Human Evolution and Diversity
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Course Introduction
This course explores the biological and cultural evolution of humans from our earliest ancestors to the present, examining the processes and mechanisms that have shaped the tremendous diversity within the human species. Students will investigate fossil evidence, genetic data, comparative primate studies, and archaeological findings to trace human origins, adaptation, and variation across different environments and societies. The course also delves into topics such as natural selection, adaptation to environmental stressors, the development of complex societies, and contemporary issues related to race and human diversity, with a focus on integrating scientific understanding with social perspectives.
Recommended Textbook
Anthropology Appreciating Human Diversity 15th Edition by Phillip Kottak
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Chapter 1: What Is Anthropology
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Q1) This chapter provides an example of human adaptation to high altitude to illustrate the various forms of cultural and biological adaptation. Can you think of another example that illustrates the broad capacity of humans to adapt both biologically and culturally?
Answer: Another example of human adaptation that illustrates the broad capacity of humans to adapt both biologically and culturally is the Maasai people of East Africa. The Maasai have traditionally lived in a semi-nomadic lifestyle, herding cattle and moving with the seasons to find grazing land and water sources. This lifestyle has required them to adapt both biologically and culturally to their environment. Biologically, the Maasai have developed a diet that is high in milk, blood, and meat, which has allowed them to thrive in an environment where plant-based foods are scarce. Culturally, the Maasai have developed a social structure and belief system that supports their nomadic lifestyle, including communal land ownership and a strong emphasis on cattle as a symbol of wealth and status. This example demonstrates how humans have the capacity to adapt to a wide range of environments through both biological and cultural means.
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Chapter 2: Culture
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Q1) How has this chapter challenged your understanding of the concept of human nature?
Answer: This chapter has challenged my understanding of the concept of human nature by presenting a more complex and nuanced view of human behavior. It has made me question my previous assumptions about the inherent goodness or badness of human beings and has shown me that human nature is not easily defined or categorized. The chapter has also introduced me to different perspectives on human nature, such as evolutionary psychology and cultural influences, which have expanded my understanding of the topic. Overall, this chapter has forced me to reconsider my beliefs about human nature and has encouraged me to approach the subject with a more open and critical mindset.
Q2) What do anthropologists mean when they say culture is shared?
A) Culture is an attribute of particular individuals.
B) Culture is an attribute of individuals as members of groups.
C) Culture is what ensures that all people raised in the same society have the same opinions.
D) Culture is universally regarded as more important than the concept of the individual.
E) Passive enculturation is accomplished by more than one person.
Answer: B
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Chapter 3: Applying Anthropology
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Q1) Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic of the work that applied anthropologists do?
A) They enter the affected communities and talk with people.
B) They gather government statistics.
C) They consult project managers.
D) They consult government officials and other experts.
E) They promote development.
Answer: A
Q2) Which of the following is NOT a feature of urban life?
A) dispersed settlements
B) high population density
C) social heterogeneity
D) economic differentiation
E) geographic mobility
Answer: A
Q3) Although its roots extend further back in time, the real boom for applied anthropology in the United States began in the 1970s.
A)True
B)False
Answer: True
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Chapter 4: Doing Archaeology and Biological Anthropology
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Q1) Systematic survey refers to the archaeological technique of systematically digging through the cultural and natural stratigraphy of an archaeological site.
A)True B)False
Q2) Digging according to arbitrary levels is quicker but less refined than digging according to the site's stratigraphy.
A)True B)False
Q3) Dendrochronology is an absolute dating method based on the comparison of tree-ring growth patterns and is also useful
A) in areas with varying environmental patterns.
B) with any type of tree species.
C) because it provides information about climatic patterns in specific regions.
D) because it provides useful information for protecting water sources.
E) in dating samples of more than 1 million years of age.
Q4) Physical anthropology and archaeology both involve multidisciplinary approaches to research.
A)True B)False
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Chapter 5: Evolution and Genetics
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Q1) Why is the difference between microevolution and macroevolution hard to distinguish?
Q2) Why are genetics and evolution so important to anthropology?
A) They give anthropology some credibility as a scientific field.
B) They provide the key to understanding the rate of environmental change throughout human history.
C) They define humans' position at the top of the hierarchy of biological diversity.
D) They help anthropologists document and explain human biological diversity.
E) They determine the clear distinction between biological and cultural forces acting through human history.
Q3) Genotype refers to expressed traits based on their genetic makeup.
A)True
B)False
Q4) Genetic evolution involves changes in gene frequencies between generations within a given breeding population.
A)True
B)False
Q5) Give an example of how punctuated equilibrium would work.
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Chapter 6: Human Variation and Adaptation
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Q1) Physical features cluster into discrete genetic units.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Phenotypic similarities and differences always have a genetic basis.
A)True
B)False
Q3) Biologists have rejected the idea of three great races (white, black, and yellow) largely because it fails to account for Native Americans.
A)True
B)False
Q4) Populations in equatorial Africa and Papua New Guinea are phenotypically similar. They are both dark skinned, with similar hair and facial features. How would a typical racial model explain these similarities? How would evolutionary biology's explanation differ? Which model does a better job of explaining such data?
Q5) Why do differences in skin pigmentation exist around the world?
Q6) Rickets is caused by an overabundance of vitamin D in the body.
A)True
B)False
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Chapter 7: The Primates
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Q1) Which of the following is shared by all anthropoids?
A) the ability to knuckle-walk and carry tools
B) bipedalism and one offspring born at a time
C) prehensile tails
D) a decrease in the size of canines and an increase in the size of molars
E) stereoscopic vision
Q2) Describe the features that Old World monkeys, apes, and humans have in common that confirm they share more recent common ancestry with each other than they do with New World monkeys and prosimians.
Q3) Behavioral ecology studies the evolutionary basis of social behavior. What is one of the discipline's main assumptions?
A) Phenotype is the overwhelming result of genotype.
B) The genetic features of any species reflect a long history of differential reproductive success (that is, natural selection).
C) Natural selection best translates to "survival of the fittest."
D) There is no distinction between individual and inclusive fitness.
E) Individual fitness among hominins is measured differently than in other nonhuman primate species.
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Chapter 8: Early Hominins
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Q1) Which of the following is NOT discussed in this chapter as a probable cause of the anatomical variety found in the australopithecine fossils?
A) the long time span within which they existed
B) differences in natural selective forces operating in specific environments
C) the poor condition of the fossils
D) age and sex differences
E) random genetic drift
Q2) What is the significance of Kenyanthropus, a 3.5-million-year-old fossil that Maeve Leakey discovered in Kenya in 1999?
A) It puts an end to the debate between taxonomic "splitters" and "lumpers."
B) It confirms that the development of big brains preceded the onset of bipedalism.
C) It replaces Lucy (3.2 m.y.a.) as the earliest known hominin skeleton.
D) It is the ancestor of Homo but not australopithecines.
E) It suggests the possibility that at least two hominin lineages existed as far back as 3.5 million years ago.
Q3) Robust australopithecines have been found only in East Africa.
A)True
B)False
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Chapter 9: Archaic Homo
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Q1) Recently, a team uncovered a 1.2-million-year-old jawbone fragment from a species known as Homo antecessor in the Atapuerca mountains of Spain. The oldest hominid fossil ever found in western Europe, it provides conclusive evidence that Neandertals interbred with archaic modern humans.
A)True
B)False
Q2) The geological epoch known as the ________ has been considered the epoch of early human life.
A) Pleistocene
B) Cenozoic
C) Mousterian
D) Miocene
E) Würm
Q3) Biological and cultural changes enabled H. erectus to exploit a new adaptive strategy-gathering and hunting.
A)True
B)False
Q4) What are the main morphological differences between Neandertals and anatomically modern humans? How have these differences been interpreted?
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Chapter 10: The Origin and Spread of Modern Humans
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Q1) In 1997, ancient DNA was extracted from one of the Neandertal bones originally found in Germany's Neandertal Valley in 1856. This was the first time that the DNA of a premodern human has been recovered. When comparing this DNA with that of modern humans, the researchers found
A) 27 differences between the two, many more than would be expected in closely related humans, suggesting that there may have been little interbreeding between Neandertals and the direct ancestors to modern humans.
B) only 5 to 8 differences between the two, as is typical of closely related humans, placing Neandertals within modern humans' direct line of descent.
C) many more mutations in the Neandertal DNA, suggesting that the species had been around 100,000 years longer than previously estimated.
D) no differences, since Neandertals and modern humans are the same species.
E) that the two samples were not comparable, since the Neandertal DNA was molecularly different from the DNA of the reference sample.
Q2) What is behavioral modernity? What are some of the competing theories (and the evidence to support each) of when, where, and how behavioral modernity originated?
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Chapter 11: The First Farmers
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Q1) Corn, beans, and squash were the major crops to be domesticated in Mexico.
A)True
B)False
Q2) The path from foraging to food production was one that people followed independently in at least seven world areas. New archaeological research techniques continue to overturn previously held assumptions about where and how this occurred. Microscopic evidence from early-cultivated plants suggests that
A) farming in the South American tropical lowlands preceded domestication in the Middle East by some 5,000 years.
B) New World farming began in the lowlands of South America and then spread to Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean islands.
C) maize was first domesticated in the Pacific islands and brought to the Americas by colonizers who navigated to the western coasts of South America.
D) all early domesticates originated among the Clovis people, whose knowledge then diffused southward.
E) the old assumption that New World farming originated in the upland areas is correct.
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Chapter 12: The First Cities and States
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Q1) Which of the following attributes distinguishes states from chiefdoms?
A) large residences
B) a paramount ruler
C) sharp class distinctions
D) a subsistence economy based on domesticated species
E) armed conflict between competing communities
Q2) Pseudoscientists often underestimate the capacity for human inventiveness in the ancient peoples they write about, assuming that creating major features were beyond their capabilities.
A)True
B)False
Q3) Which of the following events played an important role in the abandonment of the fields in Mesopotamia?
A) external conquest
B) a landslide caused by heavy mountain rains
C) erosion
D) destruction of the fields by mineral salts
E) an earthquake
Q4) How are chiefdoms different from states? How do archaeologists distinguish between the two?
Page 14
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Chapter 13: Method and Theory in Cultural Anthropology
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Q1) Ethnography is increasingly multi-timed and multi-sited, the result of a shift toward a recognition of the ongoing and inescapable flows of people, technology, images, and information that characterizes much of the world today.
A)True
B)False
Q2) What is Project Minerva? What about the Human Terrain System? What concerns have these Pentagon programs raised among anthropologists? In your view, what role (if any) should academics play in national security?
Q3) As investigators who illustrated the functionalist approach in anthropology, both Malinowski's and Radcliffe-Brown's ethnographic research focused on
A) myth and ritual and the ways that these aspects of culture created social cohesion.
B) the evolutionary history of present-day cultural patterns.
C) the role of cultural traits and practices in contemporary society.
D) the symbolic value that cultural traits and practices held with members of contemporary society.
E) the role of cultural traits and practices aimed at conflict resolution.
Q4) What is the genealogical method, and why did it develop in anthropology?
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Chapter 14: Language and Communication
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Q1) Problems arise with contemporary means of communication, such as texting and online messaging, because much of what we communicate is a nonverbal reflection of emotional states.
A)True
B)False
Q2) When does copula deletion (absence of the verb "to be") occur in BEV?
A) where SE has contractions
B) randomly
C) in the past tense
D) in the future tense
E) in SE, not BEV
Q3) What terms are used to convey or imply a status difference between the speaker and the person being referred to or addressed?
A) formal addresses, but sociolinguists rarely pay attention to them, because their use in a social situation is always a result of linguistic exploitation
B) honorifics
C) style shifts
D) diglossia
E) linguistic relativity
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Chapter 15: Ethnicity and Race
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Q1) It is the norm in Africa for countries to have no ethnic majority.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Depending on the situation, the same man might declare: "I'm Jimmy's father"; "I'm your boss"; "I'm African American"; or "I'm your professor." This phenomenon, whereby a person's claimed or perceived identity varies depending on context, is called
A) ethnicity.
B) hypodescent.
C) situational negotiation of social identity.
D) ethnic tolerance.
E) rotating core personality traits.
Q3) In many countries, colonial nation building left ethnic strife in its wake. Thus, over a million Hindus and Muslims were killed in violence that accompanied the division of the Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947. Similarly, problems between Arabs and Jews in Palestine began during the British mandate period.
A)True
B)False
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Chapter 16: Making a Living
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Q1) Unlike in industrial societies, where economic alienation is common, in nonindustrial societies,
A) alienation is pervasive.
B) alienation is suffered only among the poorer classes.
C) social relations are embedded in all relations except the economic ones.
D) the relations of production, distribution, and consumption are social relations with economic aspects.
E) alienation is an ascribed status.
Q2) Foragers typically live in mobile bands that disperse in the dry season and aggregate in the rainy season.
A)True
B)False
Q3) Which of the following kinds of exchange is characteristic among the members of a family?
A) generalized reciprocity
B) balanced reciprocity
C) negative reciprocity
D) redistribution
E) none of these exchanges
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Chapter 17: Political Systems
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Q1) Which of the following is NOT typical of state-level societies?
A) a purely foraging-based subsistence strategy
B) class stratification
C) boundary maintenance systems
D) intensive, managed agriculture
E) a specialized decision-making system
Q2) Anthropologists claim that in nonstate societies the political structure is embedded in relationships based on kinship, descent, and marriage. What does this mean? Use two ethnographic cases to illustrate this claim.
Q3) The efficacy of social control depends on how clearly people envision the sanctions that an antisocial act might trigger.
A)True
B)False
Q4) Most band and tribal societies in the world today are completely cut off from the rest of the world.
A)True
B)False
Q5) Modern hunter-gatherers should not be seen as representative of Stone Age peoples, all of whom were also foragers. Why?
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Chapter 18: Gender
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Q1) Gender stratification tends to be extremely pronounced in patrilineal-patrilocal societies.
A)True
B)False
Q2) All of the following are associated with plow agriculture EXCEPT
A) a decline in both polygyny and unilineal descent.
B) differential rights in divorce and sexuality for men and women.
C) an overall increase in the status of women as new production techniques called for female as well as male labor.
D) a sharp contrast between the domestic and extradomestic realms.
E) the isolation of women in nuclear family households.
Q3) Which of the following statements is NOT true?
A) The feminization of poverty is unique to the United States.
B) Households headed by women tend to be poorer than those headed by men.
C) Married couples are much more secure economically than single mothers.
D) Women now head more than half the households in the United States.
E) The feminization of poverty has serious consequences with regard to living standards and health.
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Chapter 19: Families, Kinship, and Descent
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Q1) Your family of procreation is the one into which you were born.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Industrialization increases mobility, which plays a major role in the disappearance of extended families in the United States.
A)True
B)False
Q3) Cite evidence confirming or denying the universality of the nuclear family. Give examples from different cultures. What other social units might assume the functions associated with nuclear families?
Q4) Although nuclear families are found in many societies around the world, this phenomenon is not a cultural universal.
A)True
B)False
Q5) U.S. kinship calculation is bilateral, traced equally through males and females; for example, father and mother.
A)True
B)False
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Chapter 20: Marriage
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Q1) In the caste system of India, failure to adhere to class endogamy rules traditionally resulted in a ritually impure marriage.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Exogamy is the practice of seeking out a mate within one's own social group.
A)True
B)False
Q3) The incest taboo is a cultural universal, but
A) not all cultures have one.
B) not all cultures define incest the same way.
C) not all cultures know about the consequences of incest.
D) some cultures have replaced it with the levirate.
E) some cultures practice gerontology anyway.
Q4) Which of the following statements about polyandry is most likely true?
A) It is found only among fishing communities in Madagascar.
B) It is a cultural adaptation to the high labor demands of rice cultivation.
C) It is a cultural adaptation to mobility associated with male travel for trade, commerce, and warfare.
D) Polyandry is almost always sororate.
E) It is legal in the United States.
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Chapter 21: Religion
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Q1) According to Bronislaw Malinowski, religion provides people with emotional comfort during problematic times.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Max Weber argued that the spread of capitalism was closely linked to the ethics and values of Catholicism.
A)True
B)False
Q3) Communitas is the strong feeling of collective unity shared by individuals at the core of a society who define themselves in opposition to the society's liminal members.
A)True
B)False
Q4) A major difference between rituals and plays is that the participants in rituals are performing in earnest.
A)True
B)False
Q5) How do you explain the universality of religion?
Q6) Discuss two cases of religion's role in social change.
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Chapter 22: Arts, Media, and Sports
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Q1) The study of television's impact on people's behavior, attitudes, and values is the domain of sociologists, not anthropologists.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Susan Montague and Robert Morais (1981) argue that Americans appreciate football because it presents a miniaturized and simplified version of modern organizations. These researchers
A) suggest that football, with its territorial incursion and violence, is popular because Americans are violent people.
B) link football's values, particularly teamwork, to those associated with business.
C) argue that football allows spectators to vicariously realize their own hostile and aggressive tendencies.
D) suggest that football is a peculiarly American pastime because of our wartime history.
E) argue that football should be regulated the same way we regulate corporations.
Q3) Where is art found? Is art found in the same contexts in all kinds of societies?
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Chapter 23: The World System and Colonialism
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Q1) Mass production has led to critical consumption as people are forced to make careful decisions regarding what is needed and what is excess.
A)True
B)False
Q2) Weber argued that the only true capitalists were Protestants, and people who believed in any other faith could never fully mature as capitalists.
A)True
B)False
Q3) Life in nations in the periphery is characterized by high percentages of poverty and frequent food shortages brought on by a high level of stratification between a small number of large landowners and landless workers.
A)True
B)False
Q4) Based on the way the text defines imperialism and colonialism, do you think that they describe phenomena of the past? These terms have been used recently to describe current international affairs. Find an example of this, and compare the use of the term to its definition in the text.
Q5) What is the world system perspective, and why is it important in anthropology?
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Chapter 24: Anthropologys Role in a Globalizing World
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Q1) Social movements worldwide have adopted which term as a self-identifying and political label based on past oppression but now legitimizing a search for social, cultural, and political rights?
A) indio
B) indigenous people
C) mestizo
D) autochthon
E) freedom fighter
Q2) Radiative forcings work to warm and cool the earth. If these didn't exist, there would be no global warming.
A)True
B)False
Q3) This chapter describes Americans' belief that U.S. television programs inevitably triumph over local products around the world as
A) ethnocentric.
B) culturally relative.
C) indigenized.
D) imagined.
E) politically correct.
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