as an investment worth trying.

Weston established an arboretum in Westbourne Woods, now part of Yarralumla, to trial a range of tree species in the Canberra environment IUFRO World Congress Hungary Empire Forest Conservator D.E. Hutchins recommends Australian national forestry school.

Hutchins advises University of New Zealand.

Weston commenced establishing pine plantations on the slopes of Mt Stromlo which had been stripped of native

65

ACT Forests

ACT Forests

Jenkin

Kowald NSW Forest Commission Qld Forestry

Malayan Forest Record # 38 ACT Forests

Harries

ACT Forests

Johnann et al Roche/Dargavel

ACT Forests

1916 1916

1916-1919

1916

1918

1918-1974

1919 1919 1919

species to allow grazing and to supply firewood, and on which serious erosion was occurring.

Indonesia (Pinus merkusii) in Sumatra.

FRA 2000

This resource utilisation was not deterred by the difficulties of working with eucalypt wood: the fledgling industries attempted to make paper from the resource, but it was not until 1916 that the Conservator of Forests at Dijon (France) during a visit to WA suggested test pulping of immature eucalypt wood as in France, research on pulping of young plantation grown Tasmanian blue gum wood had proved promising.

1916 Forest station established at Imbil with a nursery and arboretum 1916 Hoop pine planted at Atherton 1917 Hoop pine experimental plantings at Brooloo to study natural and artificial regeneration 1919 Two hectares at Imbil planted with native hoop, bunya and cedar and other exotic species The Forestry Act is passed, and the Forestry Commission is established. Under the Act, the Commission is responsible for the management of State forests, Timber reserves and some Crown land.

Eucalypts were introduced into Morocco early in the twentieth century, E. camaldulensis in 1918, E. gomphocephala in 1920.

History of E. deglupta as a plantation species and planting has until recently been experimental or on a pilot scale.

The earliest introductions of seed were from the indigenous stands which occur in the Cotabato area of Mindanao to other islands in the Philippines, e.g., to Baguio in northwest Luzon in 1918 and 1926. The first introduction into Cebu Island was in 1954 (Lizardo, 1956).

Similarly, the first major plantings on the main island of Papua New Guinea were made in 1948 from seed collected at Keravat on the neighbouring island of New Britain. Outside Southeast Asia, the first small-scale introductions were made in the late 1950s or in the 1960s, e.g., the Ivory Coast and Solomon Islands 1958, the Congo 1961, Sri Lanka 1967. The Philippines had about 7 000 ha planted by 1974, mainly by the Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines (PICOP). Papua New Guinea recorded 736 ha planted to 1973. The Congo reported 170 ha planted mainly between 1961 and 1966.

The Ivory Coast reported 50 ha of trials.

The Australian Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry formed the Forest Products Laboratory.

WA - Forests department established.

Jenkin

N Z. – Turner recommends sending students to Oxford University.

Roche/Dargavel

66

Kowald

NSW Forest Commission

FAO/Jacobs

FAO/Jacobs

Rodgers CALM

1920 1920

1922 1923 1923

1920-1960’s

1920’s 1920’s

1923 1923

1924 1924

1924 1925

NZ – Canterbury University College receives bequest for forestry school.

First British Empire Forestry Conference UK

CFA

1920/1 Swain established commercial plantations in Mary Valley (26 hectares), Atherton (12 hectares) and Fraser Island (10 hectares) 1920/1 Nursery established at Benarkin 1922 Weatherhead tube invented and used to raise seedlings in nurseries WA- Lane Poole resigns and SL Kessell appointed Conservator.

Italy - Extensive planting of shelterbelts in Sardinia and the Pontine Marshes started in 1923, 1923 Regeneration technique involved ringbarking of “useless forest veterans of undesirable species”, logging of marketable timber (no girth restriction), clearing and burning of undergrowth to prepare seed bed. Seedlings at 5.5 metre spacing One of Australia’s first large eucalypt establishment programs took place from the 1920s to the 1960s in Western Australia. Approximately 8,300 hectares of Eucalyptus astringens (Brown Mallet) were sown for tannin extraction and eventually tool handle production.

However, just over 2,000 hectares failed.

Tasmania: the first plantations in 1920s were conifers.

Tasmania: the first plantations in 1920s.

Industrial plantations Côte d’Ivoire started to be established in the northern and central regions already in the late 1920s using the taungya system. Tectona grandis (teak), Cassia spp., Gmelina arborea, Terminalia ivorensis, T. superba and Azadirachta indica were the main species planted.

Second British Empire Forestry Conference Canada

Kowald

Charles Edward Lane Poole was appointed the Commonwealth’s adviser on forestry for a period of three years NZ – Canterbury starts forestry school.

ACT Forests

1924 Experimental station established at Beerwah. 2,500 hectares of wallum country to be planted with American slash pine 1926 Swain set an annual target of 2,000 hectares of planting 1929 Shaded nurseries found not to be necessary for exotics (P. elliottii var. elliottii) and plants did not need to be tubed 1930s Introduction of cold storage for hoop pine seed to extend period of viability from 12 months to 4 years Zimbabwe Africa start plantations – private funds

Kowald

The Federal Capital Commission began work under J.H. (later Sir John) Butters. A Forestry Branch was formed as

ACT Forests

67

CALM FAO/Jacobs Qld Forestry

CALM

Jenkin FAO

CFA

Roche/Dargavel

Jacovelli

1925

1925 1925

part of the Commission, while the former Afforestation Branch became the Parks and Gardens Branch ACT: the first plantations in c1925. The success of radiata pine in reducing the effects of erosion on Mount Stromlo caused by grazing and rabbits, and in enhancing the environs of the infant capital.

Auckland University College starts forestry school.

Jenkin

Roche/Dargavel

1928-1941

In a report to federal Parliament, Lane Poole recommended that 20,000 acres [about 8,100 hectares] of pine forest be established for commercial purposes in the Federal Capital Territory. The planting rate would be 500 acres per year Geoffrey James Rodger commenced as Chief Forester in the Federal Capital Territory and soon inaugurated the larger program of planting softwoods for commercial exploitation. Apart from extending the area planted on Mt Stromlo, he prepared for plantings at Uriarra and Kowen.

The Commonwealth Forestry Bureau was established under an Inspector-General to advise the Commonwealth government on forestry in Australia, to provide higher education in forestry for the State forestry services and to conduct research. Charles Edward Lane Poole was appointed Inspector-General.

The Australian Forestry School, which had been established on a temporary basis in Adelaide in March 1926, moved to permanent quarters at Westridge, now Yarralumla, in the FCT and was placed under the Commonwealth Forestry Bureau. Charles Lane Poole, the Commonwealth’s Inspector-General of Forests and Forestry Adviser, was appointed Acting Principal of the school.

Jacobs resigned to join the Commonwealth Forestry Bureau and C.R. (Cyril) Cole was appointed sole Forestry Officer in the FCT to replace both Rodger and Jacobs Teak planting Malaysia

1929

Division of Forest Products, CSIR

Malayan Forest Record # 38 Rodgers

1929

IUFRO World Congress Sweden

Johnann et al

1930

Eucalypt plantations Angola of Eucalyptus plantations in Angola. The railway linked the Atlantic deep-water harbour of Lobito with the Congolese and Rhodesian copper fields. The railway quickly consumed the fuel from the native miombo forest, and as a response, the railway company, Caminho de Ferro de Benguela (CFB), established large eucalypt plantations close to the railway from the wettest central highlands to the border with Belgian-ruled Congo., E. camaldulensis was the favoured

FAO

1926

1927

1927

1929

68

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Rodgers

Roche/Dargavel

Rodgers

Roche/Dargavel

1930 1931

species. the dominance soon changed to E. saligna and E. grandis NZ – Auckland forestry school closes

Roche/Dargavel

Burundi the earliest plantings of Eucalyptus spp. commenced in 1931 with seed obtained from Tanganyika, Rhodesia, and South Africa. The principal species introduced were E. camaldulensis, E. tereticornis, E. rudis and E. citriodora.

Government-owned sawmill at Mount Burr in the state’s South East, begins operation.

IUFRO World Congress France

FAO/Jacobs

NSW Forest Commission

1934

NSW In the 1930s little was known about how to perpetuate the rain forest after logging and, partly to divert claims for its conversion to agriculture, a program of clearing followed by planting with hoop pine was begun in some areas, along with research into the silviculture of th e forest. The hoop pine planting was phased out in the mid1950s, because of its high cost, Eucalyptus has been grown in Ireland since trials in the 1930s and now grows wild in South Western Ireland in the mild climate 1930s Kauri pine plantings declined because of infestation by thrips 1930s Eucalypt and cypress pine forests treated - logged, destruction of useless stems and thinning Zimbabawe replaced P. radata with P. patula

1934

NZ – Canterbury forestry school closes

Roche/Dargavel

1935

Fourth British Empire Forestry Conference South Africa

CFA

1935

Kowald Qld forestry

1930’s

1935 Pruning of young trees introduced. Pruning of native pines began to provide knot-free timber and increase production of clear wood Australian Forestry Schol threatened with closure.

1936

IUFRO World Congress Hungary

Johnann et al

1936

Lindsay Pryor became Assistant Forester to Cole in the FCT 1937 Tree marking rules for logging hardwood forests introduced, allowing for removal of marginal trees

FAO

1931 1932 1930’s

1930’s 1930’s 1930’s

1937

Before 1938

1938

SA Woods and Forests Johnann et al

Coillte

Kowald Qld Forestry

Roche/Dargavel

Qld Forestry

Seed of balsa was imported to PNG in the late 1930s, Anon 1938 1946 seed imported by Milner’s Balsawood (renamed Australia balsa) with further introductions made between Howcroft 1948 and 1961, mostly to East New Britain Province (ENB).

1938 Fused needle disease (first discovered in 1934) found Kowald to be the result of phosphate deficiency

69

1938

A research station was established in the southeast of South Australia, in co-operation with the Woods and Forests Department The Forest Service established in New Guinea with appointment of Jim McAdam accepted a permanent position in the mandated Territory of New Guinea as a Forestry Officer together with Jim Cavanaugh Jim McAdam made Chief forester of New Guinea J McAdam & J Cavanaugh war service PNG 1939-45 Zinc deficiency in soils identified as cause of extensive dieback and later rectified.

McAdam/Cavanaugh/Reay Weidenhofer sign up NGVR

Rodgers

FRA 2000

1940

Argentina original plantations were done using the native species Araucaria angustifolia. experimental planting Wau Hoop Pine

1940

Introduction of various tropical Pinus spp. into Wau

McAdam

1940

Roche/Dargavel CFA Rodgers

1943

Cyril Cole enlisted in the 2nd AIF. Lindsay Pryor took over as Acting Forestry Officer in the ACT. Research station with Tasmanian Forestry Department suspended till end of WW2.

Melbourne University starts degree course

1944/45

Experimental planting Cinchona Wau and the Highlands

L Cavanaugh Manning

1945

Malaysia. Experimental plantations in lowlands were started; Plantation experiments in Cameron Highlands (ca.

1,500 m asl); Teak planted in Langkawi Island.

Malaysia -Experimental teak plantations in north-west Malaya; Plantings in forest clearings resulting from disturbances during the war.

Lindsay Pryor was appointed Superintendent of Parks and Gardens in Canberra but continued in the role of Acting Forestry Officer pending Cole’s return from war service.

Charles Lane Poole retired as Principal of the Australian Forestry School and was succeeded by Max Jacobs. On his return from the war, Cyril Cole resumed the position of Forester in the ACT The Commonwealth’s Forestry Bureau became the Forestry and Timber Bureau, still within the Department of the Interior. G.J. Rodger was appointed DirectorGeneral of the Bureau Forestry Bureau was reconstituted as the Forestry and Timber Bureau under a director-general incorporating the timber planning and co-ordinating responsibilities of the wartime organization of Commonwealth Timber Control, which lapsed 31 December 1946 Bill Heather Forester (graduate AFS 1943/44) Regional Forest Officer Rabaul; in late 1940’s and early 1950’s;

FAO

1938

1939 1939 1940 1940

1941

1945

1944

1944

1946

1946

1947

70

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TPNG SA Woods and Forests TPNG

Womersley

Roche/Dargavel

FAO

ACT Forests

ACT Forests

Rodgers

Rodgers

TPNG

1947

1947 1948

started Kerevat plantations with WR Fryar in 1948; afterwards, Heather was a lecturer at AFS. 1947 Caribbean pine introduced from Honduras and trial plantings began at Beerwah and Tuan Creek near Maryborough 1948 C.S.I.R.O. began experimental work near Beerwah on converting wallum to pasture to allow for grazing to coincide with forestry 1950s Tuan and Toolara State Forests planted with slash pine Fifth British Empire Forestry Conference UK

Kowald

CFA

Mexico Eucalypts were introduced early in the century, but controlled trials only started at Chapingo arboretum in 1948 (SNA, 1970). Plantations of eucalypts, mainly E. camaldulensis, commenced in 1956 at El Rancho Casas Blancas, IUFRO World Congress Finland & Switzerland

FAO/Jacobs

Australian Paper Manufactures’ (APM’s) first plantings occurred in NSW in 1948 Commencement Bulolo Wau plantation complex

Jenkin

Womersley

1950

Trail planting Kerevat 10 acres of Kamerere (E deglupta) with locally collected seed.

Industrial plantations Swaziland started in 1949 by the Commonwealth Development Corporation (CDC), mainly to supply wood to domestic industry and for export to South Africa (Nylén, 1999). There are no productive indigenous forest reserves in Swaziland.

Tanzania starts plantations by Tanganyika Watle Co Tanwat NZ sends students to Australian and British Forestry Schools.

Italy the main afforestation programme in Sicily and southern Italy started in 1950.

Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 44 acres

1950

Malawi Africa start plantations funded by WB

Jacovelli

1950/51

Plantations Kerevat 26 acres Kamerere (E deglupta)

Womersley

1950

The Forestry Section became the Division of ACT Forestry within the Forestry and Timber Bureau Nepal. In the 1950s an attempt was made to establish a small plantation near Kathmandu, but this was not successful probably due to poor nursery stock and inadequate site preparation. The oil crisis of the early 1970s, coupled with local fuelwood shortages, rekindled interest in growing eucalypts for fuelwood and Doles. and trials commenced in 1973.

Teak plantations Malaysia

ACT Forests

APMF The former project started in the late 1950s with E. grandis (Flooded Gum) planted to produce pulpwood for a

APMF

1948 1948 1948/49 1948 1949

1949 1949 1950

1950’s

1950’s 1950’s

71

Johnann et al

TPNG

Jacovelli

Jacovelli Roche/Dargavel FAO/Jacobs Womersley

FAO/Jacobs

FAO

1951/52

planned pulp mill that was never built. A little over 5,000 hectares were successfully established before the project was discontinued in 1982 and the land and plantations sold to the NSW Forestry Commission in 1984.

APM Forestry Pty Ltd was created in 1951 Gippsland plantation program commencing in the 1950’s with both softwoods and eucalypts planted as potential resource for the company’s pulp and paper operations.

Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 97 acres Womersley

1951/52

Plantations Kerevat 108 acres Kamerere (E deglupta)

Womersley

1952/53

Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 166 acres

Womersley

1952

A modern plywood manufacturing industry will be McAdam established for processing the pines of the Bulolo Valley.

It is expected that within three years the output will reach 30 million square feet of plywood on a 3/16-inch basis.

Already a start has been made on reforestation with the same species. (Hoop and Klinkii). Last year, 45 acres were planted. This year, 100 acres are being planted and, in the nursery, there is stock for 300 acres of plantation next year. It is expected that the future plantings will eb about 600 to 700 acres per year. At the end of the rotation (50 years), it is calculated that the annual cut will exceed 60 million super feet of logs as against the rationed cut of 10 million super feet from the virgin stands. There will be a great volume of early thinnings from the plantations in about ten years and this may well lead to the establishment of the first pulp factory in the Territory.

At Kerevat, the Department has commenced silvicultural research work on the coastal stands. Kamarere, teak and balsa are being established on about 100 acres this year.

The original kamarere plot of about 10 acres established four years ago (1948) is now over 60 feet high and ready for its first thinning. Some of these thinnings will be going to the Division of Forest Products for testing for pulping and other purposes. The teak, which is established from seed obtained from areas planted by the Germans at Namatanai forty years ago is showing promising growth and may provide the answer to a durable timber for local construction.

Sixth British Empire Forestry Conference Canada CFA

1952 1952 1952/53 1953

FAO Eucalyptus study tour in Australia, and extensive species trials with Eucalyptus spp.

Plantations Kerevat 108 acres, Kamarere (E deglupta) and Balsa El Salvador Eucalypts were first introduced in 1953 and several species have been planted. Growth is vigorous in the fertile soils. E. deglupta, E. alba, E. citriodora and E. longiforia are the species most planted.

72

FAO Womersley FAO/Jacobs

1953

IUFRO World Congress Italy

Johnann et al

1953

FAO

1953/54

FAO Eucalypt Study tour Australia Unasylva Vol 7 No 1 March 1953 Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 188 acres

1953/54

Plantations Kerevat 150 acres Kamerere (E deglupta)

Womersley

1954/55

Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 475 acres

Womersley

1954

Start Brown River plantations. (Mt Lawes territorial forest) Malaysia - Species trials with Pinus spp. With potential pulp value were initiated; Experimental plantations were started on tin tailings; Taungya system tried using Gmelina arborea in tobacco farms; Line plantings of kapur (Dryobalanops aromatica) were established in Kanching.

At the Fourth World Forestry Congress (1954) in India, it was recommended that an international commission be set up on the use of exotic species for planting in the tropics.

The increasing importance of eucalypts for plantations was indicated by the publication by FAO in 1954 of the first edition of Eucalypts for Planting and Plantations Kerevat 208 acres Kamerere (E. deglupta)

TPNG

In the 1950s both the International Poplar Commission and the Teak Sub-Commission were set up by the FAO with the great bulk of their work focused on plantation crops.

1955 Australian Paper Manufacturers Forests Pty Ltd established private plantations of slash pine near their Petrie mill. Further plantations established on Bribie Island 1976

FAO

1955/56

Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 430 acres

Womersley

1955/56

Plantations Kerevat 161 acres Kamerere (E .deglupta)

Womersley

1955/56

Brown River teak and kamerere trials 10 acres

Womersley

1956

FAO World Eucalypt Conference Rome

FAO

1956

IUFRO World Congress Great Britain

Johnann et al

1956/57

Plantations Bulolo Hoop Pine 590 acres

Womersley

1956/57

Experimental work Klinkii Plantations Bulolo

Womersley

1956/57

Brown River trial E. torelliana

Womersley

1956/57

Plantations Kerevat 160 acres Kamerere (E. deglupta)

Womersley

1957

Seventh British Commonwealth Forestry Conference in Australia resolved that a book be published about experience with exotic species in the Commonwealth (Streets, 1962).

FAO

1954

1954

1954

1954/55 1950’s

1955

73

Womersley

FAO

FAO

FAO

Womersley

Kowald

1957

Particle board production begins in South Australia.

1957

During 1957 a fifty-year-old teak tree was cut from the Kokopo plantation (established by the German administration prior to 1914) and sawn into planks at the Kerevat mill.

The result was the commencement in the early 1950s of the plantations at Kerevat and Brown River (Mt. Laws).

At Kerevat, Teak, Tectona grandis and Kamarere, Eucalyptus deglupta, were grown on neighbouring blocks on the river flats, mostly in pure stands but also in admixture, with the faster grown, Kamarere being tried as a sort of “cover crop,” soon to be abandoned.

At the Brown River, by 1971, the planting program had steadied at about 200 ha per year. But at Kerevat, the onset of local land ownership claims curtailed further planting.

Initially seed for the Kerevat plantation was collected from old German plantings near Kokopo and on New Ireland. In 1957 this was being organised by Regional Forest Officer, Alex Richardson and Regional staff officer, Ms. Lorraine Taylor.

The seed, sown in small nurseries, was allowed to grow into small plants which, at the time of planting out were cut into “stumps.” The planted “stumps” were protected from attack by the plague of giant African snails with cardboard rings soaked in snail deterrent.

Some years later a seed orchard was established at Kerevat in an area isolated from the main plantations.

Malaysia Large scale experimental planting with Pinus caribaea and P. insularis in the lowlands. Pinus spp. From Central America and Populus spp. From Kenya were also tested; Experimental plantings in shifting cultivation areas; Line planting and small-scale plantings of secondary growth of Dryobalanops aromatica, Eusideroxylon zwageri, Flindersia brayleyana, Fragraea fragrans, Khaya spp., Pentaspadon officinalis, and Shorea macrophylla.

Max Jacobs retired as Principal of the Australian Forestry ACT Forests School to become Director-General of the Forestry and Timber Bureau. He was succeeded by K.P. McGrath as Acting Principal.

FAO Seminar on Tropical Pines in Mexico FAO

1959

1959

1960 1960

APMF The latter program started in 1960 in the Strzelecki Ranges where predominantly E. regnans (Mountain Ash or Swamp Gum) was planted. At 8,000 hectares it was the largest eucalypt plantation program prior to the 1980s, but market considerations then forced an almost complete cessation, although a very small planting program of E.

74

SA Woods and Forests Harries

AMCOR

1960

1961 1961 1961

1961

globulus spp (Tasmanian Blue Gum) and E. nitens (Shining Gum) was maintained by APM WA- first programs implemented to halt the spread of dieback in WA eucalypt forests. More than 700,000 ha quarantined.

Thailand regular teak plantation establishment Large lease granted to Alcoa to mine bauxite in jarrah forests.

In early 1961, the Australian Government made a nationwide recruiting drive (in Australia) to interview and enlist six (6) potential Assistant Forest Rangers, as part of ten (10) students, to be the first intake for the Bulolo Forestry College. The new recruits included Bruce Anderson, Tony Crompton, Rod Hall, Tony Brown, Heiner Streimann, and Peter Eddowes.

IUFRO World Congress Austria

1962

However, as the Forestry College Buildings had not been started, at this time, the BFS did not start up until 1962.

The first Principal of the school was Joe Havel with Bill Finlayson, followed by Leon Clifford, Robin Angus, and later John Godlee. The students were all housed together, into one (old) wooden building opposite the old forestry office. A classroom was established inside the forestry office building. The first course ended in 1963.

The part-time lecturers included Kevin White, Alan Cameron, Eric Hammermaster, Greg McDonald, Phil Ainsworth, Alan Ross, and John Womersley.

The establishment of the Bulolo Forestry College in 1962 was the commencement of formal technical training for Papua New Guineans.

Joe Havel the inaugural Principal described Forest Education in PNG. Four courses were offered at Bulolo Forestry College. They included Forestry Diploma (3-year course); Higher Certificate in Forestry (2-year course); Lower Certificate in Forestry (6 months course) and a Diploma of Cartography (3-year course).

Initially, it began with two-year certificate course and the three-year diploma course was added in 1967 (the first graduates started their field work in 1970).

1962 The establishment of a ‘Eucalypt Clearing House’ service in 1962 by the Forestry and Timber Bureau in Australia to provide information and well-documented seeds for research and commercial plantations.

1963 Malaysia Bigger trials of Pinus spp. were conducted in Selangor 1960’s-1973 Uganda Africa starts plantations funded by Norway (NORAD) 1960s/1970’s 1960s/70s Kauri pine plantations hit by coccid scale and clear-felling and replant 75

CALM

FAO CALM TPNG

Johnann et al TPNG Havel Eddowes

CSIRO

FAO Jacovelli Qld Forestry

1964-1983

Lapegu plantation Eastern Highlands

1964

The Division of ACT Forests remained as the ACT Forestry Section within the Department of the Interior when the Forestry and Timber Bureau was transferred out of the department.

Mark Edgerley took up the position of Supervising Forestry Officer when Bill Bateman returned to his position as Assistant Forestry Officer.

The Australian National University assumed responsibility for forestry education from the Australian Forestry School, though classes continued to be held at Yarralumla as part of the ANU’s newly established Forestry Department.

Yemen Twenty-seven species of Eucalyptus from Australia were introduced in 1965 through the Agricultural Research Centre at El-Kod. AFS closes. ANU opens Forestry Department

ACT Forests

Opening of Papua New Guinea Forestry College Bulolo by the Minister for Teritories, The Hon. C.E.Barnes MP on the 3rd of August 196546. It was then known as the Papua and New Guinea Forestry School Bulolo.

WA – nearly 18,000 ha of P. radiata and P. pinaster established.

Argentina increase Eucalyptus spp. plantations

TPNG

FRA 2000

1967

Lao PDR, some small plantations had been established in Mekong Valley of Teak (Tectona grandis), Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Pterocarpus pedatu, Hopea spp.

Eucalyptus spp. and other fast-growing species were introduced.

Under the UNDP assistance, pilot plantations of quick growing industrial tree species were initiated, mainly for production of pulp. Plantations of pine were expanded in Selangor, Johore, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Kedah; Shorea and Dryobalanops spp. were planted under the Taungya system in Negeri Sembilan. Jelutong (Dyera costulata) plantations were expanded in Sungei Buloh FAO World Symposium on Man-Made Forests and their Industrial Importance in Canberra Zambia start plantations funded by WB/CDC

1967

IUFRO World Congress Germany

Johnann et al

1968

First PNG Silvicultrual Research Conference Bulolo

TPNG

1968

1968 ACT Forestry Section became the ACT Forests ACT Forests Branch within the Department of the Interior. The Forestry Department of ANU opened in a new purpose-built building on campus

1965

1965

1965

1965 1965

1965 1960’s 1960’s

1966

1967

46

Transcript Speech Part C Appendix One

76

ACT Forests

ACT Forests

FAO/Jacobs

Roche/Dargavel

CALM FRA 2000

FAO

FAO FAO

1968-1985

Wahgi Valley Plantations Western Highland

1968

Myanmar. - Eucalyptus spp. introduced for plantations

1970

Gogol Valley Plantations Baku forest station

TPNG

1970

NZ- University of Canterbury opens Forestry Department.

Roche/Dargavel

1970

Implementation of solutions to reverse second rotation productivity decline.

Kagamuga Forest Station Southern Highlands Province.

SA Woods and Forests TPNG

1971 1971

1971 1972

TPNG

Malaysia - Mixed plantations of Pinus and Araucaria were FAO tested on poor soils in Bahau; Enrichment planting using indigenous species became an important forestry practice IUFRO World Congress USA Johnann et al ACT Forests

1973

Integrated Forest Products [IFP] mill opened in Hume. In 1973, Terry Connolly took up the position of manager of the IFP mill at Hume The ACT Forests Branch transferred into the new Department of the Capital Territory Kuriva Plantation Central Province

1974

WA experimental planting blue gum

CALM

1970’s

Open Bay Plantations East New Britain

TPNG

1970’s

Venezuela plantation expansion

FAO

1975

ACT Forests

1976

The CSIRO took over the former Australia Forestry School site in Yarralumla and incorporated it into its new Division of Forest Research.

Stennin Bay Plantations West New Britain

1976

Vietnam increased planting Eucalyptus spp. plantations

FAO

1976

IUFRO World Congress Norway

Johnann et al

1976 -1983

Kainantu Plantations Eastern Highlands

PNG

1977-1990

Lalibu Basin plantations Southern Highlands

PNG

Mid 1970’s

FRA 2000

1970’s

China establishment fast grown plantations. Conifers dominate the area of industrial plantations, of which Cunninghamii lanceolata, Pinus massoniana, P. tabulaeformis, P. elliottii and Larix spp. are the main species, constituting about 57 percent of the total area.

Among the broadleaved species, Populus spp. is the main species and occupies about 4 percent of the industrial plantations. Eucalyptus spp. Paulownia elongeta, P. fortunei, Casuarina spp. and Acacia auriculiformis are other popular broadleaved species in plantations Ulamona Plantations West New Britain Province

1970’s

Ethiopia start planations funded by Church of Sweden

FAO

1978

Burundi Africa start planations funded by Belgium/France

Jacovelli

1973

77

ACT Forests TPNG

PNG

FIA PNG

1978

Jacovelli

1979

Pointe Noire Congo (DRC) Africa start Eucalypt planations funded by Shell Cote d’Ivoire start plantations funded by WB & CDC

1979

Nigeria Africa funded by WB

Jacovelli

1980

CALM

1980’s

Bunnings Tree Farms started their own program in 1980 by planting 28 hectares of E. globulus. By 1995 the plantation estate owned or controlled by this company was well over 19,000 hectares Ulabo Sagari Milne Bay Province

1981

IUFRO World Congress Japan

Johnann et al

1980’s

Qld Forestry

1985-1990

1980s Concentration on native forests and cypress pine forests - selective logging (harvesting of mature trees, thinning, retention of selected seed trees etc), trees marked for removal. Unrestricted logging of native hoop pine stands because of the difficulty of regeneration procedures.

Malaysia plantation project (funded by ADB loan) fast growing tropical hardwoods as Acacia mangium, Gmelina arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria.

WA – formation of Dept. of Conservation and Land Managmenet (CALM) amalamating Forest Dept, National Parks and parts of Fisheries/.

Madang North Coast Madang Provinve

1986

IUFRO World Congress Yugoslavia

Johnann et al

1986-1990

Kaut New Ireland Province

PNG

1988-1992

Fayantina plantations Eastern Highlands

PNG

1981

ACT Forests

1989

Mark Edgerley retired. Tony Fearnside then became Director (Forests).

Tony Fearnside retired

1990

IUFRO World Congress Canada

Johnann et al

1991

Graham McKenzie-Smith is appointed Chief Executive Officer of ACT Forests Malaysia - Planting of teak began earnestly event in wetter sites; Sentang (Azadirachta excelsa) is also given importance as a plantation species.

WA – significant investment into hardwood (Euc) plantations.

In some cases projects have included a very large number of species .e.g. the Community Rainforest Reforestation Project (CRRP) was a Government-landowner projects operating in the wet tropics areas of north Queensland which commenced in 1992/9364 and included over 100 species: the main species based on numbers planted were Red mahogany, Hoop pine, E cloeziana (Gympie messmate) and Flindersia brayleyana (Queensland maple)

ACT Forests

1981-1983

1985

1992

1992 1992/93

78

Jacovelli

PNG

Malayan Forest Record # 38 CALM

PNG

ACT Forests

FAO

CALM Jenkin

2012

and by number of blocks planted, Queensland maple, Elaeocarpus angustifolius (Quandong), Agathis robusta (Kauri pine) and Red mahogany.

The Forestry Act 2012 was enacted, and Forestry Corporation of NSW was established 1 January to manage NSW State forests.

79

NSW Forest Commission

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105

ACRONYMS AAD ACT ACIAR ACLMP ACP ADB AEC AFAP

Australian Antarctic Division Australian Capital Territory Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research AusAid funded World Bank Land Mobilisation program.

African, Caribbean and Pacific States Asian Development Bank Administrators Executive Committee Australian Foundation for the Peoples of Asia & the Pacific Ltd. ADB African Development Bank AFLEGT African Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade AFPNG Association of Foresters of PNG AFS Australian Forestry School AFTA Asean Free Trade Area AIF Australian Infantry Forces AMF Australian Military Forces ANBG Australian National Botanical Gardens ANGAU Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ANU Australian National University APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APMF Australian Paper Manufacturers Forestry Pty Ltd APPM Australia Paper and Pulp Manufacturers ARD Afforestation, Reforestation and avoided Deforestation ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations ASIO Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ASOPA Australian School of Pacific Administration ATIBT Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux ATL Accelerated Tariff Liberalization ATO African Timber Organization AusAID Australian Aid Agency BA basal area BCOF British Commonwealth Occupational Force 1945-52 BDV Brussels Definition of Value “Beer Time” Any time.

BFC Bulolo Forestry College BGD Bulolo Gold Dredging Company BNGD British New Guinea Development (Company Limited) BUC Bulolo University College C Commonwealth cm centimetre CALM Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDM Clean Development Mechanism CEFACT United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business CEPT Common Effective Preferential Tariff 106

CERFLOR CFA CFE CGTM CIF CIFOR CITES C&I CNGT CO2 COC Coillte COP CPF CRE CRE

CSIRO CHAH C&I C&L CSD CTE DASF DBH/ dbh DEPT DESA DIES DIY DPI DOF DSB EC ECE ECOSOC EEA EFI EIA EMAS EMS ENB e.g.

ENGO Etc EU

Certificate of Origin of Forest Raw Material, Brazil Commonwealth Forestry Association Community forestry enterprise Cintra for Global Trade Model cost, insurance, freight Centre for International Forestry Research Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Criteria and indicators Commonwealth New Guinea Timbers Bulolo carbon dioxide chain of custody (Irish pronunciation: [ˈkəilʲtʲə], meaning "forests"/"woods") is a commercial forestry business in Ireland, owned by the state, Conference of Parties Collaborative Partnership on Forests Commander Royal Engineers CRE is a term inherited by RAE from RE and is the term for the Commanding Officer of a RAE unit which is headed by a Lt Col. Although the officer is called the CRE the name is also used for the name of his unit.

E.g., CRE Aust Forestry Group or 1(NG Forests).

Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Criteria and Indicators Certification and Labelling Commission on Sustainable Development (United Nations) Committee on Trade and Environment Dept of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Diameter at breast height Department United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Department of Information and Extension Services Do-it-yourself Department of Primary Industry Department of Forests Dispute Settlement Body European Commission ECA Export credit agency Economic Commission for Europe Economic and Social Council of the United Nations European Economic Area European Forest Institute Environmental Investigation Agency Eco-Management and Audit Scheme of European Union Environmental Management System East New Britain Province.

For example Environmental Non-governmental Organisation et cetera (more of the same) European Union 107

EVSL FAO F &TB FIM FMA FPRC FRA FRG FRI Forkol FSP/PNG FCCC FD FDI FIELD

Early Voluntary Liberalisation Food and Agriculture Organisation Forest and Timber Bureau Canberra Forest Information System Forest Management Agreement Forest Products Research Centre Hohola Forest Resource Assessment Forest Red Gum Forest Research Institute Lae Bulolo Forestry College Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific See UNFCCC Forest department Foreign direct investment The Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Forest Law Enforcement and Governance National Forest logging concessions, Brazil free on board Forest Stewardship Council Free Trade Area of the Americas Girth above buttress Girth breast height over bark Girth under bark above buttress Geographic Information Systems Group of Eight (leading economies) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Global Forest and Trade Network Global Forest Products Model greenhouse gas Geographical information system genetically modified organism Gross National Product Plurilateral Government Procurement Agreement Generalized System of Preferences Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit hectare International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Energy Agency Institute of Foresters of Australia International Year of the Forest Inter-American Development Bank Amazon Environmental Institute, Brazil International Commodity Agreement International Conference on C&I for Sustainable Forest

FLEGT FLEG FLONAS FOB FSC FTAA GAB Gbhob Gubab GIS G8 GATT GDP GEF GFTN GFPM GHG GIS GMO GNP GPA GSP GTZ ha IBRD IEA IFA IFY IADB IBAMA ICA ICCI Management IDB Inter-American Development Bank 108

IEA IEC IFC IFF IHPA IIED IMF INGO IPC IPCC IPF ISO ITC ITTA ITTC ITTO IUCN IWPA JICA L of N LRRS LCA LEEC LEI LULUCF m3 MCCAF MHA MIA MM MUS MEA MFN MIGA MOU MTTC n.a.

NAA NARI NB NAFTA NGO NHLA NRRP NT NTB NTCC NTFP NTM NWFP

International Environmental Agreement International Electrical Commission International Finance Corporation Intergovernmental Forum on Forests International Hardwood Products Association International Institute for Environment and Development International Monetary Fund International Non-Governmental Organisations Integrated Programme for Commodities Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel on Forests International Organization for Standardisation International Trade Centre International Tropical Timber Agreement International Tropical Timber Council International Tropical Timber Organization The World Conservation Union International Wood Products Association Japanese International Cooperation Agency League of Nations Land Resource Soils Survey (branch of CSIRO) Life Cycle Analysis London Economic and Environmental Centre Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests cubic metre McCarthy & Associates (Forestry) Pty. Ltd. Member of House of Assembly PNG mean annual increment in cubic metres/hectare/year Military Medal Malayan Uniform System Multilateral Environmental Agreement Most Favoured Nation Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Memorandum of Understanding Malaysian Timber Certification Council not available National Archives Australia National Agriculture Research Institute New Britain North American Free Trade Agreement Non-Governmental Organisation National Hardwood Lumber Association Natural Resources and Rights Program National Treatment non-tariff barrier National Timber Certification Council non-timber forest product non-tariff measures non-wood forest product 109

NDS NFCAP NGM no.

NG NGF NGIB NGI NGO NGVR NZ NSW NTSC OECD OTO OIC OISCA OTML P or p PEFC PIB PIR PNG PNGAA PNGAF PNGFA PNGFIA PNGRIS PNGUT POM P&C PEFC PGA PPM PPP QLD QF RAE RPC RRA RIIA RIL RFE RTA RWE SAP SPS

Northern District Sawmills PNG National Forestry and Conservation Action Plan New Guinea Mainland number New Guinea New Guinea Forces (relates to plant collection of Lae Herbarium) New Guinea Infantry Battalion New Guinea Islands Non-Government Organisation New Guinea Volunteer Rifles New Zealand New South Wales National Tree Seed Centre PNG Bulolo Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Office of Trade and Investment Ombudsman Officer in Charge Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement International Japan.

Ok Tedi Mining Ltd page Pan European Forest Certification Scheme Papuan Infantry Battalion Pacific Islands Regiment Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Australia Association Papua New Guinea Australian Foresters Magazine Series Papua New Guinea Forest Authority PNG Forest Industries Association Papua New Guinea Resource Information System PNG University of Technology Port Moresby Principles and Criteria Pan-European Forest Certification Framework Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement production and processing method Polluter Pays Principle (other meaning Purchasing Power Parity) Queensland Queensland Forestry Royal Australian Engineers/Australian Army Royal Papuan Constabulary Rapid Resource Appraisal Royal Institute of International Affairs reduced impact logging Russia Far East Regional Trade Agreement roundwood equivalent structural adjustment programme Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 110

SFM SGS SMS SP SPWP sq m TAG TSS TBT TFF TFRK TNC TRAINS TREM TRIM TRIP UK UN Unasylva UNCCD UNCED UNCSD UNCTAD UNESCO UNDP UNECE UNEP UNFCCC UNFF USTR UNE UNEP UNI UNITECH UNRE UPNG UQ US USA USD TPNG TUBL TA TA TRP Vol VSF WA WB WCMC

Sustainable Forest Management Société General de Surveillance Selective Management System Malaysia South Pacific Secondary Processed Wood Products square metres Trade Advisory Group of ITTO Tropical Shelterwood System Technical Barriers to Trade Tropical Forest Foundation traditional forest-related knowledge Transnational corporation Trade-Basic Indicators of UNCTAD trade-related environmental measures Trade Related Investment Measures Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights United Kingdom United Nations Journal of FAO of UN United Nations Programme to Combat Desertification United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Committee on Sustainable Development United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Economic and Social Council United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Programme Framework Convention on Climate Change of United Nations United Nations Forum on Forests US, Office of the US Trade Representative University of New England Armidale NSW United Nations Environment Program University University of Technology Lae PNG University of Natural Resources and Environment University of Papua New Guinea University of Queensland United States United States of America United States dollar Territory of Papua and New Guinea Territory United Brewery Ltd Timber Area Timber Authority Timber Rights Purchase volume Victorian School of Forestry Western Australia World Bank World Conservation Monitoring Centre 111

WCO WSSD WTO WWF Yr.

World Customs Organisation World Summit for Sustainable Development World Trade Organization World Wide Fund for Nature year

112

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