PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4B1 of 31 May 2022. Why Certain Planation Species in PNG?

AUSTRALIAN FORESTERS in PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1922-1975

PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4B1 of 31 May 2022 DEVELOPMENT OF PNG’s FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS. A history of plantation development globally, especially in tropical rainforest areas as pertinent to PNG’s forest tree plantation development.

PNGAF MAG 9D4B1. Why Certain Plantation Species in PNG? Editor R B McCarthy1 2021. (Photo credits Dick McCarthy) Klinkii Pine Plantations Bulolo.

E. deglupta plantations Kerevat.

Teak Kerevat

Hoop Wau

Balsa ENB Pinus Bulolo

Erima WNB

Acacia mangium Lae. Casuarina POM.

Rubber Sogeri Coconut Abau.

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Dick McCarthy District Forester TPNG 1963-1975.

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Oil Palm WNB.

TABLE OF CONTENTS “FORWOOD” Overview Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii Pine) Araucaria cunninghamii (PNG Hoop Pine) Tectona grandis (Teak) Natural Eucalypts spp. in PNG Minor Eucalypt species planted, E. robusta; E. grandis, E. saligna.

Ochroma lagopus (Balsa tree) Tropical Pinus spp.

Erima Octomeles sumatrana Acacia mangium Casuarina spp.

Anthocephalus cadamba (Labula) Terminalia brassii (Brown terminalia) Calophyllum Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber) Cocos nucifera (Coconut) Elaeis guineensis (Oil palm) The Challenge Ahead ACRONYMS

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page 3 page 4 page 7 page 16 page 22 page 24 page 28 page 29 page 31 page 35 page 36 page 37 page 38 page 39 page 40 page 41 page 43 page 46 page 48 page 49

“FORWOOD” Why are certain species in plantation format in TPNG? Successful species in forest tree and other plantations in TPNG for fibre production, demonstrated characteritics of: • Light demanding.

• Easy to grow within plantation format especially for in line crown competition.

• Fast growing, naturally straight, self pruning.

• Browsing animals absent.

• Little or no demand for thinnings.

• Desirable wood fibre and/or other economic properties.

Klinkii Pine Plantations Bulolo.

E. deglupta plantations Kerevat.

Teak Kerevat

Hoop Wau

Balsa ENB Pinus Bulolo

Erima WNB

Acacia mangium Lae. Casuarina POM.

Rubber Sogeri Coconut Abau.

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Oil Palm WNB.

Overview Following the decision in 1937 to appoint a Chief Forester to TPNG, development of the PNG forest tree plantation estate began after Jim McAdam2 commenced duties in 1938 as TPNG’s Chief Forester.

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The TPNG Department of Forests plantation policy was to develop forest plantations of indigenous and exotic species in selected areas from the late 1930’s, interrupted due to WW2 1939-1945, following the concept that permanent centres of population and existing industry, required a perpetual supply of raw materials. This policy recognized that plantation forests were seen as complementary to natural forests, never able to replace all the values associated with the natural forests, but where appropriately developed, helping to divert some of the pressures away from them.

The Department of Forests through its Division of Silviculture established two sections – Forest Research (a forthcoming PNGAF magazine will address forest plantation research in more detail) and Forest Plantation Management.

In Forest Research, the Department employed research foresters such as Joe Havel, Kevin White, Alan Cameron, John Davidson, David Lamb, John Smith, Bob Thistlethwaite, and Leon Clifford. Entomologists as Barry Gray, Ross Wylie, Brenton Charles Peters. Scientists included Marianne and Egon Horak, and Senior Technical Research Officers as Neville Howcroft.

In Forest Plantation Management, the Department employed foresters as plantation managers such as Dave Dunn, John Godlee, Des Harries, Ian Grundy, Bob Bruce, Ken Hart, Rod Holesgrove, Robin Morwood, Elliot Tuckwell, Alan White, Dick McCarthy, Chris Done and Joe Havel. Senior Technical officers included Alan Frazer, Ted and Norma Collis, Jack Hadden, Cliff Southwell, Robert Cattanach and Frank Vickery.

A constant factor in PNG’s forest tree plantation development program from 1965 through to the current day, has been Neville Howcroft OBE who must be given special recognition for his professionalism and relentless devotion to forest tree plantation development in PNG. Neville Howcroft at presentation of final Balsa Project ITTO meeting Japan with Dick McCarthy PNGFIA & Diki Kari NFS. Photo credit N Howcroft.

Early research into Klinkii Pine silviculture was undertaken by Joe Havel which was completed by 1959 and published in 1965. Similarly, Joe Havel did extensive research into the ecological studies of the PNG Araucaria forests.

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PNGAF Magazine Issue # 3 of 30th Oct 2020 – Jim McAdam first Director TPNG Forests.

FAO UNASYLVA.

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Much of the early pioneering research work by K J White, Alan Cameron, John Davidson, and John Smith is detailed in 1966 in the first silvicultural publication Silvicultural Techniques in Papua New Guinea Plantations. 1966. Division of Silviculture Bulletin No 1. This publication detailed the development of silvicultural techniques to grow PNG species in plantation format both for industrial plantations as well as individual landowners through extensive extension programs.

Silviculture of Pinus in PNG Bulletin # 5

by JEN Smith in 1970 describes silvicultural techniques to grow Pinus species in PNG.

In following international convention, the term “Forest Plantation” as defined in Forest Resources Assessment 1980 has been progressively refined.

The definition used in the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 and State of the World’s Forests 2003 was: “Forest stands established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. They are either of introduced species (all planted stands), or intensively managed stands of indigenous species, which meet all the following criteria: one or two species at planting, even age class, regular spacing. New plantation forests are defined as afforestation for artificial establishment of forest on lands which previously did not carry forest within living memory or the past 10 years; and reforestation for artificial establishment of forest on lands which carried forest before.”

By 2022, the Why Forest Plantations4 was addressed in the following scenario.

Globally, population pressures, industrial, agricultural, and mining activities have created an ongoing scarcity and need of wood fibre by regions for fuel and shelter for Man and industry. Natural forested lands have been unable to satisfy these needs. To address these scarcities and needs globally, foresters developed forest tree plantations within a sphere of limited land availability utilising agrarian practices. Those plantations sequester carbon in both trees and soil and help restore biodiversity to previously cleared agricultural lands.

From 1937 with a global annual roundwood cut of 1,500 million cubic metres, to an annual cut in 20005 of 3443 million cubic metres, although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations (of some 187 million hectares) were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood annual harvest. The most common 4 5

FORWOOD page 3 PNGAF Magazine issue # 9D4A of 22 Feb 2022.

FAO FRA 2000 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000.

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genera of global forest plantations are Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp. A few species of these two genera constitute about one third of the world’s plantation area.

Since 6FRA 1990, advances in wood utilization technology have resulted in increasing importance of new sources of fibre – rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) – especially in the Southeast Asian subregion. These species account for 9.7, 12.0 and 6.0 million hectares of plantations, respectively. All grow in the humid tropics. 7FRA 2000 included these agricultural wood fibre crops.

This magazine addresses not only existing forest plantation wood fibre resources but new sources of fibre which exist in PNG including rubber, coconuts, and oil palm.

Between 1937 (McAdam8 commenced duties in 1938 as TPNG’s Chief Forester) and by 2000, PNG had established some 62,000 hectares9 of forest plantations. The major species planted include Araucaria cunninghamii (Hoop pine), Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii pine), Tectona grandis (Teak), Eucalyptus deglupta (Kamarere), Pinus sp as P caribaea; P merkusii; P patula, Ochroma lagopus (Balsa) and Acacia mangium. Minor species planted include, Eucalyptus robusta; Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna, Anthocephalus cadamba (Labula), Terminalia species as T. brassii, Calophyllum sp and Octomeles sumatrana (Erima).

By 2000, of new sources of fibre, PNG had established 25,027 hectares of rubber plantations, 265,000 hectares of coconut plantations and 128,076 hectares of oil palm plantations.

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FAO FRA 1990 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 1990.

FAO FRA 2000 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000.

8 PNGAF Magazine Issue # 3 of 30th Oct 2020 – Jim McAdam first Director TPNG Forests.

9 PNGAF Magazine Issue # 9D4F PNG Plantation Statistics of 10th March 2022.

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Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii Pine) is a species of Araucaria native to the mountains of PNG. Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii ) mature leaf detail.Source Wikipedia.

Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii) mature trunk detail. .Source Wikipedia.

Grey Klinkii cone and male flowers. Source N. Howcroft.

Superb stem of Araucaria hunsteinii green klinkii pine Bulolo. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Sawing klinkii log.

CNGT Bulolo 1970.

Source New Horizons.

Klinkii is a very large evergreen tree (the tallest in New Guinea, and the tallest species in its family), growing to 50–80 metres (164–262 ft) tall, exceptionally to 90 metres (295 ft), with a trunk up to 3 metres (10 ft) diameter. The branches are horizontal, produced in whorls of five or six. The leaves are spirally arranged, scale-like or awl-like, 6–12 centimetres (2–5 in) long and 1.5–2 centimetres (5⁄8– 3 ⁄4 in) broad at the base, with a sharp tip; leaves on young trees are shorter (under 9 centimetres (4 in)) and narrower (under 1.5 centimetres (5⁄8 in)). It is usually monoecious with male and female cones on the same tree; the pollen cones are long and slender, up to 20 centimetres (8 in) long and 1 centimetre (3⁄8 in) broad; the seed cones are oval, up to 25 centimetres (10 in) long and 14–16 centimetres (5+1⁄2–6+1⁄4 in) broad. The seed cones disintegrate at maturity to release the numerous 3–4 centimetres (1–1+1⁄2 in) long nut-like seeds.

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Photographs from Neville Howcroft’s 2002 Paper presented at the Araucariaceae Symposium Auckland New Zealand March 2002 titled “Genetic Variation, Conservation and Silviculture of Klinkii Pine Araucaria hunsteinii in Papua New Guinea.

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Note tree climber

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Standing out tubed Klinkii Pine seedlings. Source. DOF 1968 Bulletin # 3. Notes of Wau-Bulolo Forest Activities.

High shade Bulolo nursey tubed Klinkii Pine seedlings.

Source DOF 1971 Bulletin # 3.

Notes of WauBulolo Forest Activities and New Horizons 1971.

Forest Station Offices /storerooms and nursery stand out beds. Photo credit Barry Gray.

Klinkii nursery stand out beds Bulolo.

Source PNGAA.

Klinkii Pine Plantation age 15 years. Source. DOF 1968 Bulletin # 3. Notes of Wau-Bulolo Forest Activities.

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All flowering and seed production size Geshes seed orchard. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Grey klinkii Cone and male flowers. Male flowers or catkins with ear ripe cone and blue grey leaves stock and hat for scale. Catkins can be longer. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

First cone and seed crops of Garaina klinkii grafts? Ron Woessner from Jari Amazon R Brazil with first collection. Most of this collection went to Jari but some made it to Porto Rico. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Special seed collections from remote areas.

Collecting klinkii cones and seed from Jimi Valley. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Cleaning and processing seed at Bulolo. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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Bulolo – Underplanting of P. patula as nurse crop with Garaina sourced klinkii pine in Divide Area. Later destroyed by wild fire. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Little is really known of klinkii pine. Neville Howcroft has shown that there are several different species/varieties.

Garaina klinkii two species left A klinkii left and right A hunsteinii bottom. Photo credit N Howcroft 6/10/21. Here is the rediscovery of the Araucaria klinkii or grey klinkii on right A huntsteinii Left (Gerau and pai) Two species of klinkii pine out of Garaina. NB Holotype of A klinkii comes from the Garaina area Klinkii vs hunsteinii.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft 7/10/21.

Lake Kutubu hoop Kutubu and Pimaga hoop high altitude and heavy rainfall and cloud in this case maybe glaucous very distinct, gracile soft needles. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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Garaina Terejeh bill cone samples. Large cones a green klinkii called Pai smaller cones Grey klinkii called Gerau.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Botanical samples Garaina 1972 of grey klinkii. Collected by N Howcroft and his seed collection from Garaina stands and identified as Araucaria klinkii.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Cone and male flowers of Araucaria hunsteinii var klinkii from Garaina referred often to as Grey Klinkii by Howcroft.

Photo credit Howcroft.

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There are three Garaina clones here in the Bulolo clonal orchard Successful capture of 3 mother trees Garaina Klinkii greys.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

First crop from Garaina klinkii clones recorded.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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Source: State of Queensland Dept of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry 2013

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PNG Hoop Pine Araucaria cunninghamii

McAdam National Park.

Wau-Bulolo local seed source.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Natural Forest Stand Bulolo.

Hoop pine left and Klinkii right background.

Source. DOF 1971 Bulletin # 3. Notes of Wau-Bulolo Forest Activities.

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Natural Hoop /Klinkii stand Bulolo.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Oksapmin hoop good stem form but fire damage.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Oksapmin hoop seed collection Howcroft using climbing irons and makeshift safety belt as no other tree climber. 1975.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Use of high-powered rifle with scope sight to shoot down pine cones but usually it’s used for collecting Kamarere seed and other eucalyptus.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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When all else fails try sling shot.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Hoop Fri/ FAO research Bumbu Hoop cone collection. Bumbu stand top of kunai Ridge.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Potting hoop pine seedlings Bulolo into tin tubes.

Photo credit Chris Borough 1963.

Bulolo Hoop Pine Plantation age 17 years.

Source. DOF 1971 Bulletin # 3. Notes of Wau-Bulolo Forest Activities.

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A climber collecting scion material from the very top of a tall hoop pine (necessary to avoid plagiotropic growth of the subsequent graft.)

Photo Credit John Davidson 1975.

Hoop Pine Plantation Wau. Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

Geshes Hoop pine clonal orchard section at age 40 years.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Hoop Bulolo provenances Bulolo plantation seed will not necessarily give you seed that is pure Bulolo Provenance origin as such it’s integrity could be lost.

This early Rifle Ra planting may be ex Woitape!! Seed trees marked here stem form and growth good. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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TEAK Tectona grandis

Tectona grandis (teak)flowers, foliage, and fruits. Source Wikipedia.

Teak (Tectona grandis) is a tropical hardwood tree species in the family Lamiaceae. It is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests. Tectona grandis has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense clusters (panicles) at the end of the branches. These flowers contain both types of reproductive organs (perfect flowers). The large, papery leaves of teak trees are often hairy the lower surface. Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled and is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance. The wood is used for boat building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings, and other small wood projects.

Tectona grandis is native to Southeast Asia as Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. It is cultivated in many countries.

Teak's natural oils make it useful in exposed locations and make the timber termite- and pestresistant. Teak is durable even when not treated with oil or varnish. Teak's high oil content, high tensile strength and tight grain make it particularly suitable where weather resistance is desired. It is used in the manufacture of outdoor furniture and boat decks.

Teak is propagated mainly from seeds. Clonal propagation of teak has been successfully done through grafting, rooted stem cuttings and micro propagation.

Source: Lata A (2016) Teak Plantations & Woodlots in PNG Teak Conference, LAO PDR 14-18th Nov 2016 PNG Forest Research Institute Anton Lata PNG Forest Authority Teak Domestication Manager alata@fri.pngfa.gov.pg Presentation.

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Source: Lata A (2016) Teak Plantations & Woodlots in PNG Teak Conference, LAO PDR 1418th Nov 2016 PNG Forest Research Institute Anton Lata PNG Forest Authority Teak Domestication Manager alata@fri.pngfa.gov.pg Presentation.

A sample taken from one of the boards produced from 1907 Teak Kokopo.

Photo Credit Des Harries 1971.

During 1957 a fifty-year-old tree was cut from the Kokopo plantation and sawn into planks at the Kerevat mill. The former German Administration had established trials at Kokopo prior to 1914.

At the Brown River, by 1971, the planting program had steadied at about 200 ha per year. But at Kerevat, the onset of local land ownership claims curtailed further planting.

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Initially seed for the Kerevat plantation was collected from old German plantings near Kokopo and on New Ireland. In 1957 this was being organised by Regional Forest Officer, Alex Richardson and Regional staff officer, Ms. Lorraine Taylor. Some years later a seed orchard was established at Kerevat in an area isolated from the main plantations.

Young teak stand. Source DOF.

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Personal communication Des Harries 2000

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Natural Eucalypts spp. in PNG Eucalyptus is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs, or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae including Corymbia, they are commonly known as eucalypts. Plants in the genus Eucalyptus have bark that is either smooth, fibrous, hard, or stringy, leaves with oil glands, and sepals and petals that are fused to form a "cap" or operculum over the stamens.

The fruit is a woody capsule commonly referred to as a "gumnut".

Most species of Eucalyptus are native to Australia, and every state and territory has representative species. About three-quarters of Australian forests are eucalypt forests. Wildfire is a feature of the Australian landscape, and many eucalypt species are adapted to fire, and resprout after fire or have seeds which survive fire.

A few species are native to islands north of Australia and a smaller number are only found outside the continent. Eucalypts have been grown in plantations in many other countries because they are fast growing and have valuable timber, or can be used for pulpwood, for honey production or essential oils.

Srivastava12 described the natural distribution of Eucalyptus spp in PNG sourced from Carr 1972 & N Howcroft 1991.

Species Distribution 1. E. deglupta Blume (incertae sedis) New Guinea, Papua, West Irian, New Britain, Ceram, Celebes, Mindanao. May have been present in New Ireland 2. E. alba Reinw. ex Blume (series Timor, Flores, Alor, Wetar, east Papua, Horn Island, Subexsertae) also northern Australia 3. E. tereticornis Sam. (series East and west Papua, West Irian. Also, eastern Exertae) Australia, south to Victoria 4. E. papuana F. Muell East and West Papua. Also, northern, and central Australia 5. E. confertiflora F. Muell. (series East and west Papua and West Irian. Also, northern Clavigerae (Maiden) S.T. Blake) Australia 6. E. polycarpa F. Muell. (series West Papua, Australia Corymbosae (Benth.) Maiden) * 7. E. brassiana SW PNG, also Cape York, Queensland, Australia * 8. E. leptophleba Western Province, PNG (?), Cape York, Australia * 9. E. pellita Western Province, PNG, NSW, Queensland, Australia *10. E. tessellaris Southern coast of PNG (?), Cape York, NSW, Australia

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Proceedings Regional Expert Consultation of Eucalyptus 4-8 Oct 1993 Vol 1 -3, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), P B L Srivastava PNGFRI Lae, presented the PNG country statement re Eucalypt in Papua New Guinea.

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The best-known species is E. deglupta or ‘Kamarere,’ a typical humid tropic species which does not occur in Australia.

In New Britain, kamarere forests occur as pure stands colonizing sandbanks left by floods on extensive areas as first colonisers. Later there is a mixture of Pometia pinnata, Dracontomelum mangiferum, Homalium sp. Celtis sp. and Pterocarpus indicus during the succession to a natural rainforest.

Photo credit John Davidson.

John Davidson and Lindsay Pryor flew over several stands of E. deglupta on the Toriu, Asrogi and Sai Rivers on their way from Rabaul to Cape Hoskins in a chartered aircraft in 1968.

Photo credit John Davidson.

John Davidson helicopter reconnaissance 1968. E. deglupta has lighter green coloured canopies (arrows) from the surrounding rainforest vegetation.

Photo credit John Davidson.

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Pure stands also occur on almost unweathered pumice slopes of active volcanos as Mt. Ulawan and the inside and outside slopes of recently active or still semi-active volcanoes.

Photo credit John Davidson.

Photo 1 Sacred Heart Mission labourers hauling a record Eucalyptus deglupta log on the Toriu River logging railway around 1910 with German missionaries supervising.

Source Michael Pearson13 . Photo 2 View of the Sacred Heart Mission Toriu River Sawmill around 1902-1917. Source Michael Pearson14 In the western parts of PNG, E. confertiflora, E. papuana, E. tereticornis and E. polycarpa have been recorded. Only E. polycarpa has been recorded for Daru Island. Eucalyptus is very poorly represented in the Morehead-Kiunga part of the area.

PNG National Library photo 314 Historishes Bildmaterial our dem Archives des staatlichen Museums fur Volkerkunda Dresden.

14 PNG National Library photo 313. Source: Pioniere der Sudsee - Werden und Wachsen der Herz = Jesu Mission von Rabaul zum Goldenen Jubilaum 1882 - 1932. p117, 118, 132 & 177.

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In the eastern area, which is centred on Port Moresby, the species present are E. papuana, E. confertiflora, E. alba and E. tereticornis. In common with those of the western area, they occur, in the Port Moresby-Kairuku area, as constituents of savanna in communities which are subject to fire. Most of the island receives a high rainfall, but there is drier country in the south eastern section around Port Moresby, where several indigenous eucalypts are found, including E. alba and E. tereticornis.

Port Moresby environs.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2009.

From the Port Moresby-Kairuku area eucalypts extend parallel to the coast in a south easterly direction and cross the dividing range into the Musa Valley.

E. deglupta Plantations E. deglupta plantations Kerevat. Photo credit Ian Whyte 1968.

E. deglupta plantations Kerevat. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2000.

E deglupta plantations Kerevat. Photo credit Chris Borough 1967.

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Minor Eucalypt species planted include, Eucalyptus robusta, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna.

Eucalyptus robusta, commonly known as swamp mahogany or swamp messmate, is a tree native to eastern Australia.

Growing in swampy or waterlogged soils, it is up to 30 m (100 ft) high with thick spongy reddish-brown bark and dark green broad leaves, which help form a dense canopy. The white to cream flowers appear in autumn and winter. The leaves are commonly eaten by insects and are a food item for the koala. It is an important autumnwinter flowering species in eastern Australia and has been planted extensively in many countries around the world. Its timber is used for firewood and in general construction. Source Wikipedia.

Eucalyptus grandis, commonly known as the flooded gum or rose gum,[2] is a tall tree with smooth bark, rough at the base fibrous or flaky, grey to grey-brown. At maturity, it reaches 50 metres (160 feet) tall It is found on coastal areas and sub-coastal ranges from Newcastle in New South Wales northwards to west of Daintree in Queensland, mainly on flat land and lower slopes, where it is the dominant tree of wet forests and on the margins of rainforests. Source Wikipedia.

Eucalyptus saligna, commonly known as the Sydney blue gum or blue gum, is a species of medium-sized to tall tree that is endemic to eastern Australia. It has rough, flaky bark near the base of the trunk, smooth bark above, lance-shaped to curved adult leaves, flower buds in groups of seven, nine or eleven, white flowers and cylindrical to conical or cup-shaped fruit.

Source Wikipedia.

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Balsa tree Ochroma lagopus (synonymous with O. pyramidale) is native to tropical South America. It is a deciduous angiosperm and the softest commercial hardwood. It is now grown in other countries as PNG, Indonesia, Thailand, Solomon Islands. It is a pioneer plant which establishes itself in clearings, etc. It grows extremely rapidly, up to 27 m in 10-15 years. It is noted for its soft, light weight wood from the Spanish balsa meaning float or raft.

Balsa trees 4 years old ENB. Photo credit Neville Howcroft collection.

Commercial balsa is plantation grown in recent years, with trees harvested after five to six years.

Because it is low in density but high in strength, balsa is a very popular material for light, stiff structures as models, aircraft, wind turbines, etc.

Balsa was introduced to PNG in the late 1930s, with further introductions made between 1948 and 1961, mostly to East New Britain Province (ENB). The commercial potential of the crop was investigated in 1952 and 1956 and trial shipments were made to Australia. By the 1960s, a processing mill had been established at Keravat in ENB and a small industry had started to develop on the Gazelle Peninsula. In the 1980s and early 1990s, smallholder participation in the balsa industry on the Gazelle Peninsula was supported by extension activities provided by the National Department of Forestry and the ENB Division of Primary Industry. However, by 1995 extension activities had ceased, which resulted in harvesting rates exceeding replanting rates and a corresponding decline in available balsa. This situation was compounded by the Rabaul volcanic eruption of 1994, which defoliated many trees and caused activity in the industry to cease.

Following the eruption, recognition of the economic potential of balsa, coupled with concerns about the lack of extension services and information about the state of the industry, led provincial and national authorities to request overseas assistance. This resulted in the establishment of the East New Britain Balsa Industry Strengthening Project, under the guidance of Neville Howcroft, funded by the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). The project operated from 1996 to 2003.

Balsa logs old sawmill site Kerevat. Photo credit Dick McCarthy. .

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ITTO Project - The late John Ohana thinning out and measuring billets from seedling seed orchard/ progeny trial of Balsa at Keravat. Photo credit Neville Howcroft collection.

ITTO Project commencement of bush nursery trials at Kerevat. Photo credit Neville Howcroft collection.

Kiln Drying sawn balsa. Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

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Tropical Pinus spp. can thrive where available nitrogen is scarce if mycorrhiza is present and they are resistant to grass fires, but the wood they produce is used for utility purposes and must be produced at low cost to compete as pulp and building timber with imports from natural coniferous forests in temperate and subtropical regions. more cheaply than any hardwood if soil nutrients are deficient. Source FAO. Pinus plantation Bulolo.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2004.

Part of Pinus merkusii hybrid seed production area Bulolo.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

P. merkusii var at.jeh Age 9 years.

Source DOF Notes on Wau Bulolo Activities. Bulletin # 3 of 1971.

15Silviculture

of Pinus in PNG Bulletin # 5 by John Smith 1970 describes silvicultural techniques to grow Pinus species in PNG.

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Smith JEN 1970 Silviculture of Pinus in PNG Silviculture Bulletin No 5.

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Eastern Highlands plantations extension between Lapegu Goroka plantations and Lufa Henganofi towards Kainantu. Species include P. patula and some P. strobus var chaiapensis. Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Species trial. Portion of a block Lapegu Goroka.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Species trial. P. caribaea var hondurensis Rd 35 Bulolo.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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Pinus caribaea clonal orchard Bulolo Clones Australian and some local clones as well National Seed production area.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Progeny & provenance pilot plantings Pinus merkusii and Pinus latterii Rd35 research plantation Bulolo.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Pinus merkusii from Queensland in clonal seed orchard Heads Hump Bulolo. Good form and vigour.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

Philippines Pinus merkusii centre of photo and on right F1 hybrid Pinus merkusii x latterii.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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Pinus merkusii hybrids Rd 31. Bulolo.

Photo credit N Howcroft.

Display BFC /FORCOL tree breeding research Pinus hybrid work, grafting, seed product.

The display illustrates tree breeding stem form improvement with Pinus merkusii hybridizing.

Photo credit Neville Howcroft.

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Erima Octomeles sumatrana Octomeles is a monotypic genus of plant in family Telramelaceae. The sole species is Octomeles sumatrana commonly called Erima in PNG, is found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, PNG, the Philippines, and the Solomon Islands.

The tree is dioecious and large, reaching up to 75 m (250 feet) in height and up to thirteen feet (four meters) in diameter above the buttresses. A pioneer species, it regenerates quickly in disturbed habitats such as logged forest and previously cultivated land. It has been known to grow as much as 82 feet (25 meters) in height and up to 18.5 inches (0.47 meters) diameter at breast height (DBH) in just four years. Like other pioneer species, it is relatively short lived.

The wood is used for several purposes, especially where strength is not important. The wood can only be used under cover for light furniture and joinery, interior finish, mouldings, wide shelves, louvred doors, coffin boards, large dugout canoes, rafts, sledges, jungle drums, concrete shuttering, packing, low-quality crates and boxes, buoys and fish-net floats, matchboxes, back and core veneer, firewood, chipboard, and fibreboard, and for pulp and paper manufacture.

Source Barry Conn (NSW) & Kipiro Damas (LAE). Guide to trees of Papua New Guinea.

PNGTreesKey Conn and Damas.

Erima as plantation species Stennin Bay WNB. Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

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Acacia mangium Acacia mangium is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae, which is native to north eastern Queensland, the Western Province of PNG, and the eastern Maluku Islands. Common names include black wattle, hickory wattle, mangium, and forest mangrove. Its uses include environmental management and wood.

Acacia mangium grows up to 30 metres (98 ft), often with a straight trunk. Like many other legumes, it can fix nitrogen in the soil. A. mangium is a popular species for forest plantations and for agroforestry projects.

Acacia mangium trees produce sapwood and heartwood. The heartwood's colour is brownish yellow shimmery and medium textured. Because the timber is extremely heavy, hard, very strong, tough, and not liable to warp and crack badly it is used for furniture, doors, and window frames. The glossy and smooth surface finish after polishing leads also to a potential for making export-oriented parquet flooring tiles and artifacts. A. mangium has been recognized as an excellent source of short cellulose fibres for papermaking, especially in Indonesia.

Acacia mangium trees increase the turnover rate of nitrogen in the topsoil. Since it is a very fast-growing tree it develops an intensive rooting system, particularly in low fertility soils This helps to recover degraded tropical lands The tree is widely used in Goa, India in the mining industry for rehabilitation of waste dumps as it is a drought-resistant species and binds sterile mine waste consisting of lateritic strata. In Colombia, it has been used for restoring wasteland created by open-pit gold mining.

Left is Acacia mangium woodlot planting Markham Valley and below Acacia mangium Gogol TA Madang JANT plantations.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

Ja

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Casuarina spp.

Photo Ela Beach Port Moresby. Photo credit D McCarthy.

Casuarina equisetifolia, common names Coastal Sheoak or Yar in PNG, is a she-oak species of the genus Casuarina. The native range extends throughout Southeast Asia, Northern Australia, and the Pacific Islands Casuarina is an evergreen tree growing to 6–35 m (20–115 ft) tall. The foliage consists of slender, much-branched green to grey-green twigs 0.5–1 mm (0.020–0.039 in) diameter, bearing minute scale leaves in whorls of 6–8. Unlike most other species of Casuarina (which are dioecious) it is monoecious, with male and female flowers produced on the same tree.

C. equisetifolia is an actinorhizal plant able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Casuarina harbours a symbiosis with a Frankia actinomycete. Casuarina wood is widely used for shingles, fencing, and is said to make excellent hot-burning firewood. Casuarina is also grown for erosion prevention, and in general as a wind breaking elements.

Port Moresby16. The avenue of Casuarina equistifolia planted along the Ela Beach roadway by civic minded H W Champion in 1917.

Photo on right 2001 Ela Beach Roadway.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

Publication PLANIM DIWAI YAR - Grow Casuarina by the Dept. of Forests 1967 where extensive community plantings of Casuarina in the Highlands were undertaken especially for fuel wood and shelter requirements

16

White K J 1966 Trees, Shrubs and Creepers in Port Moresby Silvicultural Bulletin No 2

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Source worldagroforestry.org/treeb 38

Terminalia brassii – Brown terminalia.

The species is found in the Solomon Islands, New Britain, Bougainville, and New Ireland.

The large trees are found in fresh water swamps, e.g., Empress Augusta Bay Bougainville and riverine alluvial plains. It is a large canopy tree (20-50 m high); Bole cylindrical (45-200 cm diam.); straight (sometimes branching from near base); buttresses present (branched near ground); spines absent; aerial roots absent; stilt roots present (in very swampy conditions); bark brown, rough, scaly, or flaky (in large, long scales).

Terminalia brassii Buin.

Photo credit Mark Coode 0407-03.

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Source. Barry Conn (NSW) & Kipiro Damas (LAE). Guide to trees of Papua New Guinea.

Copyright held by the authors, National Herbarium of New South Wales, and Papua New Guinea National Herbarium.

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Calophyllum is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Calophyllaceae. They are mainly distributed in Asia, with some species in Africa, the Americas, Australasia, and the Pacific Islands.

Source. Wikipedia.

Members of the genus Calophyllum native to Malesia and Wallacea are of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and were carried with them in the Austronesian expansion as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. They were comparable in importance to how oaks were in European shipbuilding and timber industries.

The most notable species is the mast wood (Calophyllum inophyllum) which grows readily in the sandy and rocky beaches of the island environments that the Austronesians colonized.

Calophyllum inophyllum is a large evergreen plant, commonly called tamanu, oil-nut, mast wood, beach calophyllum or beauty leaf.

Mast wood is notable for its ability to grow to massive sizes in sandy or rocky beaches of island and coastal habitats, as well as its habit of sending out arching large trunks over the water where its seeds are dispersed via the currents.

Source. Wikipedia.

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RUBBER Hevea brasiliensis, the rubber tree belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is the most economically important member of the genus Hevea because the milky latex extracted from the tree is the primary source of natural rubber. H. brasiliensis is a tall deciduous tree growing to a height of up to 43 m (141 ft) in the wild, but cultivated trees are usually much smaller because drawing off the latex restricts the growth of the tree. The trunk is cylindrical and may have a swollen, bottle-shaped base. The bark is some shade of brown, and the inner bark oozes latex when damaged. The leaves have three leaflets and are spirally arranged. The inflorescence includes separate male and female flowers. The flowers are pungent, creamy-yellow and have no petals. The fruit is a capsule that contains three large seeds; it opens explosively when ripe.

Source. Wikipedia.

Latex being collected from an incised rubber tree and a bucket of collected latex. Source Wikipedia.

In plantations, the trees are generally smaller for two reasons: 1) trees grow more slowly when they are tapped for latex, and 2) trees are generally cut down after only 30 years, because latex production declines as trees age, and they are no longer economically productive. The tree requires a tropical or subtropical climate with a minimum of about 1,200 mm per year of rainfall, and no frost.

The South American rubber tree grew only in the Amazon rainforest and increasing demand and the discovery of the vulcanization procedure in 1839 led to the rubber boom in that region. The initial name of the plant was 'pará rubber tree', derived from the name of the province of Grao Para. In Peru, the tree was called 'árbol del caucho', and the latex extracted from it was called 'caucho'. The tree was used to obtain rubber by the natives who inhabited its geographical distribution. The Olmec people of Mesoamerica extracted and produced similar forms of primitive rubber from analogous latex-producing trees as early as 3,600 years ago. The rubber was used to make the balls in the Mesoamerican ballgame.

Early attempts were made in 1873 to grow H. brasiliensis outside Brazil. After some effort, 12 seedlings were germinated at the Royal Botanic gardens Kew. These were sent to India for cultivation but died. A second attempt was then made, some 70,000 seeds being smuggled to Kew in 1875, by Henry Wickham, in the service of the British Empire. About four percent of these germinated, and in 1876, about 2,000 seedlings were sent to Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) and 22 were sent to the Botanic Gardens in Singapore.

Once established outside its native country, rubber was extensively propagated in the British colonies. Rubber trees were brought to the botanical gardens at Buitenzorg, Java, in 1883. By 1898, a rubber plantation had been established in Malaya, with imported Chinese field workers being the dominant work force in rubber production in the early 20th-century.

The cultivation of the tree in South America (Amazon) ended early in the 20th. Today, most rubber tree plantations are in South and Southeast Asia. The top rubber producing countries in 2011 being Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India, and Vietnam.

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Photo one new plantings Galley Reach Holdings. Photo two old rubberwood plantation Sogeri. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2000.

Commercial rubber was first planted in PNG in 1903. Most production was in the Australian Territory of Papua (now the Southern Region of PNG). In German New Guinea, attempts to build a rubber industry were based on assam rubber (Ficus elastica), which is inferior to para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Consequently, very little rubber was produced in German New Guinea.

In Papua, plantations were first developed at Galley Reach, Sogeri and Cape Rodney in Central Province and in the Kerema area of Gulf Province. They subsequently expanded into the Kokoda area of Oro Province and parts of New Ireland Province. The principal exports from Papua in the 1930s and 1940s were copra and rubber, and rubber contributed almost 30% by value in the 1930s. Prior to World War II smallholder rubber planting was confined to a few villages in Oro Province. The Department of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries (DASF) promoted the development of village rubber production in the 1960s, particularly in Gulf and Western provinces.

Between 1964 and 1970 smallholder rubber planting was also promoted on settlement and resettlement schemes in Central Province; at Gavien near Angoram in East Sepik Province; and at Murua in Gulf Province.

As a result, the number of smallholder and village rubber producers increased from less than 2000 in 1970–71 to around 3300 in 1976–77. These schemes were not associated with plantations.

Galley Reach Holdings. L to R # 1-3 Rubberwood nursery, # 4 sawn rubberwood Galley Reach sawmill ready for timber treatment. 2000 Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

Location of rubber plantations in PNG. Source PNGRIS.

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The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the palm tree family Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus Cocos.[ The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which botanically is a drupe, not a nut. The name comes from the old Portuguese word coco, meaning "head" or "skull", after the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features The coconut tree provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials, among many other uses. The inner flesh of the mature seed, as well as the coconut milk extracted from it, form a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics. Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for oil and plant milk from the flesh, charcoal from the hard shell, and coir from the fibrous husk. Dried coconut flesh is called copra.

Source Wikipedia.

Coconuts were first domesticated by the Austronesian peoples in Island Southeast Asia and were spread during the Neolithic via their seaborne migrations as far east as the Pacific Islands, and as far west as Madagascar and the Comoros. They played a critical role in the long sea voyages of Austronesians by providing a portable source of food and water, as well as providing building materials for Austronesian outrigger boats.

The evolutionary origin of the coconut is under dispute, with theories stating that it may have evolved in Asia, South America, or on Pacific islands.

Trees grow up to 30 m (100 ft) tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though fewer than 30 is more typical. About 75% of the world's supply of coconuts is produced by Indonesia, the Philippines and India combined.

Coconuts PNG. Copra plantations in New Guinea have been cultivated since the late 19th century, originally by German colonialists. They were continued by Australian interests following World War 2.

Copra is the fourth most significant agriculture cash crop of PNG. An estimated 2.6 million people are engaged in coconut activities in PNG to either generate income (copra for soap manufacture and later margarine production) and/or as food to supplement their livelihoods.

In 1884, German settlers arrived in eastern New Guinea who planted coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) to produce copra, the dried flesh of the coconut. They established the colony of German New Guinea. To counter the growing German presence in the region, the Australian state of Queensland established the Territory of Papua as a de facto possession covering approximately the southeast third of the island. Both the Queensland and German plantations thrived, providing opulent living conditions for the expatriates. Grand mansions were built on the plantations, complete with luxury furnishings. Much of the labour was performed by New Guinea natives.

At the start of the First World War in 1914, Australia sent a small military force to take over the German possessions in the South Pacific. Two Germans were killed in the process, while 43

the remaining German plantation owners were initially sent back to work on their plantations. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles saw Germany lose all its overseas possessions, including German New Guinea, which became the Territory of New Guinea , a league of Nations mandate Territory under Australian administration.

The property of German planters was expropriated in the 1920s, and the coconut plantations were offered for sale to returning soldiers, many financed by the large trading companies which would manage the plantations.

By the 1980s, copra production in New Guinea was dominated by two Australian trading companies: Burns Philp and W R Carpenter & Co. In 1985 the PNG government established the Copra Marketing Board, to take over copra production in PNG. The Board saw the virtual decimation of the copra industry in PNG, which was ruined by American soybeans in the late 1980s. Copra exports fell to negligible levels by 2004. According to the PNG Central Bank, the PNG’s copra exports in 2003 were 3,600 tons, levels at which copra exports could be said to be close to extinction. Exports rose to more than 9,100 tons in 2004.

In 1993, Kokonas Industri Koporasen (KIK) built a copra mill in Madang and effectively gained monopoly control over the marketing of PNG copra. In 2003 the government ended KIK’s monopoly powers over marketing. A year later KIK suffered losses that forced the group to call in liquidator, PNG Coconut Commodities, Rex Paki, who in April 2004, sold the Madang mill to Australian-owned Coconut Oil Production Madang Ltd (COPM, owned

by Donald Brownlie Fleming) for K7.8 million (US$2.4 million).

The country’s only other coconut mill is owned by the Carpenter Group located in Rabaul.

Aerial View Robinson River Coconut Plantation.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2005. R obinson River plantation Abau was one of the biggest coconut plantations in Papua comprising some 3,400 acres of plantation producing some 1000 tons of copra annually. There were regular DC3 loads of beef to Port Moresby. There were over 20 miles (31 kms) of railway lines throughout the plantations for transport of coconuts to a central copra drier. During World War 2, the Australian Army removed the railway lines. It was purchased by Burns Philip in 1936. It had been originally developed and managed for the Horn family by BNGD17.

17

McKillop R F & Pearson M 1977.End of the Line. A History of Railways in PNG. ISBN 998084096x UPNG Press.

Lewis DC 1996. The Plantation Dream. ANU Press. ISBN 0959547789

44

Trasporting copra to jetty in 1936.

Source PNG National Archives.

Abandoned Jetty.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2005.

Abandoned plantation buildings. Abandoned airport terminal and overgrown airstrip.

Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2005.

Source PNGRIS.

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Oil Palm.

African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Source Wikipedia.

Elaeis guineensis is a species of palm commonly called oil palm. It is the principal source of palm oil. It is native to west and southwest Africa.

E. guineensis is monocotyledonous. Mature palms are single-stemmed and grow to 20 meters tall. A young palm produces about 30 leaves a year. Established palms over 10 years produce about 20 leaves a year.

The flowers are produced in dense clusters; each individual flower is small, with three sepals and three petals.

Fruit bunch on palm. Source Wikipedia.

The palm fruit takes 5–6 months to develop from pollination to maturity. It is reddish, about the size of a large plum, and grows in large bunches. Each fruit is made up of an oily, fleshy outer layer (the pericarp), with a single seed (the palm kernel), also rich in oil. When ripe, each bunch of fruit weighs between 5 and 30 kg depending on the age of the palm tree. Oil palms can produce much more oil per unit of land area than most other oil-producing plants (about nine times more than soy and 4.5 times more than rapeseed).

The history of palm oil stretches back thousands of years.

3000 BC. The oldest record of its use dating from 3,000 BC when in the late 1800s archaeologists discovered several kegs of palm oil in a tomb located in Abydos, Egypt. It is believed that Arab traders had brought the oil to Egypt.

Middle 15th Century. Written records of palm oil being used as a local food source by European travellers to West Africa. Palm oil from E. guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, used widely as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe.

16th and 17th Century. Red palm oil became an important item in the developing trade network supplying caravans and ships of the Atlantic slave trade.

18th Century. British industrial revolution created palm oil demand for candle-making and as a lubricant for machines. This was supplied by a modest export trade from West Africa.

Early 19th Century. European-run plantations were set up in Central Africa and Southeast Asia.

1884. Oil Palms introduced to Java by the Dutch.

1902. German investment in Cameroon brought about the discovery of the Tenera breed of palm oil. This high-yielding breed is what is used today in large-scale plantations.

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1910. Palm oil was introduced into Malaysia by a Scotsman named William Sime and an Englishman by the name of Henry Darby.

1940-1960. Technological improvements in edible oil refining and transport drive the usage of unhydrogenated palm oil in western foods.

1970-1990. Malaysia emerged as the world’s largest palm oil producer, by 1990 global palm oil production reached close to 11 million metric tonnes. Since 2007, Indonesia has been the world's largest producer, supplying approximately 50% of world palm oil volume.

Brief History Of Oil Palm Development In Papua New Guinea The Germans were the first to plant oil palm in 1894-95 on the Rai Coast of Papua New Guinea (Sack and Clark 1979, quoted in Grieve 1986). The Germans also established additional experimental plantings in the early 1920s near Popondetta in Northern (Oro) Province (Landell Mills 1991).

Commercial plantings were established in 1967 following a World Bank recommendation that oil palm on a nucleus estate-smallholder system be introduced to New Britain or Bougainville to diversify the agricultural economy and increase the export income of Papua New Guinea.

By 2000, oil palm was grown in five areas in PNG. Hoskins and Bialla in West New Britain, Popondetta, Milne Bay and New Ireland. There were over 14,500 smallholder oil palm blocks in 2000, producing approximately 531,264 tonnes of FFB (value K36.5 million) accounting for 33 % of total production with company estates producing the balance. In 2000, oil palm exports accounted for 32 % of the total value of PNG’s agricultural exports and 5 % of total PNG exports.

Hoskins Oil Palm development New Britain 1995. Photo credit Dick McCarthy.

Source: PNGRIS REF:I BRD 1965; Grieve 1986).

Koczberski, G., Curry, G.N. & Gibson, K. (2001). Improving Productivity of the Smallholder Oil Palm Sector in PNG. RSPAS, ANU.

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THE CHALLENGE AHEAD. Future wood fibre plantation potential locations.

Location of Agricultural Plantations in PNG

Location of Timber leases in PNG

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ACRONYMS AAD ACT ACIAR ACLMP ACP ADB AEC AFAP

Australian Antarctic Division Australian Capital Territory Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research AusAid funded World Bank Land Mobilisation program.

African, Caribbean and Pacific States Asian Development Bank Administrators Executive Committee Australian Foundation for the Peoples of Asia & the Pacific Ltd. ADB African Development Bank AFLEGT African Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade AFPNG Association of Foresters of PNG AFS Australian Forestry School AFTA Asean Free Trade Area AIF Australian Infantry Forces AMF Australian Military Forces ANBG Australian National Botanical Gardens ANGAU Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ANU Australian National University APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APMF Australian Paper Manufacturers Forestry Pty Ltd APPM Australia Paper and Pulp Manufacturers ARD Afforestation, Reforestation and avoided Deforestation ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations ASIO Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ASOPA Australian School of Pacific Administration ATIBT Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux ATL Accelerated Tariff Liberalization ATO African Timber Organization AusAID Australian Aid Agency BA basal area BCOF British Commonwealth Occupational Force 1945-52 BDV Brussels Definition of Value “Beer Time” Any time.

BFC Bulolo Forestry College BGD Bulolo Gold Dredging Company BNGD British New Guinea Development (Company Limited) BUC Bulolo University College C Commonwealth cm centimetre CALM Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDM Clean Development Mechanism CEFACT United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business CEPT Common Effective Preferential Tariff CERFLOR Certificate of Origin of Forest Raw Material, Brazil 49

CFA CFE CGTM CIF CIFOR CITES C&I CNGT CO2 COC Coillte COP CPF CRE CRE

CSIRO CHAH C&I C&L CSD CTE DASF DBH/ dbh DEPT DESA DIES DIY DPI DOF DSB EC ECE ECOSOC EEA EFI EIA EMAS EMS ENB e.g.

ENGO Etc EU EVSL

Commonwealth Forestry Association Community forestry enterprise Cintra for Global Trade Model cost, insurance, freight Centre for International Forestry Research Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Criteria and indicators Commonwealth New Guinea Timbers Bulolo carbon dioxide chain of custody (Irish pronunciation: [ˈkəilʲtʲə], meaning "forests"/"woods") is a commercial forestry business in Ireland, owned by the state, Conference of Parties Collaborative Partnership on Forests Commander Royal Engineers CRE is a term inherited by RAE from RE and is the term for the Commanding Officer of a RAE unit which is headed by a Lt Col. Although the officer is called the CRE the name is also used for the name of his unit.

E.g., CRE Aust Forestry Group or 1(NG Forests).

Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Criteria and Indicators Certification and Labelling Commission on Sustainable Development (United Nations) Committee on Trade and Environment Dept of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Diameter at breast height Department United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Department of Information and Extension Services Do-it-yourself Department of Primary Industry Department of Forests Dispute Settlement Body European Commission ECA Export credit agency Economic Commission for Europe Economic and Social Council of the United Nations European Economic Area European Forest Institute Environmental Investigation Agency Eco-Management and Audit Scheme of European Union Environmental Management System East New Britain Province.

For example Environmental Non-governmental Organisation et cetera (more of the same) European Union Early Voluntary Liberalisation 50

FAO F &TB FIM FMA FPRC FRA FRG FRI Forkol FSP/PNG FCCC FD FDI FIELD FLEGT FLEG FLONAS FOB FSC FTAA GAB Gbhob Gubab GIS G8 GATT GDP GEF GFTN GFPM GHG GIS GMO GNP GPA GSP GTZ ha IBRD IEA IFA IFY IADB IBAMA ICA ICCI IDB IEA

Food and Agriculture Organisation Forest and Timber Bureau Canberra Forest Information System Forest Management Agreement Forest Products Research Centre Hohola Forest Resource Assessment Forest Red Gum Forest Research Institute Lae Bulolo Forestry College Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific See UNFCCC Forest department Foreign direct investment The Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Forest Law Enforcement and Governance National Forest logging concessions, Brazil free on board Forest Stewardship Council Free Trade Area of the Americas Girth above buttress Girth breast height over bark Girth under bark above buttress Geographic Information Systems Group of Eight (leading economies) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Global Forest and Trade Network Global Forest Products Model greenhouse gas Geographical information system genetically modified organism Gross National Product Plurilateral Government Procurement Agreement Generalized System of Preferences Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit hectare International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Energy Agency Institute of Foresters of Australia International Year of the Forest Inter-American Development Bank Amazon Environmental Institute, Brazil International Commodity Agreement International Conference on C&I for Sustainable Forest Management Inter-American Development Bank International Environmental Agreement 51

IEC IFC IFF IHPA IIED IMF INGO IPC IPCC IPF ISO ITC ITTA ITTC ITTO IUCN IWPA JICA L of N LRRS LCA LEEC LEI LULUCF m3 MCCAF MHA MIA MM MUS MEA MFN MIGA MOU MTTC n.a.

NAA NARI NB NAFTA NGO NHLA NRRP NT NTB NTCC NTFP NTM NWFP NDS

International Electrical Commission International Finance Corporation Intergovernmental Forum on Forests International Hardwood Products Association International Institute for Environment and Development International Monetary Fund International Non-Governmental Organisations Integrated Programme for Commodities Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel on Forests International Organization for Standardisation International Trade Centre International Tropical Timber Agreement International Tropical Timber Council International Tropical Timber Organization The World Conservation Union International Wood Products Association Japanese International Cooperation Agency League of Nations Land Resource Soils Survey (branch of CSIRO) Life Cycle Analysis London Economic and Environmental Centre Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests cubic metre McCarthy & Associates (Forestry) Pty. Ltd. Member of House of Assembly PNG mean annual increment in cubic metres/hectare/year Military Medal Malayan Uniform System Multilateral Environmental Agreement Most Favoured Nation Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Memorandum of Understanding Malaysian Timber Certification Council not available National Archives Australia National Agriculture Research Institute New Britain North American Free Trade Agreement Non-Governmental Organisation National Hardwood Lumber Association Natural Resources and Rights Program National Treatment non-tariff barrier National Timber Certification Council non-timber forest product non-tariff measures non-wood forest product Northern District Sawmills 52

NFCAP NGM no.

NG NGF NGIB NGI NGO NGVR NZ NSW NTSC OECD OTO OIC OISCA OTML P or p PEFC PFDB PIB PIR PNG PNGAA PNGAF PNGFA PNGFIA PNGRIS PNGUT POM P&C PEFC PGA PPM PPP QLD QF RAE RPC RRA RIIA RIL RFE RTA RWE SAP SPS

PNG National Forestry and Conservation Action Plan New Guinea Mainland number New Guinea New Guinea Forces (relates to plant collection of Lae Herbarium) New Guinea Infantry Battalion New Guinea Islands Non-Government Organisation New Guinea Volunteer Rifles New Zealand New South Wales National Tree Seed Centre PNG Bulolo Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Office of Trade and Investment Ombudsman Officer in Charge Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement International Japan.

Ok Tedi Mining Ltd page Pan European Forest Certification Scheme FAO planted forest database Papuan Infantry Battalion Pacific Islands Regiment Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Australia Association Papua New Guinea Australian Foresters Magazine Series Papua New Guinea Forest Authority PNG Forest Industries Association Papua New Guinea Resource Information System PNG University of Technology Port Moresby Principles and Criteria Pan-European Forest Certification Framework Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement production and processing method Polluter Pays Principle (other meaning Purchasing Power Parity) Queensland Queensland Forestry Royal Australian Engineers/Australian Army Royal Papuan Constabulary Rapid Resource Appraisal Royal Institute of International Affairs reduced impact logging Russia Far East Regional Trade Agreement roundwood equivalent structural adjustment programme Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 53

SFM SGS SMS SP SPWP sq m TAG TSS TBT TFF TFRK TNC TRAINS TREM TRIM TRIP UK UN Unasylva UNCCD UNCED UNCSD UNCTAD UNESCO UNDP UNECE UNEP UNFCCC UNFF USTR UNE UNEP UNI UNITECH UNRE UPNG UQ US USA USD TPNG TUBL TA TA TRADAC TRP Vol VSF WA WB

Sustainable Forest Management Société General de Surveillance Selective Management System Malaysia South Pacific Secondary Processed Wood Products square metres Trade Advisory Group of ITTO Tropical Shelterwood System Technical Barriers to Trade Tropical Forest Foundation traditional forest-related knowledge Transnational corporation Trade-Basic Indicators of UNCTAD trade-related environmental measures Trade Related Investment Measures Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights United Kingdom United Nations Journal of FAO of UN United Nations Programme to Combat Desertification United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Committee on Sustainable Development United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Economic and Social Council United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Programme Framework Convention on Climate Change of United Nations United Nations Forum on Forests US, Office of the US Trade Representative University of New England Armidale NSW United Nations Environment Program University University of Technology Lae PNG University of Natural Resources and Environment University of Papua New Guinea University of Queensland United States United States of America United States dollar Territory of Papua and New Guinea Territory United Brewery Ltd Timber Area Timber Authority Timber Research & Development Advisory Council Qld. Timber Rights Purchase volume Victorian School of Forestry Western Australia World Bank 54

WCMC WCO WSSD WTO WWF Yr.

World Conservation Monitoring Centre World Customs Organisation World Summit for Sustainable Development World Trade Organization World Wide Fund for Nature year

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