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PSI CHI Board of Directors
SOCIETY PRESIDENT
Jason Young, PhD president@psichi.org
PAST-PRESIDENT Susan Becker, PhD pastpresident@psichi.org
PRESIDENT-ELECT Darren Bernal, PhD presidentelect@psichi.org
EASTERN REGIONAL VICE-PRESIDENT Ingrid Tulloch, PhD easternvp@psichi.org
WESTERN REGIONAL VICE-PRESIDENT Brittany Avila, PhD westernvp@psichi.org
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR Marianne Fallon, PhD marianne.fallon@psichi.org ABBREVIATIONS
23 · THREE HEADS ARE BETTER THAN ONE Questions (and Answers) About Funding Your Graduate School Education
32 · MENTAL HEALTH Deal With Stress During Your College Years John Gomez, PhD
36 · CAREER PREPARATION Mapping Your Future: An Overview of Psychology Career Paths Steven Del Chiaro, PsyD
40 · PERSONAL GROWTH PREParing for the Future: Gaining Skills and Experience as an Undergraduate Research Assistant Malin Lilley, PhD, Dawn Weatherford, PhD, and Ho Huynh, PhD
44· FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Exploring Education and Careers in Marriage and Family Therapy Tony D. Crespi, EdD, ABPP, and Michael Amico, PhD
48 · CAREER PREPARATION The International Competences for Undergraduate Psychology Valerie Sorrentino and Susan A. Nolan, PhD
magine that you are building a bridge with LEGO®s. You have an unlimited number of LEGOs with which to build this bridge, but let’s start off small. You have the crosspiece of the bridge supported on two sides. On one side, three equally sized blocks support the crosspiece. On the other side, two of the same-sized blocks support the crosspiece. Your bridge is lopsided—how do you balance it?
Your first impulse was probably to add another block so that there are three blocks for each support. Another equally valid option (and one that you were primed for by the title of this article!) was to subtract one block from the side that had three, so there were two blocks on each side. Why are we biased to add when subtracting may be a viable option?
In Subtract, Leidy Klotz (2021) discusses our tendency to neglect subtraction as a viable option (Adams et al., 2021, but see Juvrud et al., 2024, for individual difference and task factors). We seem so biased towards addition that we allow it to reshape our perceptions: You may have heard that Kurt Koffka, one of the founding Gestalt psychologists, said, “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.” Not quite. He refined that statement to: “The whole is other than the sum of its parts (1935),” meaningful qualitatively different, not necessarily more.
Our decision-making also is biased against subtraction. For example, loss aversion—first described by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1979)—is a powerful phenomenon where once we possess something, we assign greater value to it and may behave irrationally to keep it and avoid loss. But the type of less Klotz argues for is not loss, but rather improvement.
Recognizing that less can propel improvement echoes in Greg McKeown’s (2014), Essentialism. McKeown claims that we reach our highest point of contribution when we do the right thing for the right reason at the right time. To get to that point, we need to explore and evaluate which activities and efforts will produce the highest possible contribution, eliminate those activities and efforts that stray from this path, and then execute our intentions as efficiently as possible.
In other words, we stand to make the greatest impact when we intentionally pursue less so we can focus on those activities and efforts that best serve a critical outcome. Beyond saying “no” graciously and compassionately to options that are not singularly aligned with our purpose, we should look for opportunities where
subtracting could increase our efficiency. Lillian Gilbreth, widely considered the first industrial/organizational psychologist, made subtraction a defining feature of her legacy. Think of her every time you push on a pedal-operated garbage can and save time bending down to open the lid (Purdue Edwardson School of Industrial Engineering, 2018).
Why share these thoughts about essentialism and subtraction now? Over the summer, the Psi Chi Board of Directors and Headquarters Staff met in Chattanooga to shape Psi Chi’s future and decide how we could make our best possible contribution. We are focusing our efforts on strengthening chapter activity, increasing the number of joining members, strengthening our culture of philanthropy, and increasing financial sustainability. Even with this concentrated approach, it is tempting to associate increasing and strengthening with adding activities and efforts.
One difficult decision we made was to pause our mentorship and ask-an-expert programs. While we deeply value connecting members with mentors and experts, we could not consistently match students with professionals in their specialized areas. Said differently, we could not execute efficiently. We’ll revisit these programs if sustainable methods emerge that meet our standards of supporting members. Our time is reinvested in nurturing programs that strengthen the value of your Psi Chi membership.
For a garden to thrive, you must pull out the weeds AND prune healthy plants. You may have demonstrated that you are a collaborative and innovative team member who will get the job done. You may be in the enviable position of having more opportunities that align with your purpose than you could possibly pursue. To operate at your fullest potential, you will need to make some tough decisions by saying no to misaligned options AND by critically examining what you can subtract to strengthen.
References
Adams, G. S., Converse, B. A., Hales, A. H., & Klotz. L. E. (2021). People systematically overlook subtractive changes. Nature, 592 258–261. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03380-y
Juvrud, J., Myers, L., & Nyström, P. (2024). People overlook subtractive changes differently depending on age, culture, and task. Scientific Reports, 14 , 1086. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-51549-y
Klotz, L. (2021). Subtract: The untapped science of less Flatiron.
Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. Routledge.
Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47 263–291. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185
McKeown, G. (2014). Essentialism: The disciplined pursuit of less Crown Business.
Purdue Edwardson School of Industrial Engineering. (2018, March 16). Lillian Gilbreth: First lady of engineering [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_9RlfBdLvE8
Psychological Science and Social Understanding: A Shared Responsibility
Shawn R. Charlton, PhD
University of Central Arkansas
In early October, Psi Chi released its Statement on Science and Social Understanding, reaffirming the ability of science to empower individuals and communities to meet today’s complex challenges (Psi Chi Board of Directors, 2025). This declaration arrives during a time when the value of science is being questioned. Public trust is uneven, unvetted information spreads faster than the outcomes of careful study, and societies around the globe face questions that demand both rapid innovation and slow analysis. At such a time, psychological science offers a vital
contribution to addressing social and global challenges: A disciplined approach to thinking that brings clarity, cultivates curiosity, and lays a foundation for discoveries that improve lives (Evans, 2025).
The Psi Chi science statement reminds us that science is best understood as a method of questioning, testing, and refining ideas through evidence and critical reflection. It is a recursive process—grounded in evidence, critical thinking, and openness to new insights—that deepens understanding, fuels innovation, and empowers service. This view of science resonates with ongoing
conversations across the discipline. As the APA Monitor recently reported, psychology is sometimes “under siege,” with misinformation and skepticism threatening to undermine its credibility (Abrams, 2025a). Yet psychologists are not without recourse. Through encouraging small acts of “everyday advocacy” (Abrams, 2025b) and their “elevating psychological science everywhere” website (APA, n.d.-a), the American Psychological Association is actively showing how research can be shared more clearly, defended more effectively, and applied more widely.
The Psi Chi statement also emphasizes that science is best served by a plurality of voices and perspectives. This conviction has global relevance. Diverse participation strengthens not only the reach of research but also the quality of the questions asked. As the statement affirms, science benefits when scholars ask unusual, unexpected, or uncomfortable questions. This vision aligns with APS’s call for bipartisan support for psychological science (Association for Psychological Science [APS], 2025b) and its publication of an Anti-Autocracy Handbook to help scholars preserve independence and integrity in challenging contexts (APS, 2025a). Both underscore that science thrives only when it encourages participation by a broad, inclusive, and diverse population of scientists.
The stakes for psychology are high. Consider the mass cancellation of more than 400 federal research grants (APA Services, 2025) and cuts to many federal programs supporting psychological services and mental health, such as the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (Abrams, 2025a). APA responded to the research funding cuts with a public statement noting that this decision not only threatened specific projects but risked limiting the scope of what science is allowed to study (APA Services, 2025). These funding changes illustrate how external pressures can shape the questions science is supported in pursuing. Psi Chi’s statement is timely in this regard: Affirming the importance of pluralism in science is a safeguard against narrowing the questions science is allowed to address. To meet global challenges—from climate change to health disparities to the social impacts of technology—psychology must be free to pursue the full breadth of complex and uncomfortable questions about human behavior and the human experience.
The Psi Chi statement invites us to think about psychology’s public role. It encourages Psi Chi members, faculty, and practitioners to share their knowledge through public dialogue and community engagement. When communicated clearly and applied ethically, psychological science enhances mental health, fosters empathy, and promotes lifelong learning (Evans, 2025). The APA Self-Defense for Psychological Science webpage (APA, 2009) echoes this call, offering strategies to counter misinformation and to explain findings in ways that nonspecialists can understand. At a time when the spread of opinion outpaces scientific evidence, slowing down to ask “What’s the data? What’s the method? What do we really know?” is both good science and a public service.
The essays in this column are inspired by these commitments. In Shaping Justice, Zoey Brown and Donaven Pickren illustrate psychology’s role in strengthening law and public policy. In Healing at Home, Christopher Carney and Lauren Thompson remind us that families, often flooded with trendy advice, need interventions built on decades of research. Austin Lance and Ta’Niya Trotter’s essay on Education demonstrates how psychological science helps students learn effectively and equitably. Finally, Julia Trantham and Shawn Charlton’s piece on Training Tomorrow’s Scientist-Citizens argues that psychology programs must equip undergraduates with critical thinking skills that prepare them to engage with an information-rich world.
Each of these essays reflects the principles set forth in Psi Chi’s statement: intellectual curiosity, rigor, plurality, and service. Together, they illustrate why psychological science is not only a body of knowledge but also a way of thinking that sustains communities. Psychological science is adaptive. It grows by questioning assumptions, testing ideas, and learning from mistakes. Each study contributes to a larger conversation, where errors are corrected, theories are refined, and new insights emerge. In this way, science models the very resilience and openness it seeks to cultivate in individuals and communities. As Psi Chi’s Statement on Science and Social Understanding reminds us, psychological science is both a guide for personal growth and a resource for collective well-being. In times of uncertainty, that is a powerful promise. Through the voices of our psychological scientists, practitioners, and students, and with the support and unity of organizations such as the APA, APS, and Psi Chi, we can ensure that psychology continues to serve individuals and communities with clarity, humility, and hope.
References
Abrams, Z. (2025a, July–August). Psychology faces unprecedented challenges amid federal actions and funding cuts. APA Monitor on Psychology, 56 (5), 26 https://www.apa.org/monitor/2025/07-08/psychology-under-siege
Abrams, Z. (2025b, July–August). Everyday advocacy: Taking small actions that add up to meaningful change. APA Monitor on Psychology, 56 (5), 50. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2025/07-08/everyday-advocacy
American Psychological Association. (n.d.-a). Elevating psychological science everywhere https://www.apa.org/science/about/elevating-psychological-science
American Psychological Association. (2009). Self-defense for psychological science https://www.apa.org/science/about/publications/self-defense
APA Services. (2025, April 18). Statement on the cancellation of grants by the National Science Foundation https://updates.apaservices.org/statement-on-the-cancellation-of-grants-by-the-national-science-foundation Association for Psychological Science. (2025a, June 28). New anti-autocracy handbook aims to give power back to scholars. APS Observer https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/anti-autocracy-handbook.html Association for Psychological Science. (2025b, March 14). APS calls for bipartisan support for psychological science https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/aps-calls-for-bipartisan-support-for-psychological-science.html
Evans, A. C. (2025, September). APA 2025 highlights psychology’s impact on society. APA Monitor on Psychology, 56 (6), 10. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2025/09/convention-programs
Psi Chi Board of Directors. (2025, October). Statement on science and social understanding . Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology. https://www.psichi.org/page/StatementOnScience
Shaping Justice: The Impact of Psychological Science on Public Policy and Law
Zoey J. Brown and Donaven C. Pickren
University of Central Arkansas
Psychological science plays a vital role in shaping public policy and law by grounding decisions in evidence about human thought and behavior. Policymakers increasingly rely on research to design laws and programs that are more effective, fair, and responsive to real-world needs (Antonini & Achilli, 2025). For example, studies on learning have structured education policy, while research on stress and health has informed public health initiatives (Alliant International University, n.d.). Since policy affects education, health, transportation, and safety, psychology’s insights are essential in crafting decisions that improve community well-being. By understanding behavior, psychologists help lawmakers anticipate how individuals and communities may respond to regulations, allowing for better design, implementation, and evaluation of policies. One visible example is Lisa Willner, PhD, a psychologist and example of professionals bringing psychology into public office, who has applied her expertise to advance mental health, education, and public safety policies. Her work illustrates how blending research with empathy and communication can create laws that promote fairness and support community well-being (American Psychological Association, 2025).
Psychologists also contribute collectively to reforms in housing, early childhood initiatives, and legal rulings. Through advocacy, translation of research, and collaboration with lawmakers, psychology bridges science and governance to address complex social problems and drive systemic change (Siegel et al., 2021).
Within the legal system, psychology has altered how we understand jury decision-making and eyewitness testimony. Research shows that biases, group dynamics, and memory errors can heavily influence verdicts. These findings have prompted reforms such as clearer jury instructions and stricter guidelines for eyewitness evidence (FC PsychExperts, 2025). Forensic psychologists further strengthen the legal process by evaluating competency, assessing mental states, and analyzing behavior in both criminal and civil cases. Their testimony informs sentencing, custody decisions, and parole, while raising important ethical considerations.
One of the most influential contributions to law comes from Elizabeth Loftus’s research on memory. Loftus’s classic research showed that the wording of a question (“smashed” versus “hit”) influenced what details participants remembered—even leading some to report seeing broken glass that never existed. This groundbreaking work revealed the malleability of memory, leading courts to scrutinize eyewitness testimony more carefully (Practical Psychology, 2023).
Ultimately, psychology’s impact extends beyond the lab. Psychologists bring skills in empathy, communication, and cultural understanding that make them uniquely effective as policymakers and leaders—helping to ensure that laws and policies are not only evidence-based but also humane and just.
References
Antonini, M., & Achilli, A. (2025). An integrative pathway between psychology and public policy-making towards the governance of changing social scenarios. Societies, 15 (8), 229. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15080229
American Psychological Association. (2025, March 14). Public policy needs psychology. Here’s how to lend your expertise https://www.apa.org/research-practice/leadership/public-policy-psychology FC PsychExperts. (2025, August 11). How do forensic psychologists bridge psychology and law? https://www.fcpsychexperts.com/how-do-forensic-psychologists-bridge-psychology-and-law/ Practical Psychology. (2023, October 6). Elizabeth Loftus (psychologist biography) PracticalPie. https://practicalpie.com/elizabeth-loftus/
Siegel, J., Arenson, M., Mikytuck, A., & Woolard, J. (2021). Engaging public policy with psychological science. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 7 (1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000284
Science Over Shortcuts: Family Matters in Psychology
Christopher J. L. Carney and Lauren A. Thompson University of Central Arkansas
In an era where scientific expertise faces increasing skepticism and misinformation spreads rapidly through social media, the rigorous research behind family psychology offers a compelling reminder of why evidence-based practice matters. When families are struggling—whether with anxiety, trauma, or relationship conflicts—they need more than well-meaning advice or viral parenting hacks. They need interventions grounded in decades of careful scientific study.
Family systems theory exemplifies how psychological science transforms our understanding of human relationships. Rather than relying on intuition alone, researchers like Cox and Paley
(1997) have systematically documented how family members influence each other’s well-being, demonstrating how a shift in one family member’s functioning can ripple across the entire system. This scientific framework has revolutionized therapeutic practice, moving beyond simplistic approaches to embrace the complexity of family dynamics (Yan et al., 2025).
The power of empirical research becomes evident when examining specific interventions. Family-based cognitive behavioral therapy did not emerge from philosophical speculation—it developed through rigorous clinical trials demonstrating measurable reductions in childhood anxiety, with effects lasting over time (Kendall et al., 2008). Similarly, Family-Centered Care approaches in medical settings have been validated through controlled studies showing improved outcomes for children with intellectual disabilities and enhanced family satisfaction (Mestre et al., 2024).
This scientific rigor proves especially crucial when confronting the oversimplified solutions that proliferate in today’s information landscape. Social media influencers and self-help gurus often promise quick fixes for complex family problems, but psychological science reveals a more nuanced reality. Research consistently shows that effective interventions must be carefully tailored to each family’s unique circumstances and cultural context, as demonstrated in detailed case studies of children with trauma and developmental challenges (O’Donohue & Lilienfeld, 2013).
The stakes extend beyond individual families. Positive psychology interventions that strengthen family bonds and promote resilience have been scientifically validated to enhance not just happiness within homes but also community well-being more broadly (Waters, 2020; Turemuratova et al., 2025). When trust in evidence-based approaches declines, entire communities suffer the consequences.
Ultimately, family psychology demonstrates the power of science to meet human needs in meaningful ways. By helping families navigate conflict, recover from trauma, and build resilience, evidence-based practice strengthens not only individuals but the family system as a whole. Since families are the foundation on which healthy communities are built, the ripple effects extend outward—supporting schools, workplaces, and communities. In a time when skepticism toward science is widespread, the successes of family psychology offer a clear reminder: Rigorous research is not an abstract exercise, but a vital resource that equips families and communities to thrive.
References
Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (1997). Families as systems. Annual Review of Psychology, 48 (1), 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.243
Kendall, P. C., Hudson, J. L., Gosch, E., Flannery-Schroeder, E., & Suveg, C. (2008). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disordered youth: A randomized clinical trial evaluating child and family modalities. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76 (2), 282–297. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.76.2.282
Mestre, T. D., Lopes, M. J., Mestre, D. M., Ferreira, R. F., Costa, A. P., & Caldeira, E. V. (2024). Impact of family-centered care in families with children with intellectual disability: A systematic review. Heliyon, 1 0(7). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28241
O’Donohue, W. T., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2013). Case studies in clinical psychological science: Bridging the gap from science to practice Oxford University Press.
Turemuratova, A., Uzakbaeva, U., & Nuriyeva, D. (2025). Basic concepts of family psychology and overcoming psychological problems. Modern Science and Research, 4 (4), 104–109. https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/science-research/article/view/78572
Waters, L. (2020). Using positive psychology interventions to strengthen family happiness: A family systems approach. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 15 (5), 645–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1789704
Yan, Y., Duan, X., Tan, Y., Wu, T., Yang, B. X., Luo, D., & Liu, L. (2025). The relationship between family functioning and depressive symptoms: Mediating effects of psychological resilience and parent-child interactions. Journal of Affective Disorders, 385 , 119383–119383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119383
Teaching by the Evidence: How Psychology Shapes Education
Austin Lance and Ta’Niya Trotter University of Central Arkansas
In today’s world of shifting educational priorities and debates over what and how students should be taught, the contribution of psychological science stands as a steady guide. While misinformation about learning styles or “quick tricks” spreads easily on social media, the field of educational psychology reminds us that effective teaching and learning must be grounded in decades of rigorous, evidence-based research (American Psychological Association, 2014).
From the earliest ideas of Freud’s unconscious mind to B.F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning, psychology has long shaped how educators think about learning. Today, this influence continues through research that not only explains how students process information but also addresses how schools can provide equitable opportunities for all learners. As Bell and colleagues (2020) emphasize, higher education impacts far more than academic skills: It also shapes attitudes, values, identity, and even long-term health and well-being.
One major area of research is cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2011), which examines how the limits of working memory affect learning. Novel material can overwhelm working memory, but techniques such as schema building and chunking help learners connect new content to what they already know, easing the burden on working memory (Kotovsky et al., 1985). Retrieval cues are another scientifically validated method for reinforcing memory, helping students recall information more effectively during high-pressure situations such as exams (Brown et al., 1978). These findings push back against simplistic claims about “learning hacks,” reminding us that true progress in education emerges from tested strategies, not shortcuts.
Psychological science also helps educators understand and meet the diverse needs of students. Research shows that targeted mentorship programs for underrepresented students increase confidence, reduce stress, and improve preparation for graduate study (Burko Macatee et al., 2025). Inclusive pedagogy and culturally competent teaching practices further support success by recognizing that students bring different experiences and challenges into the classroom (Bell et al., 2020). At the same time, many supervisors still lack training to provide accommodations, which can create barriers for students with disabilities. Wilbur et al. (2019) emphasize that treating disability as part of diversity is central to equity in education.
Educational psychology shows that when we invest in evidence-based approaches—whether in classroom design, mentorship, or inclusive teaching—we empower students not only to learn more effectively but also to thrive as whole individuals. In an era where skepticism toward science can undermine progress, psychology’s contributions to education stand as proof that rigorous research leads to better outcomes for all learners.
References
American Psychological Association. (2014). Educational psychology promotes teaching and learning https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/teaching-learning
Bell, E. Z., Bowman, A. N., Rivers, L. M., & Soicher, N. R. (2020). Using psychological science to improve higher education (2020). Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 6 (2), 93–96. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tps0000233
Brown, A. L., Smiley, S. S., & Lawton, S. Q. C. (1978). The effects of experience on the selection of suitable retrieval cues for studying texts. Child Development, 49 (3), 829–835. https://doi.org/10.2307/1128253
Burko Macatee, J. A., Silverstein, M. W., & Gomez, M. M. (2025). Increasing representation in psychological sciences: Evaluating immediate and long-term outcomes of a virtual mentoring program for racial and ethnic minority students. Training and Education in Professional Psychology Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tep0000519
Kotovsky, K., Hayes J. R., Simon H. A. Why are some problems hard? Evidence from Tower of Hanoi. Cognitive Psychology, 17 (2), 1985, 248–294, https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(85)90009-X
Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In J. P. Mestre & B. H. Ross (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Cognition in education (pp. 37–76). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8
Wilbur, R. C., Kuemmel, A. M., & Lackner, R. J. (2019). Who’s on first? Supervising psychology trainees with disabilities and establishing accommodations. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 13 (2), 111–118. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tep0000231
Training Tomorrow's Scientist-Citizens: Psychology's Essential Mission
Shawn
R. Charlton and Julia Trantham University of Central Arkansas
Higher education faces unprecedented challenges, with declining enrollments and mounting skepticism toward academic institutions. Yet psychology programs have a unique opportunity to demonstrate their value by doubling down on what makes them essential: training students to think scientifically about human behavior in an age when such skills have never been more critical. Consider the stakes. Every day, students encounter claims about human nature through social media, podcasts, and popular culture. Many of these ideas sound plausible but lack scientific support. When psychology majors graduate believing that we only use 10% of our brains or that opposites attract in relationships, we risk missing an opportunity to prepare them—and society—for informed decision making. When students are more focused on “pop psychology” short-form videos from individuals with no psychology experience, they are risking the harmful effects of misinformation and its ability to spread. Harris and colleagues (2021) state that mental health content creators are “relatable and informative,” yet are typically “glamorization and generalization of mental health issues” and “highlight the need for broader research across platforms” due to their lack of experience as professionals in the field. As Bernstein and colleagues (2025) emphasize, these misconceptions don’t just affect test scores; they influence how future parents, teachers, journalists, and policymakers make decisions that impact entire communities. Those who look for accurate information should look upon professionals, and professionals should be firm and accurate in their findings.
The solution isn’t simply teaching more facts, but developing scientific thinking skills from day one. When students learn to ask, “What’s the evidence?” and “How was this study conducted?” they become equipped to navigate our information-rich world. Simple classroom innovations can make a profound difference. Laurin and Kelly (2025) found that having students create and share infographics debunking psychological myths not only reduced their own misconceptions but increased their appreciation for critical thinking—a skill that transfers far beyond psychology. For example, those who do not look deeper may assume that increased mental illness or diagnoses for conditions such as autism spectrum disorder may indicate the rise of a mental health crisis, which is not correct. Autism diagnoses have increased due to “improved screening and diagnostic practices” and “increased public awareness” (Shaw, 2025, as cited in the American Psychological
This scientific emphasis also serves students’ career prospects. Today’s challenges—from climate change to healthcare disparities to technology addiction—all involve human behavior at their core. The APA’s Task Force on Psychology as a STEM Discipline (Bray, 2010) recognized that these “grand challenges” cannot be solved without understanding how people think, feel, and act. Psychology graduates who can design studies, analyze data, and communicate findings clearly are positioned to contribute to solutions across countless fields.
Perhaps most importantly, psychology programs can produce graduates who serve as bridges between scientific knowledge and public understanding. In an era when skepticism about science undermines trust in expertise, we need professionals who can translate research into accessible insights and counter misinformation with evidence-based reasoning.
The path forward requires intentional curricular choices that elevate scientific methods alongside psychological content. By training undergraduates as scientist-citizens, psychology programs prepare graduates who not only succeed in diverse careers but also strengthen society’s ability to make evidence-based decisions. When these students carry their skills into classrooms, clinics, newsrooms, and legislatures, they become bridges between research and public understanding. In a time when misinformation threatens trust in expertise, psychology’s emphasis on scientific thinking offers more than educational reform—it provides a vital contribution to civic life and the resilience of societies that depend on informed decision making.
References
American Psychological Association. (2014). Educational psychology promotes teaching and learning. https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/teaching-learning
American Psychological Association. (2025, September 1). Correcting misinformation about autism.
Bernstein, D. A., Uttl, B., Cameron, E. L., Herold, D., Khanna, M. M., LaCaille, R., Lamana-Finn, K., Redifer, J., McBride, E., Stanley, C. M., Uruena-Agnes, A., & McGee, J. (2025). Harnessing the power of introductory psychology to combat misconceptions about psychology. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 24 (2), 134–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/14757257251329949
Bray, J. H., & APA Presidential Task Force on the Future of Psychology as a STEM Discipline. (2010). Psychology as a core science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) discipline American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/stem-report.pdf
Harris, J., Atkinson, A., Mink, M., & Porcellato, L. (2021). Young people’s experiences and perceptions of YouTuberproduced health content: Implications for health promotion . Health Education & Behavior, 48 (2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198120974964
Laurin, J. N., & Kelly, A. E. (2025). The use of refutational infographics and group sharing to combat psychological myths and promote critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 52 (4). https://doi.org/10.1177/00986283251352543
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Congratulations to Psi Chi's 2025 Scholarship Recipients!
by Psi Chi Awards and Grants
It is an honor to recognize these scholarship recipients for their outstanding dedication to psychology and to society. All student members are encouraged to apply for scholarship funding—the application portal will open in spring 2026.
GRADUATE RECIPIENTS
Justin Bonnieux
Concordia University (CAN)
Born and raised on the west coast of Canada, Justin is pursuing a doctorate in clinical psychology at Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec. This has been an enriching environment—both academically and culturally—where he looks forward to many more years of learning and growth.
I am very grateful to receive this scholarship. Psi Chi has been instrumental in helping me navigate academia and develop my leadership skills. Receiving recognition for my efforts is incredibly encouraging, and the accompanying financial support really helps me focus on continuing my contributions to the field. Thank you.
Emma Garber
San Francisco State University (CA)
Emma is a first-year MS studying industrial/organizational psychology at San Francisco State University. She wants to improve the experience of older adults at work. She earned a BS summa cum laude from the University of the Pacific where she was Psi Chi Chapter president for two years.
By receiving this scholarship, I am able to fully immerse myself in the graduate student experience. I’ve joined multiple labs and am beginning to work on my thesis. This scholarship has allowed me to pursue my dream of conducting research to improve the lives of older adults in the workplace.
Naira Harutyunyan
California State University, Northridge
Naira Harutyunyan is a master’s student in the California State University, Northridge Psychological Science program. She is passionate about psychopathology research and improving science communication. As president of her local chapter of Psi Chi, she aims to help make getting involved in research and accepted into graduate school more accessible.
The support from this generous award truly means a lot. It will allow me to dedicate more time to further my research and lead my local chapter to accomplish our goals. I hope to encourage many other students to join Psi Chi and make the most of their membership.
Laurel Miskovic
Roosevelt University (IL)
Laurel Miskovic is a first-year clinical psychology PsyD student at Roosevelt University. A summa cum laude psychology graduate from Loyola University Chicago, she is passionate about advancing mental health equity through culturally responsive research, clinical practice, and community engagement.
Laurel strives to bridge research and practice to promote mental health equity. She is committed to empowering underserved communities, reducing stigma, and fostering resilience through evidence-based interventions that honor diverse lived experiences.
Angeliene Pangilinan
Pepperdine University (CA)
Angeliene Pangilinan is a U.S. Air Force veteran and clinical psychology graduate student at Pepperdine University. As the Psi Chi Pepperdine GSEP chapter president and Pepperdine student ambassador, she leads with integrity while balancing work and school full-time. Maintaining a 4.0 GPA, Angeliene inspires others through her compassion and service.
The Psi Chi Graduate Scholarship reduces my financial burdens, allowing me to continue balancing work full-time, school full-time, and service with passion and resilience. This financial support brings me closer to fulfilling my goal of becoming an empathetic and socioculturally attuned therapist devoted to healing, uplifting, and empowering underserved communities.
Tram Vo
Harvard University (MA)
Tram is an EdM candidate at the Harvard Graduate School of Education in the Human Development and Education Program. She completed her BA degree in psychology at New York University. During her master’s degree, she is looking to develop her research interests in socioemotional learning across different sociocultural contexts.
With my research interests in socioemotional development across sociocultural settings, I am looking to explore and ground my research work around the topic of equity in research. I hope to explore ways to contribute to the field of cross-cultural studies and community participation in research.
Nicholas Young
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Nicholas Young, a Canadian international student, is currently pursuing his graduate studies in clinical psychology. While an undergraduate at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, he coordinated National Fresh Check Day, worked at the campus counseling center, helped implement a mental health grant, and currently serves on SIUE's JED Campus Initiative team.
This scholarship will support my education and career in clinical psychology, allowing me to focus on improving mental health support through research and practice, particularly around suicidality and intervention effectiveness. By minimizing financial stress, this scholarship will enable me to pursue my goals as a holistic and compassionate clinical psychologist.
INEZ BEVERLY PROSSER SCHOLARSHIP FOR WOMEN OF COLOR
UNDERGRADUATE RECIPIENT
Giang Pham
Lawrence University (WI)
Giang Pham studies psychology, cognitive science, and data science. She explores organizational strategy and user-centered design by examining human cognition, with a focus on applying behavioral science to create accessible, inclusive, and ethical solutions in technology and design. She plans to pursue a career in UX research and human-computer interaction.
Giang seeks to expand psychology’s real-world applications through UX research and human-computer interaction. Her goal is to integrate behavioral science and technology to solve complex problems, advancing human-centered design that prioritizes accessibility, inclusivity, and ethics, while empowering individuals and organizations to thrive in an increasingly digital world.
UNDERGRADUATE RECIPIENTS
Haley Adams
Middle Tennessee State University
Haley is a senior psychology major with minors in mental health services and sociology. She served as her chapter's vice president and is also involved in an independent research project at her campus. She plans to graduate with her bachelor's this fall and pursue a graduate program in clinical psychology.
I am honored to win this scholarship as it allows me financial assistance in gaining higher education at a graduate program in clinical psychology. I am looking forward to my plans of applying this fall to graduate programs in order to pursue my research goals investigating depression and anxiety.
Minal Agrawal
Wesleyan College (GA)
Minal Agrawal is an international student from India majoring in psychology and marketing. She serves as Psi Chi chapter president and holds other leadership positions on campus. She has worked as a research assistant at Wesleyan College and plans to pursue graduate studies in social psychology, focusing on culture and politics.
This award supports Minal’s academic journey as a psychology student and motivates her to continue pursuing meaningful research and service. It empowers her to explore her interests in research and social psychology, strengthens her leadership within her chapter, and inspires her to contribute to the psychology community.
Jennifer Anckner
College of Charleston (SC)
Jenn Anckner is a psychology major in the Honors College at the College of Charleston with a minor in crime, law, and society. She formerly served as chapter Psi Chi president. She plans to pursue a PhD in clinical psychology and further apply forensic psychology to legal reform and advocacy.
This scholarship validates my passion for mental health advocacy and forensic psychology, and it also reduces the financial strain that has challenged my ability to further advance my education. With this award, I can continue working towards my passions.
Tiffany Chen
University of California, Riverside
Tiffany is a third-year undergraduate student majoring in psychology with a minor in business analytics. She serves as chapter president, is a research assistant in two labs, and an editor for a research journal. Tiffany plans on attending graduate school and pursuing a career in the field of industrial/organizational psychology.
I am honored to be selected as one of this year's recipients! Psi Chi has provided me with research opportunities, aid in professional development, and the chance to network with individuals who share a passion for psychology. I am grateful and proud to be a member of an amazing organization.
Lillee Dent
Abilene Christian University (TX)
Lillee is a senior majoring in psychology with a minor in business. She serves as president of her Psi Chi chapter and works as a graduate assistant in the psychology department. Enrolled in graduate-level courses as an undergraduate, she intends to pursue a master’s or PhD in industrial/organizational psychology.
This scholarship has provided me with the opportunity to continue my bachelor's degree by covering essential academic expenses, including tuition, textbooks, and course fees. Additionally, it allows me to allocate resources toward future educational goals, such as saving for graduate school.
Kalem Ringlen
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
Kalem is majoring in psychology with a minor in education. He has had the privilege of serving as both president and vice-president of the university’s Psi Chi chapter. Kalem is passionate about becoming a school psychologist and is dedicated to giving back to his Hawaiʻi community.
This scholarship will help ease the financial challenges of pursuing higher education, particularly as I prepare to apply to graduate school. Beyond recognizing me personally, it also reflects the dedication of our Psi Chi chapter and university to supporting the psychology community.
Emma Streadbeck
Southern Utah University
Emma Streadbeck is a senior at Southern Utah University majoring in psychology with double minors in child development and family services. She has actively researched religion, LGBTQ+ identity, and mental health while serving in leadership roles. She has especially valued her involvement as a Psi Chi member and chapter leader.
Receiving this scholarship empowers me to continue pursuing my education and research at Southern Utah University. I am deeply grateful to the donors for their support. This award strengthens my preparation for graduate school and allows me to further study the impact of religion on mental health.
Alejandro M. Vargas-Rosario
University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez
Alejandro M. Vargas-Rosario is an undergraduate psychology and human welfare student at the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez. He served as the 2024–25 president of Psi Chi chapter at his university. His future aspirations are to pursue a PhD in clinical psychology, specializing in childhood and adolescence.
This scholarship helps me support my goals of becoming a professional in the field of psychology. It fills me with pride being able to represent my chapter at the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez.
CHRISTIAN LADD HALL SCHOLARSHIP
(sponsored by McGraw Hill)
UNDERGRADUATE RECIPIENT
Ally Helle
Mount Marty University (SD)
Ally Helle is a psychology student at Mount Marty University in Watertown, SD. She is a member of Psi Chi and volunteers with CASA, advocating for children in foster care. Ally hopes to continue her education and pursue a career in psychology focused on family advocacy research and mental health.
This scholarship allows me to continue my education without financial stress and to devote more energy toward my studies, research, and service. It reaffirms my commitment to pursuing a career in psychology focused on advocacy, mental health, and improving the lives of children and families.
IPast-President’s Message for FY2025
Susan Becker, PhD Psi Chi Past-President
have been honored to serve as Psi Chi’s President this past academic year (2024–25). Moving into the role of PastPresident has given me a chance to reflect on the hard work and impact of Psi Chi Headquarters staff and the many Board members, committee chairs, volunteers, advisors, chapter leadership, and members. Psi Chi’s goal to support the science of psychology and the next generation of psychological thinkers was met in a number of important ways. Psi Chi worked hard to renew relationships with our membership, increased quality of service (merchandise and graduation regalia), empowered members on their psychology path (grants, awards, scholarships), and increased our spirit of community through the work of committees (Research Advisory Committee, Diversity Advisory Committee, Global Initiatives Advisory Committee), conferences (IGNITE!), and new initiatives (Chapter Support Advisory Committee). In all of these efforts, your participation, input, and support created a very successful year.
I am personally most proud of the increasing sense of community for Psi Chi members worldwide. We are increasing equity through the development of digital certificates for all members, adjusting equitable fees based on the economy of the country where the chapter resides, and expanding presentation opportunities for international
members at regional conventions. This is an opportunity that is continuing to expand and grow nurtured by the Global Initiatives Advisory Committee and Psi Chi’s Regional Vice-Presidents.
I am also very grateful for the philanthropy accomplished by Psi Chi membership. Thanks to the help of many generous donors, Psi Chi was able to waive 371 student membership fees, as well as growing the Christian Ladd Hall Scholarship funds and other worthy activities. Thousands of people donated their time and expertise to Psi Chi through advising chapters and serving as reviewers, committee members, and chapter student leadership. Please take a moment to thank your chapter advisor for their contributions to your Psi Chi experience.
Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to the Board members I was privileged to lead during the last year. They have worked together to increase the fiscal responsibility of our organization by closely examining budgets, setting priorities for good use of the funding available, and exercising care and responsiveness to the feedback of membership. Add to this the amazing job each Regional Vice-President does in organizing the Psi Chi program and distributing awards and grants at each regional convention. We are so lucky to have them in our Psi Chi community. It has been an honor and a privilege.
Psi Chi Board of Director's at the 2024 Board of Director's meeting.
Political Psychology: Deliberately Violating the “Don’t Discuss
Politics at Thanksgiving” Rule
Ethan A. McMahan, PhD Western Oregon University
In high school, I had a friend who was simultaneously very similar to and very different from me. He and I enjoyed the same types of recreational and social activities. But, we avoided discussion of a few larger key issues where we differed in our views. No big deal, right? Sort of. These were “big picture” issues that are, for many folks, fundamental to a basic understanding of the world. They address the beliefs that frame a person’s worldview. So, these issues are often very important to folks, and sometimes people see the world in a different way (perhaps very different). This can then lead to misunderstanding and conflict. One area in which this is particularly true is politics and political beliefs. My friend and I differed in our political orientations, and this often led to “spirited debates.” For example, here is a sample from an exchange between my friend and I on one such issue:
(Me) – … superheroes don’t fight villains in the Hollywood Hills. They fight them downtown. My point is that this doesn’t affect advantaged communities to the same degree
as disadvantaged communities, and you are suggesting that those who are most vulnerable and least able to respond to an emergency be made more vulnerable with an inequitable and predatory tax model.
(My Friend) – I suspect that people will be willing to pay a modest proportion of their income to protect their property in the unfortunate case that Batman shoots a grappling hook through their garage window while chasing down a supervillain.
(Me) – I think Bruce Wayne has enough money to pay for it.
(My Friend) – Regardless of their net worth, superheroes shouldn’t pay for collateral damage caused on the job.
(Me) – Okay fine. But, the little person shouldn’t be on the hook for it either. You’re telling me that, instead of adopting a progressive tax structure, you would prefer that
The preceding was taken from a “conversation” my friend and I had after watching the movie Hancock (starring Will Smith). In the movie, a superhero destroys a neighborhood while attempting to stop a bad guy. This elicited the exchange above about whether superheroes should be financially liable for collateral damage incurred during pursuit of a villain. Eventually, we decided no, but we could never agree on the best taxation model to support the services superheroes provide, inclusive of any financial liabilities associated with performing said services. It got heated, and I don’t remember much about the movie.
After several informal political debates, usually involving the application of our political beliefs to nonsensical or impossible scenarios, we decided it was best that we avoided talking about politics. Ours’ is not a unique experience, and many people similarly avoid talking about it. It is a curious situation, considering that politics is simply, by way of definition, how governments and organizations make the rules, laws, and decisions to manage their societies or groups. It doesn’t sound like a provocative topic. Pretty bland, in fact. Why is it then that politics affect our thinking, feelings, and behavior so much? Mercifully, there are some experts in the chamber, so let’s recognize the guests, and ask the political psychologists.
Politics, but Not Politicians
Political psychologists? Like psychologists who treat politicians? No. Not quite. To understand what political psychologists do, you need to understand what political psychology is. It is an interdisciplinary field that examines the intersection of psychological processes and political behavior, drawing on methods and theories from psychology, political science, sociology, and other social sciences (Béchard et al., 2024). Political psychology seeks to understand the mechanisms behind political behavior, attitudes,
and actions and addresses questions about why individuals hold particular political beliefs, how leaders make decisions, how group identities shape policy preferences, and the effects of media and campaigns on public opinion. Topics frequently explored in political psychology include voting behavior and electoral decision-making, leadership styles and personality analysis of politicians, political communication and media effects, attitude polarization, groupthink in the context of political decisions, racism and prejudice, as well as nationalism, extremism, and terrorism. In more concrete terms, a political psychologist who works in voting behavior and communications might, for example, study the factors that are most likely to influence voter turnout and support for a new dedicated tax to offset the financial cost of a well-meaning but clumsy superhero.1
Where did this field come from? Krypton … a planet populated by super-people.2 Actually, political psychology traces its roots to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Early inquiry was stimulated by major events like the French Revolution and Italian unification, exciting the interest of philosophers, sociologists, and emerging psychological scientists. In the United States, the discipline matured in the early and mid-twentieth century through the integration of psychometric methods and the study of attitude measurement, propaganda, leadership, and group dynamics, particularly during World War II. By the 1970s, the field achieved institutional legitimacy with the establishment of dedicated societies (e.g., the International Society in Political Psychology), journals (e.g., Political Psychology), and university programs (e.g., the one at the Ohio State University). Today, the field continues to evolve in response to new political and social challenges, such as those related to mass polarization, the rise of digital media, the psychological roots of extremism, and the role of identity in politics (Bliuc et al., 2024).
Careers and Education
Political psychology offers various career opportunities in research, academia, consulting, and government. For example, one could work as a political scientist, using psychological insights to study governmental structures, public opinion, political ideologies, and organizational behavior. A campaign manager often has a background in political psychology. Another common job is working as a political consultant or analyst. Alternatively, one can of course become an academic or researcher, teaching and/or conducting political psychology research at colleges and universities. One can be a policy advisor, applying psychological research to the formulation and implementation of public policy. Or, one could also work as a political media analyst. Other roles may be found in international organizations, nonprofits, think tanks, advocacy groups, or lobbying organizations focused on voter behavior, attitude change, and public engagement strategies.
The path to that career as a campaign manager for state representatives who support progressive tax policies funding supervillain-related disaster relief programs is starting to seem more clear. But, what type of education will you need? Political 1 … which they all seem to be, given the number of explosions involved in stopping even the most banal of bank robberies.
2To be clear, that is a superhero joke where I have replaced the character of Superman with an academic field. Not my best joke, but I am leaving it in. I hope you enjoyed it.
psychologists typically follow a multidisciplinary educational path that combines coursework in psychology, political science, and other related fields. Most future political psychologists earn a bachelor’s degree with a concentration in psychology, political science, or a combination thereof. To advance, most pursue a master’s or doctoral degree focused on political psychology or closely related areas (such as social psychology or political science with a political psychology emphasis). Graduate programs are offered at several universities in the United States, including University of California, Irvine, University of Minnesota, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Stony Brook University, and others, as well as internationally in the UK and beyond. Teaching and academic research positions usually require a PhD. More applied careers may require hands-on experience through internships in campaigns, polling organizations, public agencies, or think tanks.
Conclusion
Conceptually, politics are simple (i.e., methods for the management and organization of societies). But, in practice, they can be difficult and often messy. And, people often argue. There are no doubt many reasons for this. In my view, chief among them is the fact that the task is being conducted in a dynamic social environment by imperfect humans, many of whom feel strongly about the importance of the task but differ in their opinions regarding how it should be done. If that sounds complicated, it is. It is very challenging to effectively navigate the political landscape in a way that ultimately increases the common good ... which is the goal we are all going for, right? However, politics are a human activity, and psychologists know a little something about humans. The field of political psychology advances knowledge that allows us to better understand and contextualize the ways in which we humans attempt, succeed, and/or fail at organizing ourselves, or more broadly, engage in politics and address the task. Continuing to do so in a changing, often adversarial political environment, while navigating contemporary challenges is a task of superheroic proportions. Perhaps you are up to it. Perhaps you can be one of those superheroes. If so, you should know that I will argue strongly (with good friends, if needed) for appropriate policies that support your superheroic work.
Quick Note. My wife, who is also an academic psychologist, 3 asked me what this column was going to be about. I told her, and she said that the topic was timely. I agreed. In the United States, and in many other corners of the world, our political “discourse” seems particularly dysfunctional right now. Perhaps it has been this way before. I don’t know, am probably too young to remember, and don’t have the perspective to say for certain. But, I believe that well-meaning psychologists can help improve the situation. One of the primary goals of our profession is to promote the common good and human well-being. Because of the accumulated knowledge of our discipline, we are familiar with the best and worst of human nature. We have at least a rudimentary understanding of cognition, emotion, and behavior, gleaned from the knowledge of those who came before us and about 175 or so years of our own research and professional practice. It helps when this understanding is applied in good faith towards the effective management of political life and decision-making. We may not only function better but also fight 3 …and a far more capable one than I.
less and get along more. And, at the end of the day, organization of a group, society, and nation is fundamentally about people getting along while all moving forward together.
Resources and Further Reading
Osborne, D., & Sibley, C. G. (2022). Political psychology: Advancing an international perspective on the psychology of political behaviour. In D. Osborne & C. G. Sibley (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of political psychology (pp. 3–21). Cambridge University Press.
The International Society of Political Psychology (ISPP). https://ispp.org/
References
Béchard, B., Bodet, M. A., Laflamme, L., & Ouimet, M. (2024). Studying political decision-making as a cognitive process: Is it interdisciplinary? A bibliometric analysis. Frontiers in Political Science, 6, 1305055. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2024.1305055
Bliuc, A. M., Betts, J. M., Vergani, M., Bouguettaya, A., & Cristea, M. (2024). A theoretical framework for polarization as the gradual fragmentation of a divided society. Communications Psychology, 2 (1), 75. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-024-00125-1
Ethan A. McMahan, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences at Western Oregon University where he teaches courses in research methods, advanced research methods, and positive psychology. He is passionate about undergraduate education in psychology and has served Psi Chi members in several ways over the last few years, including as a faculty advisor, Psi Chi Western Region Steering Committee Member, Grants Chair, and most recently, as the Western Regional Vice-President of Psi Chi. His research interests focus on the relationship between nature and human well-being. His recent work examines how exposure to immersive simulations of natural environments impact concurrent emotional state and, more broadly, how regular contact with natural environments may be one route by which individuals achieve optimal feeling and functioning. He has published in the Journal of Positive Psychology, the Journal of Happiness Studies, Personality and Individual Differences, and Ecopsychology, among other publications. He completed his undergraduate training at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs and holds a PhD in experimental psychology from the University of Wyoming.
Mind Over Body? Dissociative Identity Disorder in the Movie Split
Chloe Butz, Marah Saleme, and Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg, PhD Saint Francis University (PA)
Note: This article is for educational and entertainment purposes and should not be used as a substitute for professional mental health advice, diagnosis, or treatment. If you or someone you know is struggling with symptoms of dissociative identity disorder (DID) or any other mental health condition, please seek support from a qualified healthcare provider.
The movie Split (2016), written, produced, and directed by M. Night Shyamalan, was released in the United States in 2017. The second in Shyamalan’s Unbreakable trilogy, Split is defined as a “stealth sequel,” since it was originally marketed as a standalone movie, and its connection to the original story was only later revealed. With a focus on a controversial psychological disorder, at times the movie adheres to scientific evidence, and at times, it diverges into a stigmatized misrepresentation of mental health.
The Storyline
The movie centers around the character, Kevin Wendell Crumb (played by James McAvoy), a man with 23 distinct identities who undergoes psychological treatment by his therapist, Dr. Karen Fletcher (played by Betty Buckley). In preparation for the emergence of Kevin’s 24th identity, “The Beast,” he kidnaps three young girls and imprisons them in an underground section of the Philadelphia Zoo. One of them, Casey (played by Anya Taylor-Joy) manages to understand Kevin’s condition and is ultimately spared by The Beast.
The Diagnosis
Kevin’s story depicts a psychological condition known as dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as multiple personality disorder (MPD). In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), its diagnostic criteria includes a disruption of
identity (characterized by two or more distinct personality states), which involves marked discontinuity in sense of self and sense of agency, and is accompanied by related alterations in affect, behavior, consciousness, memory, perception, cognition, and/or sensorymotor functioning. With the addition of recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal information, and/ or traumatic events, the condition cannot be attributed to cultural or religious practice. However, it can result from the physiological effects of a substance/specific medical condition, or in children— explained by imagination/fantasy play (Brand et al., 2014).
Although an exact cause is unknown (and is likely a mix of environmental and behavioral components) DID is commonly ascribed to severe and repeated childhood trauma, as individuals with DID show the highest rates of early life trauma compared with all other clinical groups (Spiegel et al., 2011). It is theorized that the individual may disconnect from their body and emotions as an adaptive response to the trauma in an attempt to prevent the traumatic events from being integrated into their autobiographical memory. With time, these dissociated behavioral states, which encapsulate and provide relief from the trauma, may become subjectively personified and begin to develop along different developmental trajectories. Thus, fragmented self-states (e.g., alters or personalities) may present discrete behaviors, cognitions, and perceptions. Because experiences endured during alternative self-states may become disjointed from memory, the person may experience dissociative amnesia (also termed inter-identity amnesia) for events that occurred, or behavior performed, while dissociated (Beker et al., 2024; Brand et al., 2014; Şar et al., 2017; Speaking of Psychology, 2018). Kevin was abused as a child by his mother and his father had passed away, which could depict a cause for his condition of DID. Although the prevalences of DID in the general population is estimated at about 1%, and the fact that DID has been diagnosed in individuals across a variety of societal and cultural settings (Şar et al., 2017), the diagnosis remains the subject of considerable controversy, with many disputing its validity and portraying it as the result of false memory (Speaking of Psychology, 2018).
Myth vs. Truth
Although the movie well-represents some clinical data, it also reinforces inaccurate, stigmatizing, and potentially harmful myths of Dissociative Identity Disorder. The common attribution of DID to developmental traumatization—especially at a young age—(Brand et al., 2014) is reflected in Kevin’s history of horrific abuse by his mom and abandonment by his dad (which is explained in the third movie of the trilogy, Glass, released in 2019). The neat and organized nature of the self-state identified as “Dennis” seems to hold memories of violence inflicted upon Kevin by his mom when he “made a mess,” and the childish 9-year-old state named “Hedwig” may have been “created” at a corresponding age of Kevin’s development. With bossy “Patricia,” artistic “Barry,” and other selves, the movie seems to follow the clinical description of differential self-states within the individual. Although scarce, studies have documented some physiological differences across alter states in DID, including differences in dominant handedness, response to the same medication, allergic sensitivities, autonomic and endocrine function (Birnbaum & Thomann, 1996), as well as visual acuity and color vision (Bhuvaneswar & Spiegel, 2013). Additional data points to differential patterns of brain activation between selves in patients with DID (Reinders et al., 2006; Reinders
et al., 2012; Reinders et al., 2019; Schlumpf et al., 2014), as well as to neurostructural and neurofunctional differences between patients with DID and control participants (Dimitrova et al., 2023; Şar et al., 2017; Schlumpf et al., 2014). As such, some physiological variations between Kevin’s selves (including Jade’s presumed diabetes), may actually be possible. The possibility of these variations show truth to depiction of this character in the movie.
On the other hand, Kevin’s transformation into The Beast is highly questionable. As Kevin transitions into this new self, he develops superhuman strength, wall-climbing skills, impermeable skin, huge muscle mass, and improved vision—alternations which lack scientific support and are highly unlikely in the context of DID. Moreover, while individuals who suffer from DID are at high risk of harming themselves (Speaking of Psychology, 2018), for example the portrayal of The Beast as a murderous being can reinforce negative stereotyping and propagate harmful stigmatization of mental health disorders. With the potential to negatively impact the self-perception of individuals with DID, the fear of judgment or discrimination associated with DID may even prevent affected individuals from seeking mental help.
Another misrepresentation of DID in Split pertains to memory disfunction. While mutual awareness, one-way amnesia, two-way amnesia (Dorahy, 2001), and the transfer of some memories
(Beker et al., 2024; Kong et al., 2008) has been documented across dissociative selves, the illustration of Kevin’s selves as residing in the same space, sharing collective access to Kevin’s memories, and battling to take “the light” (a metaphor of Kevin’s consciousness or executive control), may be a far stretch from reality.
Back to the Comix
In contrast to Unbreakable, the first movie in the series which focuses on traditional superhero characters, Split attempts to ground fantasy into reality, presenting a presumed connection between mental disorders and the development of superpowers. Highlighting the power of the mind, it lays groundwork to the idea that extreme capabilities may develop due to the person’s convictions (or in this case, mental condition). Moreover, the introduction of The Beast undermines the traditional hero vs. villain dichotomy of comix. Specifically, while in Unbreakable, the invincible David Dunn (played by Bruce Willis) battles the genius yet fragile Elijah Price (Mr. Glass, played by Samuel L. Jackson), both fit into the comix roles of good and evil. The Beast, portrayed as a monster who is fed on the impure (those who have not suffered), can also be seen as Kevin’s ultimate attempt to protect himself, creating a superhuman version of himself. In addition, when The Beast sees Casey’s scars, which are related to her abuse by her uncle, he spares her life. In Glass we discover that he inspired her to report her uncle and claim ownership of her life. As such, The Beast becomes the victim, perpetrator, and rescuer, all at once. Interestingly, Shyamalan has noted that, with The Beast’s superpowers, the movie highlights an essential theme: The notion that there are extraordinary powers in everyone. Powers can vary from person to person and makes each one of us unique.
In Conclusion
Ultimately, Split offers a gripping yet controversial exploration of DID, blending elements of psychological reality with fictional dramatization. With additional research into this condition, we may be able to better understand the differences between scientific fact and creative fiction, battle the stigma against mental health, and foster empathy for those who suffer from psychological disorders.
References
Beker, J. C., Dorahy, M. J., Moir, J., & Cording, J. (2024). Inter-identity amnesia and memory transfer in dissociative identity disorder: A systematic review with a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 114 102514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102514
Bhuvaneswar, C., & Spiegel, D. (2013). An eye for an I: A 35-year-old woman with fluctuating oculomotor deficits and dissociative identity disorder. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 61 (3), 351–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207144.2013.784115
Birnbaum, M. H., & Thomann, K. (1996). Visual function in multiple personality disorder. Journal of the American Optometric Association, 67 (6), 327–334. Brand, B., Loewenstein, R., & Lanius, R. (2014). Dissociative identity disorder. Gabbard’s treatments of psychiatric disorder American Psychiatric Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9781585625048.gg24
Dimitrova, L. I., Dean, S. L., Schlumpf, Y. R., Vissia, E. M., Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Chatzi, V., Jäncke, L., Veltman, D. J., Chalavi, S., & Reinders, A. A. T. S. (2023). A neurostructural biomarker of dissociative amnesia: A hippocampal study in dissociative identity disorder. Psychological Medicine, 53 (3), 805–813. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721002154
Kong, L. L., Allen, J. J. B., & Glisky, E. L. (2008). Interidentity memory transfer in dissociative identity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117 (3), 686–692. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.117.3.686
Reinders, A. A., Nijenhuis, E. R., Quak, J., Korf, J., Haaksma, J., Paans, A. M., Willemsen, A. T., & den Boer, J. A. (2006). Psychobiological characteristics of dissociative identity disorder: A symptom provocation study. Biological Psychiatry, 60 (7), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.12.019
Reinders, A. A. T. S., Marquand, A. F., Schlumpf, Y. R., Chalavi, S., Vissia, E. M., Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Dazzan, P., Jäncke, L., & Veltman, D. J. (2019). Aiding the diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder: Pattern recognition study of brain biomarkers. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 215 (3), 536–544. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.255
Reinders, A. A. T. S., Willemsen, A. T. M., Vos, H. P. J., den Boer, J. A., & Nijenhuis, E. R. S. (2012). Fact or factitious? A psychobiological study of authentic and simulated dissociative identity states. PLOS ONE, 7 (6), e39279.
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Schlumpf, Y. R., Reinders, A. A., Nijenhuis, E. R., Luechinger, R., van Osch, M. J., & Jäncke, L. (2014). Dissociative partdependent resting-state activity in dissociative identity disorder: A controlled fMRI perfusion study. PloS one, 9 (6), e98795.
Shyamalan, M. N. (Director). (2016). Split [Film]. Universal Pictures.
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Marah Saleme is a fourth-year student at Saint Francis University, pursuing a bachelor’s degree in health science with a minor in psychology, and a master’s degree in occupational therapy. Marah is on track to earn her master’s in 2027. If she is not in the classroom or studying, you can find her enjoying the outside air, on a walk, getting coffee, and being around her friends and family.
Chloe Butz is a fourth-year student at Saint Francis University and is working towards a bachelor’s in health science and a master’s degree in occupational therapy. She is set to graduate with my masters in 2027! After graduation she plans to work in a pediatric setting; helping children achieve utmost confidence and independence. She enjoys all things baking and athletics. In her free time, you can find her at the beach, on a run, at the gym, or with friends/family. :)
Shlomit Flaisher-Grinberg, PhD, is an associate professor of psychology at Saint Francis University, where she also serves as the coordinator of the animal-assisted health and education minor and as a cocoordinator of the interdisciplinary neuroscience minor. Her research interests include the neurobiological mechanisms underlying mood and anxiety disorders, the mutually beneficial effects of the human-animal bond, and the impact of training on the adoption outcomes of shelter animals. She enjoys hiking and spending time with animals. Email her at sfgrinberg@francis.edu
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Questions (and Answers) About Funding Your Graduate School Education
Julie Radico, PsyD, ABPP
Psychological and Consultation Services, LLC
Navigating the financial landscape of graduate school can feel like a daunting task. Do you have questions about funding options, student loans, and financial aid? In this edition of our Three Heads ARE Better Than One series, our experts will guide you through the maze of funding your graduate school education. Discover practical advice, personal experiences, and valuable resources that will help you make informed decisions and alleviate financial stress as you pursue your academic goals.
What was your biggest financial challenge during graduate school, and how did you overcome it?
Radico: Making thoughtful financial decisions about your education is such an important topic. Personally, I paid for all of my undergrad and graduate school through student loans. I lived at home and was luckily able to commute (about an hour each way for both schools). Although my parents couldn’t help pay for my schooling, I did not have to pay rent so was able to use the money I made working 25–35 hours a week all throughout undergrad and grad school to pay for other incidentals (e.g. car, insurance, clothes).
Turner-Musa, PhD
before I started my program. I was promised a research fellowship based in part on funding from a federal grant. Unfortunately, the grant was not funded. So, my parents took out a loan to fund my first year of graduate school. After that, I received funding through the graduate school, other programs, and when necessary, worked part-time.
Prinstein: I had student loans to pay for personal expenses and travel to research conferences while I was in graduate school. A very exciting resource for students to learn about is the NIH loan repayment program, which offers a payback of student loans for those pursuing a career conducting psychological research. This was a fantastic program that allowed me to stay focused on research., which tends to pay a bit lower than clinical practice, and have my loans taken care of by the federal government. I hope that this program continues, and if so, it is a wonderful resource to help pay back any debt accrued in graduate school.
Can you walk us through how you researched and applied for financial aid or scholarships? Any tips for standing out?
Jocelyn
Morgan State University (MD)
Mitch Prinstein, PhD, ABPP University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill
Radico
Turner-Musa: My biggest financial challenge occurred
Radico: Both undergrad and graduate students have access to apply for FAFSA (Free Application for Federal Student Aid). Depending on the program you are applying to, your graduate tuition may be covered by the institution. This tends to be more common, though not guaranteed, through PhD programs. (My colleagues can likely tell you more about PhD programs.) I completed a PsyD program and did not have access to such tuition coverage. Back in my day (did I make myself sound old enough yet?) those attending PsyD programs had access to take out a high amount of student loans through the Graduate PLUS loan program. It appears this program will not exist as of 2026, so it will be important for those who plan to rely on student loans to be informed about tuition costs, loan access, and the interest rates of each type of loan.
Turner-Musa: After my first year, I took advantage of opportunities shared by faculty members. One such opportunity was a fellowship through an organization that matched me with a government agency that provided applied research experience in the Department of Defense. My work there provided excellent experience and funding to support my education. I also spoke with the graduate school about funding opportunities available through the university.
Prinstein: In most accredited PhD programs in clinical psychology, a tuition waiver is granted, and a small stipend is offered to all doctoral students for about 4 to 5 years of in-residence training. Once a student begins their predoctoral internship, it is usually not necessary to pay for tuition, and the internship offers a somewhat larger salary. In nonclinical doctoral programs, it is possible to apply for an NSF graduate research fellowship, which offers very generous support for three years of graduate training and innovative research. This is an outstanding option for many graduate students. It is also worth exploring the NIH National Research Service Awards (F31 awards) to fund research that addresses health priorities in the United States. These are available to graduate students in all types of psychology, doctoral programs. Several private foundations, including the Ford Foundation, similarly offer outstanding fellowships to support graduate students and their work.
How did you decide whether to take out student loans, and what factors influenced that decision?
Radico: I had to rely on student loans for several reasons. I received some tuition assistance through FAFSA and student achievement. I encourage students to be savvy and look for scholarships and awards. Psi Chi has awards The American Psychological Association also compiles many awards available to undergrad and grad students.
Turner-Musa: The only loan I received was during my first year. After that, I applied for fellowships and university assistantships. I was determined not to take out student loans as a graduate student because I had some student debt from my undergraduate program. Fortunately, there were other funding resources available at the time. I strongly recommend that you speak with your faculty advisor and the graduate school to find out about other funding
opportunities such as fellowships, grants, tuition awards, and assistantships. Professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association and the Association of Psychological Science offer awards. There are also funding opportunities via the Federal Government (e.g., National Science Foundation).
Prinstein: A research career requires attendance at scientific conferences to present posters and scientific presentations. Although some travel awards are available through these conferences and sometimes through one’s university, it is nevertheless expensive. My student loans helped me keep pace with the cost of living, but also helped me purchase a computer and attend research conferences.
What are the pros and cons of working as a teaching assistant or research assistant while in grad school? And do you have any tips for acquiring these opportunities?
Radico: If you can work in such positions and it aligns with your specialty area within psychology, this could be a great way to defer some of your tuition costs/earn income while you are also building your CV. Be mindful to know your bandwidth and be able to balance work, school, self-care, and your personal relationships. Graduate school is a marathon, not a sprint; you need to be sure you have ample support and are taking care of yourself.
Turner-Musa: Working as a teaching or research assistant provides you with an opportunity to work closely with a faculty member while at the same time acquiring skills that can strengthen your CV and marketability. This is also paid work, so funding is definitely a plus. Among the cons is time. As a teaching or research assistant, you may have to devote quite a bit of time to completing tasks associated with the position. As mentioned, this means balancing work, school, your personal life, and just taking time out for self. In terms of tips for acquiring these opportunities, just ask. When you are applying for graduate school, you should ask about teaching and research assistantships and criteria for obtaining them. At Morgan State University, some of our teaching assistants work as discussion leaders for our General Psychology courses. Others work as instructors in some of our psychology courses. They have been a great support to our department, and our undergraduate students look up to them as near peer mentors.
Prinstein: Most graduate students serve as a research or a teaching assistant, which provides not only funding, but valuable training in the activities. One is expected to perform as a faculty member. Usually the work is not too onerous, and hopefully it is designed to be as much a training experience for you as it is a help to the faculty member that you are assisting.
Did you explore any unconventional ways to fund your education—such as fellowships, employer reimbursement, or side gigs? And would you recommend these ideas to others?
Radico: During grad school, I worked in a Supportive Living Program (SLP) helping adults with severe mental illness for 6
years during my education. I also worked retail on the weekends for those 6 years and a work-study job at my grad school for 2 of those years. While the Recovery Program (SLP) work did not offer tuition reimbursement, it was directly aligned with my education. My work-study provided me with time to do school work, after completing work assignments. If you need to work, I’d encourage you to consider finding a job that helps tell the story of how that work is preparing you for the type of internship, postdoctoral fellowship, or career you want.
Turner-Musa: Yes indeed. To supplement my fellowships, I had a few strategic “side gigs.” What I mean is that my “side gigs” were related to my research interests at the time. I did survey research and data collection for a research and evaluation firm, I worked for a call center where I conducted opinion research, and I worked for a company where I assisted in advertising the company to secure new clients. These experiences provided important skills I would later use in graduate school and beyond.
Prinstein: In many clinical psychology doctoral programs, students are strongly discouraged, or sometimes even prohibited, from pursuing outside work. The time spent on the graduate curriculum, completing one’s research, and also accruing the clinical experience necessary for training and eventual internship placement, already equals many, many hours each week. This may be why most programs offered a tuition waiver, and a stipend for all graduate students, so it is not necessary to pursue additional employment.
How did financial stress (if any) impact your academic performance or mental health, and what support systems helped?
Radico: The graduate school guilt is real. I remember when I would spend time with my family/friends or go to bed early that I would often be plagued with thoughts like “You should be studying” or “You could be working on your paper/dissertation.” Despite these thoughts and feelings, I made sure to spend time with loved ones and engage in enjoyable activities. Grad school spans many years of your life. It is important to look back and know that you worked hard, but also that you didn’t lose yourself or people important to you during that time.
Turner-Musa: While financial stress was real, it did not impact my academic performance or mental health. I was very fortunate and had a strong support system in my family and partner. In fact, I met my partner while in graduate school and he was extremely helpful. He supported me in many ways, including providing me with social outlets needed to relax and take a little time away from school. This is very important.
Prinstein: Student loans accrue lots of interest while one is completing their graduate training, and most psychologists do not earn enough money to pay them off rapidly following graduation, which can cause future financial stress. This is why the loan repayment program is a valuable resource to ensure that students are able to address the most important scientific questions necessary to advance the health of the American people.
What
advice would you give to students weighing the cost of graduate school against future career opportunities?
Radico: You can do a lot of really engaging, exciting, and rewarding work as a psychologist. There are amazing colleagues and clients to support and learn from in this profession. Even with that in mind, there can be significant costs (e.g., financial, time, and energy) with grad school. Be mindful to be as informed as you possibly can about the realities of those costs and what type of work and lifestyle you will need to pursue to overcome those costs (e.g., pay off your debt, work in a nonprofit to obtain loan forgiveness).
Turner-Musa: Graduate school is expensive. The strategies provided in this column may help to mitigate financial challenges. That said, if you are interested in advancing your career in psychology, it is worth it. Do your homework to find ways to pay for your education and reduce debt. There are so many opportunities available to you in psychology today, and if this your chosen discipline, just do it. The future is yours.
Prinstein: Some students need to support family members while they are in graduate school, and the amount of their stipend may have extreme consequences for themselves and others. For all other students, however, it is likely more important to select a program that offers the best possible training and the best possible match with a research mentor rather than to select a program based on a couple thousand dollars more stipend.
Julie Radico, PsyD, ABPP, is a Pennsylvania licensed clinical psychologist, board-certified in clinical health psychology. She has extensive experience in multidisciplinary patient-centered clinical care, education, research, wellness, and leadership. She earned her doctoral degree in clinical psychology and master’s degrees (clinical psychology & counseling and clinical health psychology) at the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. Dr. Radico completed her postdoctoral fellowship in the department of Family Medicine at the University of Mississippi Medical Center. Dr. Radico serves in leadership positions for the American Psychological Association, Pennsylvania Psychological Association, American Academy of Clinical Health Psychology, APA Society for Health Psychologists, and the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine (STFM).
Jocelyn Turner-Musa, PhD, is a professor and chairperson of the Department of Psychology at Morgan State University (MSU) in Baltimore, MD. She is the director of student training in the MSU ASCEND Center for Biomedical Research, funded by the National Institutes of Health. She is also a member of the American Psychological Association and is Past-President of Division 1, The Society for General Psychology. Her research focuses on understanding the role of psychological and social factors on disease management and health promotion. Dr. Turner-Musa has received numerous awards including an American Fellows Award from the American Association of University Women.
Mitch Prinstein, PhD, ABPP, is the Chief Science Officer of the American Psychological Association and the John Van Seters Distinguished Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He has published over 150 peer-reviewed papers and nine books, including The Portable Mentor: Expert Guide to a Career in Psychology.
Career Planning in Uncertain Times? Smart Moves for What’s Next
Diane A. Safer, PhD Albert Einstein College of Medicine (NY)
Anew school year is always a mix of excitement and anxiety, but this year, add in the extra uncertainty of the economy and job market, and it’s easy to feel overwhelmed. Navigating this reality is like surfing on a sand dune. The ground is constantly shifting, the slope is unpredictable, and the path that looked solid one moment can slide out from under you the next. Because you have little control, success depends less on controlling the terrain and more on how you move with it. You need to find your balance and adjust quickly to any changes to make it to the end.
A lot your success relies on your mindset. As psychology students, you may already understand the power of mindset. Think about it as the superpower that shapes how you respond to challenges, adapt to change, and pursue your goals. But mindset alone isn’t enough; it works best when paired with action. You can take practical steps to make smart choices, even when the future feels unpredictable. This article offers some suggestions for things
you can do now to help you keep steady and moving forward over that ever-changing marketplace terrain.
Step 1: Assess the Current Job Market
Economic trends are shifting and uncertain right now, and news about layoffs feels huge and uncontrollable. This year, the psychology job market presents a complex picture. We know that federal funding cuts to programs with the Department of Health and Human Services, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, and the Veterans Administration (Abrams, 2025) have impacted research opportunities, including affecting psychology research and psychologists. However, as these budget cuts and job losses increase anxiety and feelings of uncertainty, they have led to a growing demand for mental health services, indicating an area of growth for those in the psychology field.
A review (Deering, 2025) of salary data and employment projections from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics to determine the
top jobs in psychology or related fields found that mental health counselors topped the list. Also on the list were industrial-organizational psychologists and counselors in educational, guidance, and school and vocational settings. Another report suggested that careers in psychedelic-assisted therapy, workplace mental wellness, and jobs in AI+psychology were fast-growing psychology niches to watch (HRFuture.net, 2025). In addition, the incredible rise in AI jobs adds further areas for psychologists to explore, such as jobs in User Experience (UX; Lee, 2017), development of app-based therapy programs (Stringer, 2025), and behavioral design (Johnson, n.a.).
It’s important to understand the economy and be aware of job market trends, but make sure to find reputable sources of information such as the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the American Psychological Association Use this information to identify which career paths align with both your interests and the realities of the market. Instead of seeing uncertainty as a threat, treat it like data. Test different roles by doing internships or finding volunteer opportunities. Reflect on what you enjoy, what works for you, what doesn’t—then adjust your plan. Psychology is all about observing, analyzing, and adapting. You need to apply this to exploring career paths as well. Learn about career paths in areas that are growing and that sound interesting to you. Then use this time in school to build skills that are transferable and sought by employers.
Step 2: Build Your Network
When the future feels uncertain, it’s easy to get caught up in the idea that you have to figure it all out on your own. But life, and your path to a career, rarely unfolds without the impact of others. The people you meet along the way play a big role in shaping your path. The good news is that you already have a network. Your network consists of your classmates, peers, professors, and mentors. Grow your network further by reaching out to alumni or contacting people working in areas that interest you. Talking with others can provide guidance and reassurance, but it can also spark opportunities you might never have considered. So building your network now is essential. Change your mindset about networking. The prospect of networking can be intimidating at first. One way to ease that feeling is to think of it less as asking for favors and more as building relationships. Start small: Introduce yourself to classmates outside of your usual circle or strike up a conversation with a professor after class. Then reach out further: Ask your school if they have an alumni database, a mentoring program, or any upcoming career panels. These are great opportunities to learn about different career paths and to hear how others are navigating shifts in their industries. You might even ask, “Have you noticed any changes or challenges in your field recently?” to show that you are paying attention to the current environment and to get insights to learn what’s really going on.
Approach people with genuine curiosity. A simple message like, “I’m interested in your field and would love to hear how you got started,” can open the door to valuable connections. This type of outreach, formally called an informational interview, is simply a casual career conversation, and these conversations can be impactful (Safer, 2023). Unlike a job interview, the focus isn’t on preparing answers about yourself; it’s about listening, learning, and building rapport. And these conversations can happen anywhere from conferences, career fairs, networking receptions to virtual events. When you attend an event, think beyond the formal programming that is being offered. There is real value in
connecting with the people in the room, not just in absorbing the information presented. Generally, most people enjoy sharing their stories, though it’s worth remembering that in uncertain times, they may also be facing challenges of their own and you should be sensitive to their time and circumstances.
Maintain relationships. Many people think of networking as growing their number of connections on LinkedIn. Networking is not just making one-time connections, it’s about staying in touch. So certainly, connect on LinkedIn or share contact information. But then, send a thank-you note to show gratitude for a conversation, follow up on any advice that was provided, share an experience you had, or send an article that you think would be interesting. In uncertain times, you can also check in by sharing resources that may be helpful to the other person. These small steps keep relationships alive. It’s never too early or too late to build or reconnect with people in your network.
Step 3: Engage in Self-Reflection
Building and maintaining relationships is essential, but it’s only one step of navigating an uncertain marketplace. Equally important is turning inward, taking time to understand yourself. As you monitor the job market and grow your network, you need to have an understanding of yourself to help you make decisions, even when the future is unclear.
Self-assessment involves determining your strengths, interests, and values, and provides a foundation for making career decisions, especially when the future feels unclear. There are many online self-assessment tools, such as personality tests (e.g., 16personalities.com), value assessments (e.g., values sort), interests evaluations (e.g., O*Net Interest Profiler), and strengths assessments (e.g., CliftonStrengths). See what is available online for free and, before you pay for anything out-of-pocket, check if your institution’s career services office or your company’s HR department offers any free assessments. The self-awareness you will gain can help you identify where there might be some gaps in your skills or experiences. It can also help you articulate your skills and goals to potential employers.
More and more employers are focusing on skills-based hiring, which is hiring based on the specific skills and abilities you have, rather than just considering your academic standing and/or previous work experience. In fact, the National Association of Colleges and Employers’ (NACE) Annual Job Outlook Survey reports that the majority of employers are now using skills-based hiring practices always or most of the time. Therefore, it’s important to be aware of the skills employers are seeking. According to NACE (2025), top skills employers are looking for include problem solving, communication (written and verbal), technical, and analytical skills. Soft skills such as ability to work on a team, take initiative, demonstrate a strong work ethic, be flexible, and pay attention to detail are also highly sought.
Both self-assessment and self-awareness are strengthened by the practice of self-reflection, the deliberate process of pausing to evaluate your experiences and choices. For example, after you finish a summer internship, you might reflect not only on the what you did but also on what energized you, what felt draining, and what skills you want to develop further. Self-reflection is critical for long-term career success because it fosters communication skills, empathy, time management, and other qualities that employers value (Castrillon, 2023). Research shows that self-reflection was
positively correlated with people’s ability to prepare for, adapt, and adjust to social and environmental changes (Ran et al., 2023).
Step 4: Develop Your Skills
Once you’ve identified your strengths, interests, and any areas for growth, the next step is to actively build the skills and experiences that will carry you forward.
You can grow through formal learning such as online courses or certifications. That might mean taking a short course in statistics, coding, or UX research or joining webinars on emerging areas like AI in psychology or mental health technology. You can also grow through informal learning, such as leading a club on campus, working with a mentor, or volunteering for a project. You will be learning both practical and technical skills but also developing those transferable skills—like communication, problem-solving, and cultural competence—which are adaptable across many careers. Employers and graduate programs value students who are flexible and prepared for a range of roles.
Conclusion
While the current job market presents challenges, it also offers opportunities for those who stay informed, are aware of their strengths and interests, and who have built valuable skills.
It’s key to embrace flexibility. As the job market shifts, curiosity, openness to new experiences, and a commitment to learning can make you more resilient to change. The ability to pivot and adjust career plans in response to changing circumstances is invaluable in today’s dynamic job market. Think of each role as a chance to learn, grow, and pivot. Your first job may not be your dream job, but you will find that seemingly unrelated experiences provide valuable transferable skills.
Whether you’re a first-year student excited about the possibilities ahead or a senior preparing to enter a turbulent job market, it’s important to approach challenges intentionally, learning from missteps, and adjusting along the way. With the right mindset,
connections, and skills, you can move forward even when the ground feels unsteady. Approach your career with curiosity, adaptability, and self-awareness, and treat challenges as opportunities to learn and grow. By practicing these habits, you’ll be better able to stay steady and keep going, no matter how things shift around you.
References
Abrams, Z. (2025). Psychology faces unprecedented challenges amid federal actions and funding cuts. Monitor on Psychology, 56 (5), 26. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2025/07-08/psychology-under-siege Castrillon, C. (2023, March 13). Why self-awareness is essential for career success. https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolinecastrillon/2023/03/12/why-self-awareness-is-essential-for-career-success/ Deering, M. (2025, July 9). These are the fastest growing jobs in psychology in 2025. https://www.psychology.org/resources/fastest-growing-careers-in-psychology/ HRFuture.net. (2025). Top 12 best psychology jobs in 2025: High-paying, fulfilling careers for psychology graduates. Retrieved August 25 from https://www.hrfuture.net/strategy-operations/hr-trends-trending/ top-12-best-psychology-jobs-in-2025-high-paying-fulfilling-careers-for-psychology-graduates/ Johnson, E. (N.A.). How to start a career in behavioral design. https://www.nirandfar.com/behavioral-design/ Lee, G. (2017, March 12). Having a Psychology background is already a huge step towards User Experience (UX) Medium.com.
NACE. (2025). The attributes employers look for on new grad resumes—and how to showcase them https://www.naceweb.org/about-us/press the-attributes-employers-look-for-on-new-grad-resumes- andhow-to-showcase-them
Ran, J., Liu, H., Yuan, Y., Yu, X., & Dong, T. (2023). Linking career exploration, self-reflection, career calling, career adaptability and subjective well-being: A self-regulation theory perspective. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 16 2805–2817. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.S420666
Safer, D. A. (2023, Spring). Embarking on career exploration? Start a career conversation. Eye on Psi Chi, 27 (3), 14–16. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-9812.Eye27.3.14
Stringer, H. (2025). Technology is reshaping practice to expand psychology’s reach. Monitor on Psychology, 56 66. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2025/01/trends-technology-shaping-practice
Diane A. Safer, PhD, is the inaugural director of career and professional development for graduate students and postdocs and an assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Services at Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the Bronx, NY. A former business professional with more than 20 years of experience in PR firms serving healthcare/biotech companies, Diane ran her own information consulting company for 10 years before moving to career and professional development. Dr. Safer is actively engaged with national organizations that support graduate education, research training, and career development, including the AAMC Graduate Research Education and Training (GREAT) Group, the Graduate Career Consortium (GCC), and the National Postdoctoral Association (NPA). Diane completed her BA in psychology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and earned her MA and PhD in social psychology at Columbia University in New York, NY.
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From Psi Chi Member to Mentor: An Interview With Dave Brocker, MA
When Dave Brocker first joined Psi Chi in 2015 as a transfer student at SUNY Farmingdale, he had no idea that, nearly a decade later, he would be leading the very same induction ceremony at the very same campus as faculty mentor and keynote speaker. From his early days conducting cognitive psychology research to his current work studying person perception and dehumanization, Brocker’s journey embodies the spirit of Psi Chi: lifelong curiosity, professional growth, and giving back to the community that helped shape him. In a virtual interview, Brocker reflects on his path from student to educator, the value of research and mentorship, and how Psi Chi continues to influence his teaching and career today.
From Student to Lecturer at Brocker’s Alma Mater
Brocker was inducted into Psi Chi at SUNY Farmingdale after transferring from a local community college. He recalls that it felt like a really exciting moment when he was told he met the eligibility requirements. SUNY Farmingdale’s induction featured a unique structure that paired the ceremony with a gallery of senior projects where students present their semester research before the induction itself. Brocker remembers holding his candle among fellow inductees, a moment that was ultimately the beginning of a journey that would keep him at SUNY Farmingdale as graduate student turned faculty
mentor. Today, he helps organize the very same events he once attended as a student, watching his own students now being inducted into the society, saying, “It’s a really good full-circle moment.”
As an undergraduate student, Brocker began conducting research in cognitive psychology, a turning point that introduced him to the vast possibilities of psychology. After graduation, received his Master of Arts in experimental psychology from CUNY Brooklyn College, returning to SUNY Farmingdale he worked as a laboratory assistant for two years. Brocker now serves as a full-time lecturer in the psychology department and considers himself fortunate to have found his niche in academia, often using his own career path to show students that a PhD is not the only route to professional success.
Brocker emphasizes that you can go a lot of places with master’s degree, noting his current position. As a lecturer, his primary focus is on teaching, advising, and mentoring. He says, “I have about four or five students each semester that I conduct research with. We attend conferences, and I work with them on developing experimental approaches in psychology. It’s essentially everything you could do in academia, just without the tenure track.”
In his professional development classes, Brocker enjoys using himself as an example of an academic trajectory, noting, “When you get your bachelor’s degree, there’s always another step to take, but it doesn’t have to be all the way to a PhD. I tell students, ‘If you like what I do, you can do it too. And if you don’t, that’s okay.’ The goal is to find your own path.”
Elisabeth Barrett
Psi Chi Headquarters
Discovering a Passion for Teaching and Research
Brocker’s love for lecturing began unexpectedly during graduate school. “One day, someone asked if I wanted to teach a statistics lab and that was it,” he recalls. “It was a lightbulb moment. I realized how incredible it felt to explain complex ideas and see students engage with them.” Since then, he has taught a range of courses, including psychology statistics, research methods, and senior project seminars. He also serves as internship coordinator and administrator for the department’s participant research pool. His teaching load keeps him involved in nearly every aspect of the department’s academic life, something he describes as both dynamic and rewarding.
His current research focuses on person perception, morbid curiosity, and dehumanization—more specifically, how individuals form first impressions, why people are drawn to the negative, and how dehumanization operates both perceptually and linguistically. His projects explore how these processes relate to risk-taking behavior and bias across social categories such as gender and race.
Although his research focuses are currently on perception, Brocker’s earlier work focused on attention, memory, and emotion. One notable project he shared examined how quickly people can perceive emotional information from visual scenes, even when shown for only a fraction of a second. He explained, “We found that people notice negative stimuli much more quickly, and that finding really led to my ongoing interest in curiosity and emotion.”
One study that inspires his work explored facial recognition and moral judgment. In the study, participants viewed faces associated with moral transgressions (e.g., “this person stole money”) and were later asked to identify them among similar faces. Interestingly, recognition improved when the faces were presented upside down, suggesting that people process out-group faces differently. Brocker hopes to expand this line of research to explore whether these effects extend across racial and gendered identities. “One of my students became really passionate about this project,” he shares. “That’s one of the best parts of my job: watching a student take an idea and make it their own. I just get to be their cheerleader.”
Each semester, Brocker mentors four to five student researchers, guiding them through the entire scientific process from literature reviews to data analysis using R. He values providing hands-on research experiences for students preparing for graduate school. As he explains, students are exposed to research in their core courses, and this is a chance for them to explore these ideas further, so he tries to give them a space where they can really learn the process and see their own growth.
The Ongoing Impact of Psi Chi
For Brocker, Psi Chi remains a cornerstone of his academic and professional journey, sharing that “it’s always felt a bit more personal than some of the larger, discipline-specific organizations. Psi Chi has that local, community mindset.” From his time as a student member, he’s used Psi Chi’s resources, like research and travel grants, to attend conferences and continues to emphasize its benefits to students. “Seeing my students now applying for Psi Chi and using those same opportunities reignited my appreciation for what it offers. It’s something we encourage all our students to join
because of the sense of community, scholarships, and professional resources.”
Brocker recently served as keynote speaker for his department’s Psi Chi induction ceremony, which also happened to be the tenth anniversary of his own induction. He reflects on how it felt like such a surreal and full-circle moment, going on to say that “Psi Chi has always represented connection, growth, and evolution.”
Advice for Students and Alumni
When asked what advice he would share with Psi Chi student members and fellow alumni, Brocker emphasizes engagement and curiosity. He pushes for students to get involved, stay involved, and to reach out to their professors. Brock attributes his success to a professor he had as an undergraduate student who invited him into her lab, saying that one opportunity changed everything for him. Additionally, he encourages students to build tangible skills that help them stand out, particularly in research and data literacy, explaining, “If you graduate with the same degree as everyone else, what sets you apart? Learn coding, learn R. That could be your advantage.” But above all, Brocker hopes students recognize the value of connection. “There’s a community of people who think like you, want to make positive change, and are willing to help you grow. Use those resources, and if you haven’t talked to your professors in a while, send them an email. We love hearing from our students.”
Dave Brocker, MA, is an experimental psychologist and educator with over seven years of experience teaching statistics and research methods. He is passionate about helping students see the relevance and creativity in data, often using humor, interactive tools, and interest-based examples to make complex concepts approachable. His research interests center on morbid curiosity, exploring how individuals engage with unsettling or taboo topics, and how curiosity relates to emotional and behavioral responses. Beyond the classroom, Professor Brocker is dedicated to mentoring students as they develop their professional identities, pursue research, and prepare for graduate study.
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Deal With Stress During Your College Years
Sleep well. Eat well. Play well. Plan well.
John Gomez, PhD Our Lady of the Lake University
Stress is the body’s natural reaction to life’s challenges and school demands, both mental and physical. It can be beneficial in the short term to meet a deadline but detrimental in the long run, even leading to health problems. Let’s discuss new daily habits to deal with stress effectively during your college years and to create positive habits for your future professional self.
It’s easy to think that college students and professionals thrive within a productivity culture that prioritizes work over self. Routinely working past midnight, answering emails while lying in bed, and replacing lost hours of sleep with caffeine drinks or a sugar rush all feel right because it’s what many successful college students seem to be doing. But seasoned professionals learn, often after college,
that productivity is winning a marathon over many years, not sprinting to survive a week. Placing work above self-care throws life out of balance, and that lack of control can make us feel helpless, resentful, and dread returning to work.
Red flags you should not ignore include body reactions like stomach acid upset, an eyelid muscle twitch, and psychological experiences like feeling overwhelmed or increasing procrastination. Stress undermines mental focus as it sabotages concentration during exams and when writing papers (Marais, 2022). Stress impairs memory and retention of new knowledge, affecting the part of your brain that deals with both short-term and long-term memory for learned material. We are more irritable when stressed as it depletes our emotional resources, and we subsequently feel less resilient to life’s obstacles and are more likely to feel discouraged. Successfully dealing with stress, aka self-care, means you must consciously counter college’s productivity culture with new daily habits.
Sleep Well to Energize Your Brain
Get enough sleep. In a typical workday, a student’s heavy lifting is mental rather than physical. Good sleep gives you the high concentration and long attention span needed to complete reading assignments, sit attentively through class, and stay focused through long study sessions. Missing a full night of sleep will increase your emotional irritability, your motivation may decline, and you will feel less impressive during the day (Hershner & Chervin, 2014). Go to bed and wake up at the same time each day because that routine will help you sleep better.
The recommended eight-hour sleep process (CDC, 2025) provides both body rest and mental rest, but the majority of mental rest comes in the later hours. The early hours of the sleep process restore and repair bodily wear and tear, prioritized in human evolution for its survival value so that the next day your bones and muscles are ready to fight (or run) for your life if needed. These non-REM periods of body rest constitute 75–80% of nighttime sleep (DHHS, 2011).
Interlaced REM sleep periods are what college students need the most, but they are
more numerous during the fifth through eighth hours of sleep. REM sleep provides the most restorative mental rest and produces the sensation of feeling refreshed and alert the next morning. Therefore, at night students need 7–8 hours of uninterrupted sleep—specifically those later REM sleep periods—to achieve mental rejuvenation. REM periods increase in length as the night progresses and non-REM periods decrease in length, so sleeping only 4–5 hours per night leaves your body rested but your mind wanting more. Lacking REM, you will notice yourself yawning during class, your mind wandering as the instructor speaks, and you will lose your place more often when reading. REM sleep also consolidates memory of newly learned content and organizes learning for easier recall during exams (Marais, 2022). That’s why it is harder to remember learned material when you are sleep deprived. Students commonly mistake adding daytime naps as a substitute for a full night’s sleep. Daytime naps are a short-term and occasional solution, but they are no substitute for a full eight hours of nonstop sleep (Stolberg, 2023).
Eat for Greater Stamina When Under Stress
Performing under academic pressure requires stamina of mind and body. Foods with protein (meat, eggs, almonds) and carbohydrates (grains, vegetables, fruits) feed your brain and provide lasting energy. Whole meal cereals, bread, pasta, corn, sweet potato, and several fruits and vegetables prevent hunger and loss of concentration when you’re in the classroom because they provide a steady release of energy (glucose) throughout the day (Harvard Health, 2023). Protein found in milk, cheese, fish, nuts, and lean meat provide amino acids that help the brain function more efficiently. Omega-3 fats found in fish help with memory (Burgess, 2023). Citrus like oranges have vitamin C to enhance energy and improve your alertness during lectures.
Need a pick-me-up during the day? Dark chocolate contains caffeine and theobromine, both of which will boost your energy levels. Cacao also has nutrients that fight stress and boost energy and focus (Burgess, 2023). Natural sugars from fruit (e.g., strawberries, blueberries) are
absorbed more slowly and so last longer than a candy bar. Blueberries, loaded with antioxidants, are known to help with cognitive function and mental agility (Bertrand, 2023). If you are feeling sluggish or fatigued, it could be from dehydration, so drink lots of water throughout the day. Fatigue, sluggish thinking, or irritability can also come from lack of iron (lean meat, spinach). Almonds contain protein to sustain energy throughout the day, and B vitamins like niacin, folate, thiamin, and riboflavin help convert food to energy (Nutrition Source, 2025). Minimize the intake of coffee and sodas or pop and instead choose natural fruit and vegetable juices.
Junk foods like soda, sugary coffee, or energy drinks may leave you buzzing for one hour but cause a big energy crash soon thereafter (Huzar, 2023; NCCIH 2018). Potato chips are refined carbs (not healthy carbs) with unhealthy types of fats, topped off with too much processed salt. Donuts and muffins are high in sugar and refined carbs and low in nutrition, so your blood sugar and insulin levels will spike. The subsequent energy-draining crash will
make you feel depleted and so compelled to look for another energy fix. Skip sugary drinks and instead drink water, low-fat milk, or unsweetened tea.
Play a Little Every Day During Stressful Weeks
During difficult times in the semester, do not stop your stress reduction routine, such as exercise, social time, or playing video games. Time pressures naturally compel us to prioritize activities within our schedule to distinguish the urgent from the important. Assignment deadlines should take precedence, but it is a mistake to eliminate altogether your daily stress-reducing activities. The nature of
academic work often means reducing physical activity in favor of sedentary time reading or writing. Self-care to manage college stress requires making time for yourself—time to “play”—every day of a stressful week by stepping away from the study desk for short periods. Everyone has their own personal habits and choices for effective stress reduction. Whatever works for you, keep doing it during your most stressful days. Take study breaks. Play. Laugh. Spend time outside and breathe fresh air. This refocus can improve your mood and help the day’s irritations fade away (Mayo, 2023). Exercise is a healthy way to relieve your pent-up energy and tension, it releases feel-good brain chemicals called endorphins, and it increases your overall fitness (Patel, 2025). To further reduce your stress, be good to yourself by socializing with positive people. Isolation during stressful times is a mistake. Social self-care is your ability to maintain healthy interpersonal relationships with others (Jordan, 2023). We are social animals so other people can decrease our stress, and in turn lack of positive social connections can increase our anxiety. Surrounding yourself with positive people enhances your life, while negative people drain your energy. During stressful weeks, maintain positive chats and friendly interactions with favorite friends. Take breaks from news and social media. College students who are also parents should be mindful that children measure love by the amount of time you spend with them, aka quality time (e.g., Li & Guo, 2023). But you also function better and concentrate better knowing that your kids feel loved, so play time with little loved ones has mutual benefits.
Plan for Life After College to Reduce Your Anxiety
Am I ready for life after college? College is temporary and upon reflection ignites anxiety about what comes next, an uncertainty that simmers to a boil by senior year. Neutralize that anxiety early on with a carefully considered plan of action for how these coming college years will make graduation day a launching pad onto your brightest future.
The central characteristic of anxiety is a fear of what might happen (e.g., Sue et al., 2017). Eliminate uncertainty by
meeting with trusted advisors to create the roadmap to clearly see the terrain ahead and decide your chosen destination. Each year monitor benchmarks of progress toward those goals, make adjustments if needed, and assure yourself that you are on track for success. Having specific goals and a clear path forward will calm your mind, reduce your stress, and help you set priorities for each year of college.
Start thinking strategically about your future professional self and your professional career. Reflect upon what you want your typical work week to look like 5–10 years from now. About 44% of psychology majors go to graduate school in psychology or a related field (Conroy et al., 2019), where they train to provide mental health care in applied settings as counselors or psychotherapists, or study human behavior and emotions in research settings. Put in the time to really study your graduate school options to make this career decision, including specialties and the various types of graduate degrees such as the masters, the PhD, and the PsyD. Deciding what subfield you will pursue and what university you will attend are two big life decisions. It is not necessary to further your education in order to find a job with a bachelor’s degree in psychology, however doing so opens more doors.
About 56% of psychology majors enter the workforce after college (Conroy et al., 2019) in human service professions closely related to the field of psychology and helping professions, such as administrative services to adults and children, public relations personnel, and management. About 40% work in businesses and corporations in the private for-profit sector, with another 20% working in government sectors, educational settings, or in private nonprofit sectors for tax-exempt or charitable organizations (Fogg et al., 2012). While in college, both the voluntary and paid internship occur in these types of applied settings and may engage your problem-solving, teamwork, and communication skills. Seek internships in human service areas to gain real-world experience and discover future workplace settings that you may enjoy and (as importantly) those settings you may not want to be a part of. In this way, an internship can clarify your future and help you craft your professional self (Morgan, 2025).
Above all, do not plan alone for life after college: Meet with trusted faculty advisors and mentors. Ask how they decided to enter their own chosen career path and talk through their own decision process back when they were in college. Listen for winning strategies, as well as pitfalls and regrets (Gomez et al., 2011). Seek advice on the best preparation for your professional goals and whether a graduate degree is needed. These faculty–student mentoring relationships provide valuable insights and practical advice, but plan ahead also to leverage those relationships into the references you will soon need for future employment, internships, or applications to graduate school. Strong and effective letters of recommendation and employment references are the end products of a student–faculty partnership that you must initiate early in your college years (Gomez, 2016).
Sleep well, eat well, play well, and plan well in order to deal with stress during your college years. Self-care activities are deliberate and planned. If you live by your calendar or planner, make self-care important by placing it on your daily schedule or task list. Students can know what to do to be healthy and happy, but often we fail to make this a priority. Every day during a stressful week, take care of yourself a little to advance the best version of yourself in the classroom and in your personal life.
References
Conroy, J., Christidis, P., Fleischmann, M., & Lin, L. (2019, September 1). How many psychology majors go on to graduate school? Monitor in Psychology, 50 (8), 19.
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/09/datapoint-grad-school Bertrand, E. (2023, May 30). Maximize memory function with a nutrient-ricdiet. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic healthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/ maximize-memory-function-with-a-nutrient-rich-diet Burgess, L. (2023, March 13). 12 foods to boost brain function Medical News Today.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324044#dark-chocolate Center for Disease Control. (2025, June 9). Managing stress Mental Health. https://www.cdc.gov/mental-health/living-with/index.html DHHS. (2011, August). Your guide to healthy sleep National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, US Department of Health and Human Services. NIH Publication No. 11-5271. Fogg, N., Harrington, P., Harrington, T., & Shatkin, L. (2012). College majors handbook with real career paths and payoffs: The actual jobs, earnings, and trends for graduates of 50 college majors Jist Works.
Gomez, J. (2016, Spring). How to properly request letters of recommendation from your professors: Ask, don’t tell. Eye on Psi Chi, 20 (3), 12–15. https://doi.org/10.24839/1092-0803.eye20.3.12
Gomez, J., Guerrero, B., Anderson, K., Graham, L., Corey, D., & Cusack, R. (2011, Spring). Avoid pitfalls in planning for graduate school. Eye on Psi Chi, 15 (3), 28–30. https://doi.org/10.24839/1092-0803.eye15.3.28
Harvard Health. (2023, April 14). A good guide to good carbs: The glycemic index . Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/ healthbeat/a-good-guide-to-good-carbs-the-glycemic-index
Hershner, S., & Chervin, R. (2014, June 23). Causes and consequences of sleepiness among college students. Nature and Science of Sleep, 6 , 73–84. Dove Press.
Huzar, T. (2023, February 9). Is fast food bad for you? All you need to know about its nutrition and impacts . Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324847
Jordan, M. (2023, January 13). The power of connection: Self-care strategies of social wellbeing. Journal of Interprofessional Education & Practice, 31 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xjep.2022.100586
Li, D., & Guo, X. (2023, April 03). The effect of the time parents spend with children on children’s well being. Frontiers in Psychology, 14 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096128
Marais, S. (2022, September 23). Cognitive signs of stress. Psych Central. https://psychcentral.com/stress%20the-impact-of-%20 stress#cognitive-skills-affected
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2023, August 03). Stress relievers: Tips to tame stress. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/ stress-management/in-depth/stress-relievers/art-20047257
Morgan, C. (2025, Summer). Apply for an internship. Eye on Psi Chi, 29(4), 44–45. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-9812.Eye29.3.44
NCCIH. (2018, July). Energy drinks. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/energy-drinks Nutrition Source. (2025). Almonds. Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/food-features/almonds/ Patel, D. S. (2025, May 7). How to cope with stress Family Doctor. https://familydoctor.org/stress-how-to-cope-better-with-lifes-challenges/ Stolberg, R. (2023, Winter). Five tips for developing healthy sleep habits, Eye on Psi Chi, 28 (2), 14–15. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-9812.Eye28.2.14
Sue, D., Sue, D. W., Sue., D., & Sue, S. (2017). Essentials of understanding abnormal behavior, 3rd ed . Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
John Gomez, PhD, teaches and mentors undergraduate students in psychology at Our Lady of the Lake University in San Antonio, Texas. His research program and teaching focus upon helping undergrads to think strategically about their future professional selves and their professional career. Read his student support articles previously published in Eye on Psi Chi including Spring 2011’s “Avoid Pitfalls in Planning for Graduate School,” Fall 2011’s “Bring It On: Preparing for the GRE ,” and Spring 2016’s “How to Properly Request Letters of Recommendation.” He has delivered multiple peer-reviewed talks at the Mentoring Institute (University of New Mexico) and the International Mentoring Association (University of Florida; see IMA expert interview). OLLU students and faculty maintain an active Psi Chi chapter, which has hosted two regional Psi Chi research conferences. For more information, please visit www.ollusa.edu or contact Dr. John Gomez at jpgomez@ollusa.edu
Mapping Your Future: An Overview of Psychology Career Paths
Steven Del Chiaro, PsyD San José State University (CA)
Psychology is consistently one of the most popular undergraduate majors in the United States. In the 2021–22 academic year, colleges and universities awarded approximately 129,600 bachelor’s degrees in psychology, making it one of the top six fields of study nationally (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2023). Over the past two decades, interest has grown significantly: between 2000–01 and 2020–21, the number of psychology bachelor’s degrees awarded rose by nearly 72%, from 73,645 to 126,944 (BestColleges, 2022). The appeal of psychology lies in its flexibility. It can lead to careers in counseling, research, education, health care, technology, and business. At the same time, that breadth of opportunity can feel overwhelming for students preparing to take their next steps.
Fast Facts About Psychology Bachelor’s Degrees
• One of the top six undergraduate majors in the U.S.
• Over 129,000 degrees awarded in 2021–22 (NCES, 2023).
• Nearly 72% growth in degrees since 2000 (BestColleges, 2022).
This article provides a roadmap. We’ll look at careers you can pursue with a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in psychology, as well as nontraditional but fast-growing options. Although many of the clinical examples draw from California’s licensure system, the principles apply nationwide. If you live outside California, check your state licensing board for details.
Careers With a Bachelor’s Degree
A bachelor’s degree in psychology opens more doors than many students realize. Graduates commonly work as case managers, behavioral health technicians, research assistants, peer support specialists, or human resources specialists. These entry-level positions provide valuable hands-on experience, from supporting
clients in treatment centers to assisting in research labs or coordinating services in community agencies.
Employers consistently value psychology majors for their transferable skills: communication, teamwork, empathy, and analytical thinking. In fact, more than 3.6 million people in the United States hold psychology degrees, and they earn a median wage of about $60,000 annually (Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2023). The outlook is especially strong for fields connected to behavioral health. Jobs such as substance use and mental health counseling are projected to grow nearly 19% between 2022 and 2032, much faster than the average for all occupations. Many of these positions begin with bachelor’s-level entry before leading to graduate training (BLS, 2024a).
One of my former students worked as a behavioral health technician right after graduation. The role gave him firsthand experience with clients and clarified that his long-term goal was to pursue counseling at the graduate level. His story reflects a common pattern: For many students, the bachelor’s degree in psychology serves as both a valuable credential and a launchpad toward advanced training. For students drawn to deeper clinical work, graduate education becomes the natural next step.
Careers With a Master’s Degree
A master’s degree is the gateway to most counseling careers. Psychology consistently ranks among the largest graduate fields in the United States, with more than 38,000 master’s degrees in psychology awarded in 2023, compared with just over 7,000 doctorates (American Psychological Association [APA], 2023a). This trend highlights how most students entering counseling professions do so through a master’s-level pathway.
In California, three of the most common licensable master’s-level roles include
• the Marriage and Family Therapist (MFT),
• the Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW), and
• the Licensed Professional Clinical Counselor (LPCC).
Each requires graduate coursework, supervised experience, and licensing exams, and all prepare students for counseling practice
in a variety of settings (California Board of Behavioral Sciences [BBS], 2024). Other states may use different titles or combine roles differently, but nearly all offer comparable pathways into professional counseling.
Graduates with master’s degrees work in community mental health agencies, hospitals, K–12 schools, and nonprofit organizations, and many eventually enter private practice. Programs generally require two to three years of coursework, followed by 2,000–3,000 supervised hours and state licensing examinations. Tuition alone typically ranges from about $30,000 at public universities to over $80,000 at private institutions (APA, 2023). These figures do not include other expenses such as textbooks and materials, university fees, supervision or practicum costs, liability insurance, licensure preparation, and the income lost during unpaid training hours. For comparison, doctoral programs such as PhD and PsyD degrees are usually more expensive, with tuition alone ranging from roughly $80,000 to over $200,000 depending on the institution and program type (APA, 2023).
Not all master’s-level psychology degrees are clinical. Students also pursue specializations in industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, applied behavior analysis (ABA/BCBA), school psychology, and forensic psychology. These fields extend psychological science into organizational, educational, and legal contexts.
Employment projections remain strong. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that positions for marriage and family therapists will grow by 15% between 2022 and 2032, much faster than average (BLS, 2024b). I-O psychology also continues to show solid employment demand and competitive salaries, which are discussed further in the section on nontraditional psychology careers (BLS, 2024c). School psychology is expanding as districts face persistent shortages of school-based mental health professionals and rising student needs (National Association of School Psychologists [NASP], 2022).
Careers With a Doctoral Degree
Doctoral programs provide the highest level of training in psychology, preparing students for leadership in clinical work, research, and academia. In the United States, PhD programs remain more
common than PsyD programs, but both are essential for different career goals.
• PhD (Scientist-Practitioner Model): PhD programs generally span 5 to 7 years and emphasize research, assessment, and clinical training. Many include funding through research or teaching assistantships. Graduates often work as university faculty, researchers, or advanced clinical supervisors (AllPsychologySchools, 2025).
• PsyD (Scholar-Practitioner Model): PsyD programs typically take 4 to 6 years and focus more heavily on applied clinical training than on research. They are frequently tuition-based, and graduates often enter private practice, leadership, or consultation (AllPsychologySchools, 2025).
Other doctoral routes include the EdD in counseling or school psychology and specialties in neuropsychology, forensic psychology, and health psychology
The investment is substantial, but so are the returns. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the median annual salary for psychologists is $94,310 as of May 2024, and employment is projected to grow 6% between 2024 and 2034 (BLS, 2024d). Clinical psychologists specifically earn a median annual salary of about $95,830, with the top 10% making more than $168,000 (TrustedHealth, 2024). Forensic psychologists often earn between $125,000 and $150,000, depending on setting (APA, 2023b).
A useful lens: PhD students often ask, “How can I contribute to research and advance the science of psychology?” whereas PsyD students more often ask, “How can I apply psychology to help people now?” Both paths are valuable and serve different career goals. Yet psychology’s reach is not limited to clinical or academic roles; many graduates apply their skills in emerging, nontraditional arenas.
Nontraditional Psychology Careers
Not every psychology graduate becomes a counselor or professor. Many apply their training in sectors where understanding human behavior is central, and these pathways are expanding quickly.
User Experience (UX) Research is one example. Surveys show that nearly one in four UX researchers has a background
in psychology or sociology, reflecting the growing role of behavioral science in technology design (Nielsen Norman Group, 2020). In fact, job postings for UX research grew by 289% between 2017 and 2022, illustrating the rapid expansion of technologydriven behavioral roles (LinkedIn, 2022). Similarly, employment of human resources managers is projected to grow 5% from 2022 to 2032, keeping pace with national averages and underscoring the steady demand for psychology graduates in organizational settings (BLS, 2024e).
Policy analysts and program evaluators apply research and assessment skills to measure the effectiveness of social and community programs, often working with governments and nonprofits. Human resources professionals and organizational consultants use psychology to improve hiring practices, leadership development, and workplace culture. In marketing and communications, psychology graduates analyze consumer decision-making, applying principles of behavioral economics and motivation. The global digital marketing industry is projected to exceed $700 billion by 2028, creating opportunities for psychology-trained professionals in advertising and communications (Statista, 2023). Nonprofit leaders also use psychology to design and direct programs that address community and social needs. Across all these sectors, employers emphasize transferable skills such as communication, teamwork, adaptability, and critical thinking. A Psi Chi survey found that employers often place more weight on these competencies than on grades or course titles (Hettich, 2021).
Top 5 Transferable Skills Employers Want
median annual salary of $139,280, with the top 10% making more than $210,000 (BLS, 2024c).
As these diverse options show, psychology can take you in many directions. The challenge, then, is choosing the path that fits you best.
Choosing a Path
With so many possibilities, it’s natural to feel uncertain about your future. In fact, surveys suggest that up to 80% of U.S. college students report stress about choosing a major or career path, and about 60% experience significant anxiety tied to these decisions (Gore et al., 2020; NCES, 2022).
Fortunately, research shows that engaging in career exploration activities (such as internships, informational interviews, and mentorship) can significantly reduce anxiety and increase confidence in decision-making (Cheung & Jin, 2016). Connecting with professional organizations like Psi Chi or APA divisions can also provide role models and social support that buffer career-related stress (Hirschi et al., 2015).
Quick Guide 3 Ways to Ease Career Anxiety
1. Talk to someone in the field— Informational interviews with professionals can provide clarity and reduce uncertainty.
2. Try small experiments—Internships, research projects, or volunteer work help test interests before making big commitments.
3. Use your resources—Career centers, Psi Chi, and APA divisions offer structured support and connections.
Industrial-organizational psychology exemplifies this intersection of research, leadership, and applied behavioral science. In 2023, I-O psychologists earned a
So, although the range of possible futures may feel daunting, exploration itself is part of the journey. Stay curious, take small steps, and allow your career to unfold over time. As a psychology major, you will build skills in critical thinking, empathy, communication, and analysis, and these will serve you well in any direction you choose.
“You don’t have to see the whole staircase, just take the first step.”
~ Martin Luther King Jr.
Resources
O*NET Online—www.onetonline.org: Search by job title to see job descriptions, skills, salary ranges, and growth outlook. Use the “Bright Outlook” filter to identify fast-growing roles.
APA Divisions—www.apa.org/about/division: Explore more than 50 specialty divisions. Student memberships provide newsletters, resources, and networking opportunities.
California Board of Behavioral Sciences (BBS)—www.bbs.ca.gov : Learn about requirements for MFT, LPCC, and LCSW licensure in California. The site includes supervised hours forms and exam information.
Other States: Every state has its own licensing board. Names and websites differ, but all outline licensure requirements. To find yours, search “psychology licensing board” + your state.
Psi Chi Career Resources—www.psichi.org Offers career articles, interviews, and resources written for psychology students.
Book: Insider’s Guide to Graduate Programs in Clinical and Counseling Psychology : Annual guide comparing graduate programs, admissions criteria, and training opportunities.
References
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eBook: Business Career
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024a). Substance abuse, behavioral disorder, and mental health counselors . U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/substanceabuse-behavioral-disorder-and-mental-health-counselors.htm
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024b). Marriage and family therapists . U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-andsocial-service/marriage-and-family-therapists.htm
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024c). Psychologists U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024d). Occupational outlook for psychologists U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/ life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024e). Human resources managers: Occupational outlook handbook . U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/human-resources-managers.htm
Cheung, R., & Jin, Q. (2016). Impact of a career exploration course on career decision making, adaptability, and relational support. Journal of Career Assessment, 24 (3), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072715599390
Gore, P. A., Leuwerke, W. C., & Krumboltz, J. D. (2020). Career development in college students: Indicators of anxiety and adaptability. Journal of Career Development, 47 (5), 471–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845318781041
Hettich, P. (2021, Fall). What skills do employers seek? Four perspectives. Eye on Psi Chi, 25(1), 20–24. https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-9812.Eye26.1.20
Hirschi, A., Herrmann, A., & Keller, A. C. (2015). Career adaptability, work engagement, and stress: A longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 88 , 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.02.011
LinkedIn. (2022). Jobs on the rise: 25 U.S. roles that are growing in demand LinkedIn Economic Graph. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/ jobs-rise-25-us-roles-growing-demand-linkedin-news
National Association of School Psychologists. (2022). Shortages in school psychology: Challenges to meeting the growing needs of U.S. students https://www.nasponline.org
National Center for Education Statistics. (2023). Bachelor’s degrees conferred by postsecondary institutions, by field of study: 1970–71 through 2021–22 (Table 322.10) U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cta Nielsen Norman Group. (2020). User experience careers–2nd edition https://media.nngroup.com/media/reports/free UserExperience Careers_2nd_Edition.pdf
Statista. (2023). Global digital advertising and marketing market size 2020–2028 https://www.statista.com/statistics/237974/ online-advertising-spending-worldwide/ TrustedHealth. (2024). Clinical psychologist salary guide https://www.trustedhealth.com/allied-career-guide/ clinical-psychologist/salary-guide
Steve Del Chiaro, PsyD, is psychology faculty at San José State University, where he teaches undergraduate courses. He also teaches undergraduate psychology at Santa Clara University and graduate counseling psychology at St. Mary’s College of California. His teaching and professional work focus on helping students explore career paths in psychology, with particular interests in trauma, counseling, and applied professional practice.
Preparing Psychology Majors for Business-Related Careers
Are you one of the 56 percent of psychology students who does not wish to pursue a graduate degree? If so, one of the most common paths for you is a career in business. This eight-chapter crash course by Dr. Drew C. Appleby will help you develop realistic strategies to transform your career plans from wishful notions into goal-attaining behaviors.
Undergraduate Research Assistant
Malin Lilley, PhD
Dawn Weatherford, PhD
Ho Huynh, PhD
What are your life plans?” is a common question that professors often ask students during office hours. After hearing about their plans to become a clinical psychologist, a licensed professional counselor, a school psychologist, or (less frequently) a researcher, we talk about how their current skills and experience may shape their educational journey as they prepare for the next steps. Too often, we have these conversations when the student is their final semester or two before graduation and find that students weren’t aware of all the amazing university resources to help with career and professional development. And, too often, we find that students could have experienced multiple semesters of mentorship, building their skills and knowledge through the process of an undergraduate research experience.
When students ask, “Why am I just now finding out about this?” we have many answers. Students balance multiple responsibilities and roles: academics, employment, and family obligations take time. We understand when internships, extracurriculars, and research experience aren’t a top priority. However, aside from limited time and energy, what we hear most is that students simply didn’t know— they didn’t know what research (especially in psychology) was, they didn’t know that they can start at any stage (no previous experience required), and they didn’t know about the vast array of benefits gained from working alongside faculty in the discovery and dissemination of new information.
If you are reading this article and thinking, “I didn’t know this either,” you are not alone. As first-generation college students, we remember being quite confused by the whole process. In fact, many of your professors today might have had a similar experience. We realize it is difficult to understand what research is, how to get involved, and why it is beneficial for students with different career interests (from scientist to practitioner and everything in between) unless someone shares this information with you. After having countless conversations with students one-on-one, we decided to take a bold approach—let’s share this information with all psychology students everywhere!
Introducing the Psychology Research Experience
Preparedness (PREP) Program
This tool explains the benefits of being an undergraduate research student, how to get involved, and what students can expect. This program is free to everyone to use! What to expect: Complete 10 modules that cover a variety of topics including an overview of research, the benefits of research assistantships, the typical tasks of a research assistant, how to join a research lab, research ethics, research technologies, rights and responsibilities, professionalism, sharing research with others, and navigating your future. Each module includes informative videos with real-world examples of students, alumni, and faculty who have been involved in research. Plus, multiple-choice questions let you check your knowledge and understanding along the way.
Who can use PREP: Anyone! This program is free. Students, Psi Chi chapter advisors, and faculty members can use this program and share it with others.
• If you are a student who wants to learn more, visit the link below.
• If you are a student who wants to share this information with your classmates, consider making it a Psi Chi chapter activity to complete the course and discuss the material.
• If you are a chapter advisor or faculty member, suggest this as a Psi Chi chapter activity, psychology club activity, or integrated element in your course curriculum. A psychology major seminar course or a research methods course would make a great fit.
Where to find PREP:
https://tinyurl.com/PREPPSYC
When to get started: Right now! (Well, as soon as you can). To reiterate our point from before, students often have the misconception that they need to be prepared in some way by having certain knowledge or skills BEFORE they join a research lab. In reality, the opposite is true. Faculty will help you build skills and develop knowledge. No prior experience necessary. Come as you are! There are so many benefits to building professional relationships with faculty over multiple
How do you recruit students to your lab?
Dawn: I appreciate students from all walks of life entering the same space to make it better. To get those types of diverse perspectives, I employ a mix of asking stand-out students in my classes and encouraging lab members to recruit others. In both instances, it all starts with sending students my lab manual to skim before a one-on-one conversation. The informal conversation helps me understand their work ethic, personality, career plans, and additional life responsibilities.
After this conversation, I let students sit on it. We discuss quite a bit in this initial conversation that students likely need time to digest. If they want to get more information (e.g., tour the lab, attend a lab meeting, discuss research articles), I encourage them to follow up with me. If they think their path at that point in their lives leads them towards a different direction (e.g., internship, employment, heavy course load), I do my best to connect them with resources and members of my network.
Ho: I typically ask the engaged students from class (those who ask good questions, nod their heads during lectures, and do pretty well on their assignments) to come join my lab. I tend to not ask students who are unengaged (on their phones during class) or who are the “quiet genius” types—like students who do well on exams but don’t ever show up to class.
I also enjoy working with students who have read my papers and are interested in my work. These students typically email me to request a meeting after seeing an overlap between their interests and mine. I’m always happy to take these meetings.
Malin: In the past, I have approached students who expressed interest in research or wanting to build their resumés and asked if they would like to join my lab. Given what I noticed about students not having confidence in their own abilities or knowledge about why research experience is beneficial for everyone, I hope more students will reach out to me first after completing the PREP program.
How do you assign students to projects?
Dawn: Because I simultaneously direct multiple projects, the initial one-on-one conversation is crucial to ensuring that interested students find a set of experiences that align with their goals and their existing responsibilities. Students can learn a little something from every project. However, I try to meet students where they are by giving them a growing level of responsibility and autonomy within a project that they find interesting.
Junior students are assigned to projects where the need is greatest and within their skill set. Within this project, they learn the basics: grasping and critiquing publications in our field, collecting data in line with a standard operating procedure, completing training on specialized technology and equipment, and shadowing more advanced students. Some students stop there. These activities meet their needs and strengthen their skills in ways that readily transfer to nearly every other domain (e.g., career, graduate school).
As students maintain an active relationship with me and the lab, we evolve in a way that makes sense for them. Intermediate and advanced students dive deeper: formulating research questions, designing experiments, trimming
and analyzing complex data sets, and actively contributing to dissemination of our work (e.g., conference presentations, publications, grant applications and reports).
Ho: I typically discuss with students about their future career goals and try to align projects up with their needs. For example, a student who wants to be a physical therapist or physician’s assistant might work on a project involving clinician humility, and a student who wants to become a school psychologist might work on a project involving social comparison and stress.
Malin: Similar to Dawn and Ho, I try to provide students with experiences that they need for their future career goals. Projects vary depending on the number of semesters a student will be in the program, their interest in joining an existing project or leading a project, and what skills they hope to learn. At the end of every semester, students reflect on their accomplishments and create goals for the next semester of research experience. This allows me to adjust projects and experiences from semester-to-semester.
What is one piece of advice you have for students?
Dawn: I say this in the PREP video and will reiterate here—Be bold! Many of your faculty members are eager to work with you as research assistants. Personally, working with research assistants is the most rewarding part of my job. However, faculty don’t always know enough about you and your aspirations to approach you. Also, sometimes our time may be tight, and our attention gets diverted. Advocate for yourself enough to embrace your curiosity. Find out more. Give research a try. You don’t know whether or not you will like it until you do.
Ho: Listen … you gotta get involved in research. All the cool/nerdy kids are doing it. It’s hard to see a path to graduate studies without it these days. Do the PREP program … there’s so much good stuff in there. Then, act on it! Email your professors and seek out opportunities to be involved. It doesn’t have to be the exact thing you want to do or study right now, but get your foot in the door
semesters or years. Even if students leave the lab to pursue other opportunities, long-term mentorship can persist. The only risky strategy is waiting until the very last minute to become involved.
Why this content is helpful: We have reviewed psychology lab manuals to determine what many professors want student to know (Lilley et al., 2024). Lab manuals are a fantastic resource that explain the ins and outs of each lab, the expectations of each professor, and details related to specific areas of research. But they are also long, and dare we say, sometimes boring. Really, we are throwing ourselves under the bus here as our own lab manual is 34 pages. But through our analysis of multiple lab manuals, we found the common topics that benefit everyone and brought them to you. We blended this content into modules with first-hand accounts of the research experience from faculty, alumni (who now have jobs or are in graduate school), and most importantly, current students. Some of the students have just gotten started on the research journey, some have attended their very first research conference, and some have worked their way up to mentor newer research assistants. Their perspectives and guidance were invaluable. Research is a process of discovery. Research is not just discovering how brains function or people behave, but a process of self-discovery. Research includes learning about your own interests, learning your strengths, learning where you can improve,
and start learning and engaging with research! Also, go to class and be an active contributor in your own learning!
Malin: Research will look different for everyone. Maybe you volunteer for 3 hours a week, maybe you take a research course for credit so it counts as part of your degree requirements, maybe you join an online research lab that meets remotely, maybe your professors can guide you towards paid research internships that can function like a part-time job. I have some students who attend meetings to observe the process of research, but they don’t have capacity to dedicate more time. I have some students who bring their children to poster sessions because that is how they can fully participate in the on-campus events. To reiterate—research looks different for everyone. But you won’t know what options you have until you ask! The earlier you start the process, the more time you have to find what works for you and build that experience.
learning how to improve, learning you have a support network, learning that you can do it! We hope you decide to join us by including PREP as a stepping stone on your journey. Research is all about collaboration. Before we conclude this article, we need to thank those who made this happen. Progress is the result of many people sharing their fantastic ideas and working together to transform a vision into reality. If you decide to take the PREP program or pursue research, we hope this is a key takeaway message. Each of our journeys are shaped by our mentors, collaborators, and students.
In the case of PREP, we have to acknowledge Jasmyne Thomas, who had the skills and expertise to turn our visions into videos and a website embedded in an overall user-friendly experience; Isabella Castellanos, who was instrumental in turning paragraphs on a Microsoft Word document into an interactive program that she revised in response to requested edits along the way; Juliana Arguello and Anisa Halperin, who assisted with the creation of the videos; and Art Gallo, who had unparalleled patience and video editing skills. Happy Researching!
Reference Lilley, M. K., Castellanos, I., Wicks, A., Raya, A., Weatherford, D. R., & Huynh, H. P. (2024). Training the future: Themes from a content analysis of psychology research lab manuals. Teaching of Psychology. Advance online publication. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00986283241283057
Malin Lilley, PhD, is an assistant professor of psychology at Texas A&M University–Central Texas. She previously served as an assistant professor at Texas A&M University–San Antonio. She earned her PhD in brain and behavior science from The University of Southern Mississippi. Her research explores how students’ personal and professional goals are impacted by their social identity. Additionally, she studies marine mammal behavior and cognition, including the social development of beluga whales.
Dawn Weatherford, PhD, earned her PhD in educational psychology from Texas A&M University–Commerce and is currently an associate professor of psychology at Texas A&M University–San Antonio. In her role as director of the Memory, Attention, and Perception (MAP) Research Laboratory, she guides graduate and undergraduate students in investigations of cognitive psychology. Her specific research area involves the role of expertise in information processing, extending to more applied areas at the intersection between cognitive psychology and fields such as health, educational, and legal settings.
Ho Phi Huynh, PhD, is a senior lecturer at the Australian National University. He previously served as an associate professor at Texas A&M University–San Antonio. He is a social-health psychologist who is generally interested in college student success and well-being, particularly for traditionally underserved students. He also studies humility in different contexts.
Authors’ Note: This project was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation Grant: 2222219. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Exploring Education and Careers
Marriage and Family Therapy
Tony D. Crespi, EdD, ABPP The University of Hartford (CT)
Michael Amico, PhD Connecticut State Community College Housatonic
Families cope with a vast array of challenges, ranging from intimate partner violence to alcohol abuse. Although many therapists are eager to offer assistance, a licensed marriage and family therapist (LMFT), as well as a licensed psychologist or licensed professional counselor educated and trained in family systems theory and family therapy, brings a unique family perspective to counseling. Still, not everyone has sought this distinct credential. For example, although a licensed psychologist and licensed professional counselor can engage in the practice of marriage and family therapy, they are not necessarily trained in the profession of marriage and family therapy. As we explored in our recent article, training in marriage and family dynamics can prepare professionals to help families navigate challenges similar to a ship’s crew skillfully trained to navigate a raging storm. Read on to discover specific education and career paths in marriage and family therapy.
A Brief History of Family Therapy
Historically, the profession of marriage and family therapy began in an interdisciplinary context with founders from multiple disciplines providing contributions generating contextual models from structural family therapy by Salvador Minuchin to object relations therapy by Melanie Klein to symbolic experiential family therapy by Carl Whitaker. These founders emerged from multiple disciplines, including psychiatry, professional psychology, counselor education and supervision, clinical social work as well as related professions with varied academic and professional degrees including the MD, PhD, EdD, MSW, and MA.
Beginning approximately in the 1950s with research on family impacts in the development of schizophrenia with Frieda Fromm-Reichmann (1948), to Bateson’s work in California at the Veterans Administration studying communication patterns (such as the “double bind” when a child receives conflicting messages), family therapy evolved in a complex fashion looking at critical issues impacting both individual and family patterns. As illustration, in the 1970s, Wynne et al. (1992) arranged family therapy training
at the University of Rochester to look at the development of thought disorders by studying how families with schizophrenia communicated. From such early work, the profession evolved with a myriad of contributors and contributions as it advanced from research to treatment with innovative techniques often capturing attention. Beels and Ferber (1969), as illustration, described therapists who might be categorized as conductors (i.e., active and colorful therapists) or reactors (i.e., more subtle and less direct therapists).
Augustus Napier, PhD, and Carl Whitaker, MD’s, narrative story of one family’s journey in family therapy, as told in The Family Crucible (1978), provided (and provides) an easy reading exploration of a family’s journey in family therapy. With these two therapists, the story introduces such concepts as The Battle for Structure and The Battle for Initiative. Unveiling the symbolic-experiential family therapy model, those unfamiliar with family therapy can find this work most engaging. Symbolic family therapy, developed by Carl Whitaker, MD, helps families by challenging their view of reality, suggesting that families are not aware of their emotions and thus experience an emotional block. Thus, treatment involves helping families express feelings by seeing symptoms as efforts for growth, helping separate intrapersonal and interpersonal stress, and promoting affective confrontation (Gladding, 2015).
Family Therapy Today
As the field evolved into a distinct profession, the proliferation of research theory and applied skills captured practitioner interest across disciplines with AAMFT membership rising from approximately 1,000 members in 1970 to more than 24,000. Today, approximately 50,000 marriage and family therapists treat a range of family structures and a range of presenting problems (American Association for Marriage & Family Therapy). Further, family therapy has developed its own programmatic accreditation (American Association for Marriage & Family Therapy). Today, programs can be administratively housed in varied departments, schools, and colleges with students electing varied degrees from those seeking a doctorate from AAMFT-approved programs offering
such credentials as the PhD, EdD, PsyD, or DMFT, to master’s programs varying from the MA to an MFT.
Today, programs also include distance programs accredited via the Commission on Accreditation on Marriage and Family Therapy Education, ranging from Alliant International University in California, which offers an online AAMFT-approved PsyD program, to Capella University, which offers an online MS program. In-person accredited programs are also diverse from the PhD programs at Florida State University and The Ohio State University to the MS program at the University of Alabama and the University of New Hampshire. Truly, degree options are divergent and beyond the scope of this piece with some programs (and states) also offering credentialing as a school marriage and family therapist through a State Department of Education. Simultaneously, within the American Psychological Association, Division 43 – The Society for Couple and Family Psychology provides a “home” for psychologists with family interests, and the American Board of Professional Psychology offers ABPP board certification in couple and family psychology as a postdoctoral marker in relationship therapy for psychologists. With board certification providing a parallel to physicians achieving board certification, for a licensed psychologist, this ABPP marker is notable.
Profoundly, education can encompass a range of family facets, including family systems theory, individual and family development, couples and family therapy, family research, professional ethics, and practicum and internship classes with an emphasis in marital and family therapy. The latter and post-degree supervision within the profession classically is taught and overseen by individuals holding credentials as an LMFT as well as holding a designation as an AAMFT-approved supervisor. Still, partly because many professionals can offer marriage and family therapy services, not all professionals seek a degree within the profession. Understandably, a licensed psychologist with a PhD, EdD, or PsyD in counseling psychology or clinical psychology, as example, or a licensed professional counselor, can also offer marriage and family therapy services without an LMFT license. This in hand, this overview is
intended for those with an interest in the profession while providing markers for continuing education and training for those who may seek additional coursework and supervision, recognizing their license is adequate while interested in pursuing further knowledge and training.
One individual we met with a PhD in clinical psychology and enjoying a successful career but with gaps preventing credentialing as a licensed psychologist pursued a credential as an LMFT as well as an AAMFT clinical fellow designation, creating practice opportunities with an LMFT license. Similarly, we met another individual, a certified school psychologist, who pursued training within the profession, enhancing knowledge and skills with families without acquiring the LMFT credential, noting their school psychology credential created a solid career platform. We also met an individual with a rare EdD in clinical psychology and credential as a licensed psychologist who acquired the LMFT license to gain additional credibility.
Educationally, although APA (n.d.) accredits a number of combined doctoral programs in professional psychology, often blending counseling psychology and school psychology as illustration, and while Alliant International University illustrates a unique program offering an AAMFT-approved PsyD in marriage and family therapy, potentially offering students credentials as both an LMFT and licensed psychologist, not all seek multiple credentials. Still, stacked credentials can increase employability by adding additional skills to assess, diagnose, and treat families. Similar to a ship’s crew gaining an increased chance of surviving a storm with added navigational and technical skills, such as using a GPS, so a psychologist with a knowledge of family systems holds greater depth when assisting families.
What Facets
Illustrate Training?
Credentialling as an LMFT typically through a State Department of Health Services requires a minimum of a master’s degree, as well as specific coursework, training, and clinical supervision in marriage and family therapy. This includes 11 classes. In addition, there is a required clinical piece beyond practicum and internship training involving post degree
experience and supervision. Below is an example of typical state requirements:
1. Marital & Family Studies: (3 classes) e.g., systems theory, family development, gender & cultural issues
2. Marital & Family Therapy: (3 classes) e.g., family treatment, interventions, advanced theories
3. Human Development: (3 classes) e.g., human development, personality, sexuality, pathology
4. Ethics; (1 class) e.g., ethics and family law
5. Research (1 class) e.g., research design, statistics
6. Clinical Practicum: (1 year) one year minimum
7. Post Degree Experience: (2 years) post-degree experience often as an LMFT-A includes 100 hours of direct clinical supervision of which 50 must be individual supervision of the overall required 1000 direct contact hours
Is a distinct degree appealing? For those with a license, is a continuing education program advantageous? For those holding a master’s or doctoral degree, is a separate MA degree or professional certificate with an additional license engaging? If you think of trying to navigate a storm, additional training on compasses, GPS, and celestial navigation can aid a crew navigating a storm, and a student looking at graduate school may explore varied skill choices. Is a PsyD from an AAMFTapproved program such as that at Alliant International University in California pleasing? For a licensed psychologist with a PhD, EdD, or PsyD with family interests, is board certification—ABPP—in couple and family psychology an engaging postdoctoral choice? The menu of selections is varied, and individuals need to decide if a particular choice meets aspirations.
Marriage and Family Therapy: Questions and Answers
As students weigh programs and continuing education options, an understanding of helpful questions can often be useful. The following questions and answers are a starting point for consideration, which might be directed to program directors, faculty, graduate students, graduates, and oneself.
Consider future goals. Will a master’s degree and license be sufficient? Does a doctoral degree better realize goals? If pursuing a doctorate, will a DMFT (doctor of marriage & family therapy) degree be viewed as equivalent to a PhD? Just as not all consumers view an MD and DO similarly, so consumers must weigh the comparable choices. If seeking a university post, would a degree in psychology open more pathways? Have graduates secured the positions you desire? One individual we met needed a PhD in psychology to achieve desired promotions within their system but subsequently sought an LMFT credential as their true area of clinical interest. In contrast, a PsyD we met in clinical psychology—not eligible for psychology licensure—but armed with an LMFT was occasionally queried why they were not a licensed psychologist as the PsyD carried that expectation. Vocationally the Occupational Outlook Handbook for marriage and family therapists projects growth (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2025). Still, what are your goals?
Consider completion rates and licensure. Is a credential as an LMFT sufficient by itself or a desirable addition to a credential as a licensed psychologist or a licensed professional counselor? Ask how many students are enrolled and time to completion. Ask factors impeding completion. Ask to speak with students and graduates. Were they satisfied? Would they choose this program again? Compare each narrative with your aspirations. Ask programs how long it takes graduates to acquire licensure. What are the pass and failure rates? How many times does it take for graduates to successfully pass the examination. Will the degree and license be desirable to employers?
Consider related options and opportunities. An LMFT who earned a master’s degree in marriage and family therapy we met thought a PhD in counselor education and supervision might be ideal as this did not require additional practicum training, could add a boost in salary, and potentially might offer university teaching possibilities. Requesting our thoughts, we noted one reknowned LMFT who had help that PhD while also noting many certified school counselors and licensed professional counselors chose this option. Recognizing she might explore adding one of these components to enhance employability, she left our
talk planning to contact several programs which would grant continuing employment! She planned to contact Saybrook University in California and Adams State University in Colorado, thinking these PhD programs in counselor education and supervision might yield useful information. Consider your goals. Look at positions acquired by graduates. Look at credentials in positions to which you aspire.
Consider nonclinical degrees. While clinical degrees such as a PhD, EdD, DMFT, or PsyD in a clinical area such as marriage and family therapy can seem enticing, sometimes related degrees can open other career paths. Conference attendees wishing to continue working and armed with a credential as an LMFT or licensed professional counselor have realized that a PhD in other areas can create other options. Montclair State University, as example, offers a PhD in family science as does Syracuse University. Others have explored a PhD in general psychology, human development, organizational development, or educational psychology. One attendee with a school counseling degree but interested in teaching psychology noted their PhD in educational leadership was not yielding interviews. She had been told she lacked scholarship while also hearing that no one held that doctorate in the department! We spoke about individuals we have met with dual doctorates. We spoke of adding post-doctoral training. We spoke of options.
Consider current student and past graduate perceptions. Would individual students you interviewed choose this program anew if starting again? What did graduates see as the program strengths? What are the weaknesses? Was it a positive or negative experience. What were perceptions on faculty? Compare reported strengths and weaknesses with your preferences! What is possible and positive for one individual may be a hindrance or hurtful to another. How do reported perceptions compare to your needs? What positions did graduate secure? Did the degree help reach their goals? Ask if it helped achieve their goals?
Conclusions
This article has reviewed education and training guidelines to becoming an LMFT, recognizing that some readers may pursue
MFT degree programs while others may pursue other venues using this material as a template for specialty training. As students explore master’s and doctoral programs, certainly MFT programs offer another engaging option. One professional with a PhD and a credential as a licensed psychologist we met subsequently completed an MFT program gaining additional credentials and skills. Another with a PhD in clinical psychology and enjoying a successful career but with gaps blocking licensure pursued the LMFT to acquire a license for a successful private practice. Stories vary. Life narratives vary. Each person we met found MFT training added value. Sometimes this value was intrinsic leading to self-discovery, whereas others gained vital treatment skills. Each was successful but each was someone focused on family therapy.
May you choose your best degree and life course. May your path yield a safe harbor in the storms of graduate education and life.
References
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Graduate study in psychology. https://gradstudy.apa.org/
American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. (2025). Why use a marriage and family therapist? https://www.aamft.org/ AAMFT/About_AAMFT/About_Marriage_and_Family_Therapists.aspx
Beels, C. C., & Ferber, A. (1969). Family therapy: A view. Family Process 8 (2), 280–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1969.00280.x Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025). Occupational therapists. In Occupational outlook handbook . U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/marriageand-family-therapists.htm
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1948). Notes on the development of treatment of
schizophrenia by psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Psychiatry, 11 (3), 263–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1948.11022688
Gladding, S. (2015). Family therapy: History, theory and practice (4th ed.). Pearson. Napier, A., & Whitaker, C. A. (1978). The family crucible . Harper & Row. Wynne, L. C., Shields, C. G., & Sirkin, M. I. (1992). Illness, family theory, and family therapy: I. Conceptual issues. Family Process, 31 (1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.1992.00003.x
Tony D. Crespi, EdD, ABPP, is presently professor of psychology and director of training in the School Psychology Program and Child Clinical Counseling Specialization at the University of Hartford. Credentialed as both a licensed psychologist and licensed marriage and family therapist he also holds credentials as a professionally certified school psychologist, professionally certified school counselor, and he holds board certification from the American Board of Professional Psychology. He is a clinical fellow of AAMFT as well as a former president of Trainers of School Psychologists and the author of multiple books and articles.
Michael Amico, PhD, is presently professor of psychology at Connecticut State Community College–Housatonic. Part of the board of the New England Psychological Association, he has published multiple articles and presented at numerous conferences on graduate education and employment including commentary on both traditional and distance education options. With a PhD in general experimental psychology, he also holds dual master’s degrees in both clinical psychology and counseling, having completed diverse education and training. He is especially interested in various facets of family studies.
Valerie Sorrentino and Susan A. Nolan, PhD
Seton Hall University (NJ)
As psychology undergraduate students, we are not always aware of the skills and values—in addition to knowledge—that we are learning in our classes. Yet, several tools can help us reflect on what exactly we are learning and what skills (like evaluating research claims or collaborating with a team) and values (like cultural responsiveness or research ethics) are being cultivated that may not be explicit in your course material. We can use these tools to ask ourselves, “When we graduate with a psychology degree, what have we learned?” One commonly used tool in the United States is the American Psychological Association Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major, 3.0 (APA Council of Representatives, 2023). There are similar models for other countries and regions, such as the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council [APAC] Standards (APAC, 2019).
Here, we’ll describe a new tool that educators and students alike can use, regardless of where they live—the International Competences for Undergraduate Psychology (ICUP; Nolan et al., 2025b). The ICUP Model, developed by an international collaboration of psychology educators, has the potential to improve the quality of psychology undergraduate education by integrating core psychological research and knowledge skills, as well as other important skills and values, such as cultural responsiveness and diversity, respect, and collaborative efforts.
What Is the ICUP?
The development of the ICUP was initiated in October 2022, with a final version released on the Open Science Foundation (OSF) platform in January 2025. During this time, a central International Collaboration on Undergraduate Psychology Outcomes (ICUPO) committee used numerous international inputs, from national learning outcome frameworks specific to psychology to general international frameworks for higher education to the vast literature on psychology learning and teaching, to collaboratively work toward the final ICUP model. The work of the ICUPO was supported by a larger advisory group, the International Reference Group on Undergraduate Psychology Outcomes (IRGUPO). (See
icupo.org for an overview of the project and a link to the OSF documents.)
The final model consists of 7 competence categories with 24 individual competence statements nested within these categories. There are two core competence categories: Psychological Knowledge and Psychological Research Methodologies & Methods. The remaining five competence categories are termed psychology-relevant in that they are based on research from psychological science and pertain to psychological topics and issues. They include: Values & Ethics, Cultural Responsiveness & Diversity, Critical Thinking & Problemsolving, Communication & Interpersonal Skills, and Personal & Professional Development (Nolan et al. 2025b). You can see a student-friendly, clickable checklist of all of the competence categories and statements here: An International Competences Checklist.
The focus on not just students’ future work lives, but also their personal and community lives, is a feature of the ICUP model. Indeed, in many countries, many psychology majors do not go on to become psychologists who are usually clinicians or researchers (Nolan et al., 2024). And yet, the psychology major—as outlined by the ICUP—holds enormous value no matter
what a student’s eventual graduate outcomes are. One way the ICUP emphasizes this utility is via an emphasis on diversity and cultural responsiveness.
Diversity: Creating a Respectful and Harmonious World
The ICUP competences promote diversity and inclusion of all cultures and backgrounds. This inclusion was built in, even during the creation of the ICUP; indeed, the members of the ICUPO and IRGUPO are diverse in many ways, including geographically. The central ICUPO committee consists of 19 members from 15 different countries, and the IRGUPO, the larger advisory group on the project, consists of 101 members from 45 countries from every continent except Antarctica (Nolan et al., 2025b).
The ICUP also can help students to develop their own cultural responsiveness. In our work, personal, and community lives, we often engage in interactions with people who are different from ourselves. The ICUP provides us with frameworks— cultural responsiveness and reflexivity—to guide this process. The concepts of cultural responsiveness and reflexivity are central to the ICUP. The ICUP describes cultural responsiveness as when one adopts “an
Note. From “International Collaboration on Undergraduate Psychology Outcomes (ICUPO): Figures and Tables”, by S. A. Nolan et al., 2025a (https://osf.io/25jzg). Copyright 2025 by the International Collaboration on Undergraduate Psychology Outcomes Committee; permission to use Figure 3 granted on February 26, 2025.
Figure 1
Geographical Placement of ICUPO Committee and IRGUPO Members
ongoing reflexive approach to understanding and addressing the psychological needs and well-being of diverse populations, including by actively seeking knowledge about cultural groups – their histories, traditions, customs, systemic influences, and unique challenges” (Nolan et al., 2025b). In brief, being culturally responsive refers to continuously reflecting on our own understanding of cultural groups and actively building on our knowledge. The ICUP model defines reflexivity as “finding strategies to question [on an ongoing basis] our own attitudes, thought processes, values, assumptions, prejudices and habitual actions, to strive to understand our complex roles in relation to others” (Nolan et al., 2025b). It involves actively thinking instead of passively reacting to the people around us, and is a lifelong process.
For instance, in a mental health course, students could complete a reflective assignment about their personal perception of mental illness, attempting to discuss any potential biases and stigma and considering how these may differ across cultural groups. By critically thinking about their personal beliefs and how their environment and upbringing shaped those beliefs, they are developing a more informed and self-aware perspective. This may increase their understanding of the different individuals with whom they interact, and may elicit similar reactions from others. In addition, comparing your reflections to your classmates’ can provide meaningful learning by allowing students to observe cultural differences
with regard to perceptions of psychological disorders and psychological well-being. The ICUP model also sets out a pathway to develop students’ cultural responsiveness. For example, in competence category 4, “Psychology-Relevant Cultural Responsiveness & Diversity,” the second competence statement is: “Demonstrate cultural responsiveness and humility, that is, behavior that is respectful, compassionate, inclusive, culturally appropriate, and sensitive in relation to individuals, groups, and communities from diverse cultural and personal backgrounds” (Nolan et al., 2025). When you think about your own coursework, you may identify activities and assessments that helped you develop this competence. For example, the first author (Sorrentino) engaged in a class activity in which she was partnered with a classmate and asked to engage in a meaningful conversation based on prompts that asked them to describe their childhood and discuss their personal world views. They were encouraged to compare and contrast their own lives while maintaining an open and respectful approach toward one another. Each student was then tasked with sharing their partner’s perspective with the class, thus exposing students to over twenty different individual perspectives. This activity increased cultural awareness and responsiveness, and created a sense of community. Cultural responsiveness is an essential ingredient when engaging in collaborative processes, the focus of the ICUP that we’ll discuss next.
The Benefits of Collaboration
When you’re working as part of a team, have you ever wondered how others perceive you? Considered what kind of team member you are? Thought about how you might grow your collaboration skills? Regardless of your career destination, you are almost certainly going to have to work with other people. Even if they know this, students often dread being assigned a group project; yet, these are both common and valuable learning experiences. As only a second-year university student, the first author (Sorrentino) has already taken part in five group presentations. The experiences have varied from great collaborative work to others that have, shall we say, much room for improvement. For example, she witnessed social loafing while working on a project with three classmates.
One of the members would wait until the last minute to complete any of their work, presumably in the hopes of having another member do their work for them. They barely communicated with their team. This experience created a lot of stress for the remaining members as they cared about having a high-quality end product. Conversely, another member completed all of their parts of the work in a timely manner but avoided the collaborative part. Students often do not understand the benefits of group work in the long run and, in turn, may decide not to participate or put in effort. Students then miss out on important skills that are meant to be developed through these practices. On the one hand, instructors have an important role here; they should scaffold group assignments to teach collaboration skills and require accountability from individual team members, including through peer feedback. Yet, students have a role, too; they should be invested in bolstering their collaboration skills. A framework like ICUP can delineate the skills that students can learn through group work and help students to understand the importance of these skills and articulate them when applying for graduate school or employment. For example, the psychology relevant competence 6.2, from the category “Communication & Interpersonal Skills,” states that students should “Demonstrate collaboration skills that promote understanding, inclusivity, and cooperation among team members” (Nolan et al., 2025b). The members in the group described above could have engaged in more communication instead of disregarding the team aspect and working independently (and the instructor should have put in place strategies to help them do so). After students have an understanding of how their collaboration skills will be integrated into their own lives, they may find group assignments to be more meaningful.
Reflecting on Your Skills
As a current undergraduate student majoring in psychology, the first author (Sorrentino) is actively working to grow her psychology-relevant knowledge, skills, and values. Engaging in practices such as selfreflection can help grow students’ awareness of their own competences, and the variety of contexts, including the workplace, in which they can apply them. Having the ability to
clearly describe what you learned can help you to land a job. Being able to evaluate your own performance and recognize what areas need more attention, one trait of a successful leader that employers highly value, can help you to succeed in your job. We encourage you to use the clickable International Competences Checklist, developed by the first author and her classmate, Ritika Patel, based on the ICUP model: An International Competences Checklist. Just download the pdf and check off the competences you think you have acquired, or use it to note which ones you wish to develop! This checklist can also help you identify what knowledge, skills, and values you can use now in your personal, work, and community life. The first author (Sorrentino) has used this checklist to reflect on the skills she should be developing during her undergraduate studies to grow not only as a student, but also as a person. For example, she has noticed ways in which she is deepening her sense of cultural responsiveness and understanding, including with regard to her own cultures.
Conclusion: What Does It Mean to Graduate With a Psychology Degree?
The ICUP Model can not only benefit psychology majors who pursue a career as a psychologist following their undergraduate
education, but also every student who graduates with a psychology degree. The ICUP can also help to answer the question of what it means to graduate with a psychology degree, regardless of where in the world you studied. If a student acquires the competences outlined in the ICUP, it would indicate that the student had not only acquired knowledge, but also skills and values that help them to succeed in a range of contexts and to collaborate with people from a range of backgrounds. Moreover, they may have developed an understanding of how their individual contribution may have a positive effect on their personal and professional lives, but also on their community, from local to global.
References
American Psychological Association. (2023). APA guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major, version 3.0: Empowering people to make a difference in their lives and communities. APA Board of Educational Affairs Task Force on Psychology Major Competencies. https://www.apa.org/about/policy/undergraduate-psychology-major.pdf Australian Psychology Accreditation Council [APAC]. (2019). Accreditation standards for psychology programs. https://apac.au/wp-content/ uploads/2021/09/APAC-Accreditation-Standards_v1.2_rebranded.pdf
Nolan, S. A., Cranney, J., Narciss, S., Machin, T., Gullifer, J., Goedeke, S., de Souza, L. K., Job, R., Jia, F., Foster, L., Hulme, J. A., Iliescu, D., Ju, X., Kojima, H., Kumar, A., Tchombe, T., Waitoki, M., Boeta, V., & Reyes, M. E. S. (2025a). International Collaboration for Undergraduate Psychology Outcomes (ICUPO): Figures and tables. Open Science Foundation. [ICUP Model Resources within https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/6Y38X
Nolan, S. A., Cranney, J., Narciss, S., Machin, T., Gullifer, J., Goedeke, S., de Souza, L. K., Job, R., Jia, F., Foster, L., Hulme, J. A., Iliescu, D., Ju, X., Kojima, H., Kumar, A., Tchombe, T., Waitoki, M., Boeta, V., Reyes, M. E. S., & IRGUPO.1 (2025b). Gamma.R3 Version: International Competences
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for Undergraduate Psychology (ICUP) . Open Science Foundation. Preprint [Manuscript in preparation]. https://osf.io/6y38x/ Nolan, S. A., Cranney, J., Jia, F., Sokolová, L., Selvam, S. G., Dunn, D. S., Mena, J. A., Richmond, A. S., Machin, M. A., & Yahiiaiev, I. (2024). Going global: Intersections of the American Psychological Association’s Guidelines 3.0 with international foundational competence framework. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology Advance online publication. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/stl0000409
Valerie Sorrentino is a junior at Seton Hall University (USA), majoring in psychology, bachelor of arts, with a minor in data analytics. She plans to pursue a PhD in clinical psychology upon graduation. Her research career began in William Paterson University’s Neuropsychology Laboratory while she was a junior in high school, and she continues to foster her passion for research. She is currently a part of the ICUPO research team since fall 2023 and served as co-lab manager in fall 2024. In addition, she is working as a research assistant in Seton Hall University’s Cognition and Neuroscience Laboratory.
Susan Nolan, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Psychology at Seton Hall University (USA). As a Fulbright Scholar, Susan conducted projects on psychology higher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Australia. She cofounded the International Collaboration on Undergraduate Psychology Outcomes (icupo.org) and was a member of the APA Task Force that developed the Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major, Version 3.0. Susan is a former representative from the American Psychological Association (APA) to the United Nations and is a fellow of the APA and the Association for Psychological Science.
Advancing Disability Psychology: Challenging Ableism and Expanding Representation
An Interview With Disability Psychologist, Kathleen Bogart, PhD
Barrett Psi Chi Headquarters
Elisabeth
Disability is a natural and common part of the human experience, yet it remains underrepresented and often misunderstood in psychology, media, and public life. Internalized ableism, structural barriers, and lack of visibility contribute to misconceptions and reinforce stigma. Dr. Kathleen Bogart, a leading voice in disability psychology, has dedicated her career to addressing these gaps by integrating disability into research, education, and advocacy. Drawing from her lived experience and professional expertise, Bogart highlights the importance of representation, intersectionality, and inclusive practices—both in psychological science and in everyday life.
Internalization of Ableism
People—both abled and disabled—internalize ableism, impacting views and feelings of positive self-conception and empowerment. Bogart explains, “Ableism is so deeply entrenched into most people’s worldview that we don’t even usually see it.” She expands, noting how it is powerfully baked into social structures. For example, it may appear as the inability to discuss disability, avoiding conversations about it, or even avoiding people with disabilities because of discomfort. As a result, ableism manifests through the lack of representation in media, psychology, and government.
“More than 25% of the adult population in America is disabled,” Bogart shares, “but we rarely see them represented in media and political spaces.” Currently, efforts are being made to challenge ableism and combat the realities that cause people to feel shame about having a disability and to reject the false belief that disability is rare, when in fact it is common.
Bogart suggests that people challenge internalized ableism by talking openly about disability and advocating for representation to connect with people with disabilities—whether or not one has a disability themselves. She clarifies that “for most people, lack of disability-inclusive language is not something intentional or explicit. It’s an implicit bias, and because it’s been normalized and we don’t practice talking about it, we’re uncomfortable addressing it.” Bogart highlights what she sees as a meaningful movement resisting ableism: the Disability Pride Movement.
She explains that the name itself is radical, stating, “The idea that you would be proud of something historically associated with so much shame parallels other identity groups that are subverting shame and finding community with each other.”
Disability often intersects with other identities, particularly marginalized ones such as lower socioeconomic status and minority racial groups. Bogart calls attention to the fact that, despite these overlaps, disability research in psychology is still in its infancy and often treated as a single-issue topic. She points out that psychological research samples are often WEIRD: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. This group, while an outlier compared to most of the world’s population, is overrepresented in research, raising concerns about the generalizability of findings. “Our sample [of disabled people] has not been very diverse,” Bogart explains. “But disability is a diverse and global issue. It’s really important to consider intersectionality.” She stresses that intersectionality means identities do not simply add up; rather, they intersect to create “interactive challenges and opportunities” that have not yet been fully examined.
Advancing Disability
Representation in Psychology
Early on, her experience living with Moebius Syndrome—a rare disability involving facial paralysis—shaped Bogart’s curiosity about communication, sparking her interest in psychology. During a virtual interview, she reflected on her adolescence, saying, “The experience of communicating differently and noticing that I wasn’t always understood in the way I intended made me fascinated with communication.” Bogart’s fascination led not only to her psychology career but also to her involvement in Psi Chi, which ultimately shaped her research trajectory. She served as chapter secretary at LSU and attributes her career path to Psi Chi, explaining that “having that [Psi Chi] community was part of the journey to starting my interest in graduate school and my research career.”
She joined her chapter advisor Dr. Jason Hick’s cognitive psychology lab to gain research experience on attitudes. Through career-focused conversations with her advisor, Bogart became motivated to conduct a
literature review on disability and communication (specifically Mobius Syndrome). However, she was disappointed to find only a handful of studies—insufficient to write a full paper. This lack of research inspired her to dedicate her academic and professional life to filling that gap.
In doing so, Bogart often felt like she was starting from scratch. For decades, disability has been largely excluded from mainstream psychology. She recalls that, although she “had an awesome Psi Chi advisor at LSU as an undergrad,” no one conducted disability-related research where she was, nor did she know any students or mentors who shared her identity. “It’s always hard when you don’t have those role models or that guidance. I did have wonderful role models who were very supportive, but they did not have that direct experience.”
When asked whether her lived experiences shaped her work in disability psychology, Bogart responded affirmatively: “I’m a big advocate for including people with lived experience in research and in intervention development. Sometimes it takes someone with the unique motivation to start under-studied research. People with lived experience think of more nuanced questions that someone from the outside might not have thought to ask. It also means that your research can be more generalizable.” She emphasizes that including lived experience in research design and interpretation creates a more inclusive field. Increasing representation ensures that others have footsteps to follow.
Spreading Awareness and Advocacy
Bogart observes that people are often surprised to learn that the disability itself is not usually the primary challenge. Instead, social and policy barriers are what limit opportunities for social and economic participation. “Disability is a psychosocial construction and often brings out strengths and pride in people with disabilities. This helps subvert the public’s idea that disability is shameful. It also helps psychology raise awareness about the social construction of disability, as it’s something that can be addressed with policy.”
In her own work, Bogart bridges the gap between academic research and public
policy. She stresses the importance of public communication of research findings: “If we only publish in our research journals, we’re talking to the same small, esoteric group of people and not getting the word out into the world where it matters.”
Bogart translates her lab’s work into accessible outlets, such as her Psychology Today blog, “Disability is Diversity,” and ensures that findings are communicated back to study participants.
In the policy arena, Bogart collaborated with the Minnesota Rare Disease Advisory Council (a state-funded legislative body) on a survey examining quality of life and healthcare access for Americans with rare disorders—defined by the National Institutes of Health as conditions affecting fewer than 200,000 Americans (National Organization for Rare Disorders). The study revealed significant treatment and diagnosis delays. As a result of Bogart’s team’s work, legislators enacted policies ensuring people with rare disorders would not face higher costs for out-of-network care or lengthy insurance delays.
Disability Psychology in Academia
According to Bogart, fewer than 35% of undergraduate psychology courses in the United States include focus on disability outside of psychiatric or cognitive disability. Where it is covered, disability is often framed as a medical issue to be treated. Bogart explains this pattern as unintentional, rooted in psychology’s
history, which has largely been shaped by nondisabled scholars. As a result, there has been little urgency or priority placed on studying, teaching, or discussing disability. Nonetheless, Bogart sees opportunities for change. She highlights that, although progress is slow, there is growing interest in disability-related content. Many psychology professors, though not disabled themselves, recognize the “dearth of information” and want to improve their teaching. “But that’s challenging for them, too,” she notes, “because if our psychology textbooks and instructional materials don’t include information about disability, it’s really hard to find a place to start.”
To address this gap, Bogart and her collaborators have developed resources for instructors, linking common introductory psychology topics to disability-related modules. She emphasizes that, because disability is common, it can be naturally integrated into areas like social or cognitive psychology. Demand for such resources is high; people simply need access. Her organization, DARN (Disability Advocacy and Research Network)—a collaborative originally funded by APA SPSP’s Social Psychology Division—supports psychologists who have, study, or ally with disability. DARN recently hosted an online conference on teaching disability (freely available) and has a forthcoming special issue in Teaching of Psychology on the same topic.
Bogart stresses the importance of embedding disability content across curricula: “While it’s great to have a focused course on disability, it’s even more important to infuse it throughout the curriculum because it’s a natural part of the human experience.” For psychology departments, she recommends using these resources and connecting with DARN for support. She hopes DARN will create the community and mentorship she once needed, offering valuable resources for the next generation of students.
Since 2012, Bogart has also taught at Oregon State University, where her courses on disability and ableism draw both disabled and nondisabled students. She finds that disabled students, in particular, are excited to see themselves represented. “One common thing that happens,” she explains, “is students take my class knowing they have a disability but haven’t integrated it into their identity. Maybe
they have a learning disability diagnosis but don’t talk about it or seek accommodations—perhaps due to internalized ableism. Over the course of the class, I see their identity develop.” Often, students request disability services for the first time after her class, accessing legal rights and resources that enable them to succeed. She also shares that nondisabled students benefit: “Some students who took my class later developed a disability or knew someone close to them who did. They reached back out to say, ‘I felt so prepared when this happened. What I learned in the course became so relevant to my life! I knew what to do.’ That’s really special.” Bogart hopes to extend this impact nationwide.
SWPA 2026
Bogart will serve as Psi Chi’s Distinguished Lecturer at the 2026 Southwestern Psychological Association convention. Attend her talk to learn more about ableism, how it manifests, and the current state of psychology in terms of disability. In addition, Bogart will host a workshop on ableism in psychology for students and faculty, focusing on practical ways to challenge it.
References
Bogart, K. (2024). Disability is diversity Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/disability-is-diversity DARN Disability. (2024). Disability Advocacy and Research Network = DARN Disability https://darndisability.org/ National Organization for Rare Disorders (n.d.). List of rare diseases: A-Z database: Nord https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/
Kathleen Bogart, PhD, is professor of psychology and director of the Disability and Social Interaction Lab at Oregon State University. She is a social/health psychologist specializing in disability, ableism, and rare disorders such as facial paralysis. Dr. Bogart received the American Psychological Association Distinguished Contributions to the Advancement of Disability Issues in Psychology Award, the first annual Social Personality and Health Network Diversity in Research Award and was named OSU Honors College Eminent Mentor in 2022. She is a Fellow of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology and the Society for Experimental Social Psychology. An advocate for people with rare disorders and disabilities, she has served on several boards including the American Psychological Association Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology and the Moebius Syndrome Foundation Scientific Advisory Board. Passionate about disability community-building, she is the cofounder of the Disability Advocacy and Research Network (DARN) for psychologists who have and/or specialize in disability, and she is the faculty advisor for OSU›s Disabled Students Union.
What We Are Still Learning About Socioeconomic Status:
An Interview With Jenny M. Cundiff, PhD
Bradley Cannon Psi Chi Headquarters
Health disparities are a persistent challenge facing society today. Researchers have long understood that people with lower socioeconomic status (SES) are more likely to face worse health outcomes, but the reasons why remain only partially explained. Traditional health risk factors—such as access to health care, exposure to environmental toxins, and health behaviors like diet and exercise—do not fully explain SES-health relationships. For example, health behaviors account for about a quarter of SES-health disparities. The remaining gaps point toward deeper social, psychological, and structural forces that shape daily life.
To unpack these forces, we spoke with Dr. Jenny Cundiff, an associate professor at the University of Alabama whose work examines how interpersonal dynamics and
social contexts influence health disparities. Her research draws on concepts from psychology, sociology, and epidemiology to understand how socioeconomic status affects stress, relationships, and ultimately, physical and mental health. This interview sheds light on how status seeps into daily interactions—quietly but powerfully influencing stress, opportunity, and health—and provides advice for aspiring researchers who are interested in this area of research.
Socioeconomic Status as a “Cause of Causes”
When asked why traditional health risk factors explain so little of the variance in health outcomes, Dr. Cundiff says, "Socioeconomic status is complex and far reaching. It shapes your whole social context. So I think one problem that we have in the literature is that it is a “whack-
a-mole” situation. Your socioeconomic status is related to so many kinds of different factors. If you measure a few things, that is never going to tell you the whole story. But if you measure everything, then what are you going to focus on for an intervention?”
One view that Dr. Cundiff appreciates is fundamental cause theory—a framework introduced by Bruce G. Link and Jo Phelan—which argues that SES functions as a “cause of causes.” Over time, as specific diseases and health threats change, socioeconomic status remains strongly predictive of health outcomes.
SES affects everything from access to clean water historically to access to high-quality food, safe spaces, and preventive health resources today. “SES gets you money, and that is important,” she says, “but also things like power, prestige, and social relationships that help you
promote and maintain your health so that the social environment is also an important mechanism leading to the differences. All of these social dynamics that differ by social class are hard to capture in one variable.”
Social Dynamics and Subjective Status
Dr. Cundiff’s lab takes a unique approach to studying socioeconomic health disparities: examining how people treat each other. “Those social dynamics—the interpersonal situations people experience— are what we focus on,” she explains. “For example, if people approach you with more hostility because you are part of a stigmatized group, then you are less likely to have positive social relationships, which can affect all kinds of things like social support, medical care, and GPA.”
Another distinctive feature of Dr. Cundiff’s research is her attention to measuring social status subjectively to learn how people perceive their own position relative to others. For example, using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status, she assesses where people rank themselves on a ladder relative to other people. She says, “It turns out that subjective social status is more closely associated, or at least independently associated, with health compared to traditional factors like income, education, and occupation. So there is something psychosocial, something that involves our perceptions of where we stand relative to others, that seems to be related to health beyond just, ‘I make more money than someone else does.’”
Stress
Stress exposure is one of the main pathways hypothesized to link socioeconomic status to health. As Dr. Cundiff points out, stress isn’t distributed equally across groups. She says, “We have really, as a field, struggled in the last five to ten years with how to define stress in a way that is helpful and doesn’t just include everything.”
Further, she explains, in health disparities research there are different types of discrimination that relate to stress—structural discrimination, like being denied a loan at a bank, and interpersonal discrimination, like being treated disrespectfully or stereotyped in daily life. “Those things obviously differ across race in the United States,” she says. Her lab has recently examined perceived
respect as one way to understand how social hierarchy connects to health. “Respect is related to health, but we actually don’t find that this differs by race in our sample. So I think there is a lot to be sort of teased apart in terms of what are the specific interpersonal contexts that differ and what is really driving differences in health.”
As an example of how this plays out in real-world settings, she says, “Doctors talk more and give patients less time to talk when they interact with Black patients versus White patients. They assume, potentially, that Black patients have less to say, so the patients have less control over and input into the interaction. That is just one behavioral indicator of respect and how it might affect medical care.”
She also talks about what some researchers call toxic stress—the really pernicious stress as opposed to more common stress and struggles that people face everyday. Surprisingly, toxic stressors don’t have to last a long time to have a lasting impact. She says, “It can be stress that influences your cognitive processes.” For example, something that happens in just a few minutes can stick with you if you ruminate about it for days or weeks afterward. We expose ourselves to stress in our minds in addition to real-world exposures.
Coming full-circle back to the subject of SES, she says, “A lot of really interesting literature has shown that, if you interact with someone who has more power, status, or esteem than you, you are more likely to focus on that person and ruminate about how the interaction went, your role in it, or ruminate.” This is part of why she and other researchers are paying close attention to daily interpersonal experiences: even brief moments, if part of a pattern of poor interpersonal treatment, can build up and shape health over time.
Interconnected Causes, Not Isolated Variables
When asked whether social stressors could explain the “missing 75%” of variance in health outcomes, Dr. Cundiff emphasizes that no single factor operates on its own. “These are definitely not all there is,” she says. “All of these things are not separable. They are intercorrelated. For example, if you experience more stress, you are also more likely to go smoke and drink and exercise less in an effort to cope and more
likely to have interpersonal conflict which further increases stress and can erode social support, so things can start to pile up.” This “piling up” of stressors helps address why there is no single, clean answer to the SES–health gap. “We know that physical activity helps mitigate the negative health impact of stress,” she says. “So having physical activity as an intervention point is probably a really good idea, but it is downstream in terms of the disease process. Whereas if we can go upstream to the social processes that really give rise to interrelated risk factors, which is people have less sociocontextual stress and more access to the things that help them take care of themselves, then you start to be able to change a whole bolus of variables together at the same time.”
Methodological Gaps and Future Directions
So what are some areas where the field still needs to grow? According to Dr. Cundiff, “There are many gaps we could fill in, but I think one of the big ones is measuring these social psychological variables that we think matter in terms of connecting SES to health in large population samples. When we can get a big sample of people who can show differences in health and lots of differences in SES, then we know we are getting a good estimate of what might happen at the population level. This is where we can actually see whether differences in these social psychological variables and processes could truly explain health disparities at the population level.
As stated previously, the way stress is measured needs refinement. Dr. Cundiff adds, “I think merging how we think as psychologists and how epidemiologists look at a problem overall, shows there is definitely a gap. Measuring stress more consistently across labs is key. I think more often what people have been able to measure is things like affect. So, you know, are you happier if you have more money? But that is so clearly not the only pathway to people’s mental or physical health? For example, purpose in life/meaning in life has been shown to be really important in terms of your physical and mental health as well and can be negatively correlated with affect.”
Beyond measurement, she believes psychology should be more proactive with intervention work. “Medicine tries things
that don’t work all the time, and it costs tons of money, and that is fine because they are trying to solve a problem. But in psychology, we are so careful to line up all our ducks and then try an intervention as a last step. You learn so much by trying an intervention, so I think we should try more things that we think might affect the ‘causes of the causes.’ ”
Practical Strategies and Societal Change
When asked what advice she would give to someone of lower SES trying to protect their health, Dr. Cundiff says, “Don’t buy the meritocracy. There is this deeply embedded view, especially in Western cultures, that if you are at the top, you deserve to be at the top. And if you are at the bottom, you deserve to be at the bottom. You’ve earned your place wherever you are. But there is so much data showing that this is clearly not the case. Of course, there are things we can do to help ourselves, but there are a lot of things that we are not in control of that affect where you end up. And a big one of those things is where you started.”
Did you know that some college student interventions focus on naming, understanding, and respecting class differences—and that these efforts have been shown to improve GPA and mental health for lower-SES, first-generation students?
According to Dr. Cundiff, “Encouraging cross-class interactions, mutual respect, and opportunities to actually learn about differences can help reduce some of the stress associated with lower status.”
It is Dr. Cundiff’s personal hypothesis that social media may have made socioeconomic differences worse for younger generations. She says, “You might feel like you are so different from other people of a different social class. But the truth is that most people experience similar emotions about similar things. You have this kind of human experience that everyone can relate to. And I think it would help everyone, especially people who feel devalued, if we could have more of those kinds of human experience interactions—and fewer social comparisons, like how does my life look or the fact that I don’t have something means that I’m not part of a group.” She also emphasizes that responsibility for change doesn’t rest solely on people from lower SES contexts.
Surprising Findings and “Skin-Deep” Resilience
Dr. Cundiff says that there are many counterintuitive findings in the research. For example, she says, “Not every data set shows an association between socioeconomic status and an outcome that we think is health relevant.” Although meta-analyses show reliable links between SES and inflammation, for example, individual studies sometimes don’t find the same patterns, possibly due to small sample sizes that lack the power and variability to see those differences.
She also highlights what researchers call skin-deep resilience, which overlaps with older ideas like John Henryism. “Basically, what some of that research is showing is that being persistent in the face of low SES may actually cost you physically,” she says. “Mentally, it might be good for you. You might have success and rise out of those circumstances—you know, the American dream kind of thing. But physiologically, you may pay a price for all of that agentic striving against a strong headwind that may require psychological and physiological resources.”
She notes similar findings for race and SES. “Black Americans who move up in SES often experience more discrimination. You find yourself in more White spaces where you might have to code switch more. You might have more exposure to stressors. So moving up is not the only answer to the problem either.”
Advice for Emerging Researchers
For students and early-career researchers, Dr. Cundiff encourages both intellectual honesty and big-picture thinking.
“Try to be intellectually honest with yourself about what you think the causes really are and try to measure them as well as you can,” she says. “And maybe you’ll find out that you are wrong, but at least you won’t have spent a lot of time and effort on something you never really thought was the linchpin in the first place.”
For big-picture thinking, she recommends reading theoretical and conceptual reviews alongside empirical studies. “They give you such good insight into how people are thinking about a problem,” she says. Although you may not agree with every piece, you will be able to understand people’s views, and then you can empirically test
Would You Like to Learn More?
Attend Dr. Cundiff’s Psi Chi Distinguished Lecture at the 2026 Southeastern Psychological Association Convention in New Orleans, LA. During the talk, she’ll discuss “How Social Stratification Shapes Health.”
See you there!
those views. “It makes it much more likely that your work will be impactful.”
Finally, she emphasizes the importance of finding meaning in research. “There aren’t that many rewards when you are working long hours to put out one paper, and I think graduate students really feel that,” she says. “One reward is that it is meaningful to you and that you are intrinsically interested in what you are doing. I think hanging onto that is really important.”
Conclusion: Addressing Causes of Causes
Socioeconomic status influences health, not just through access to resources, but through everyday social experiences—how people treat each other, how they perceive themselves, and how stress accumulates over time. By focusing on these interpersonal and psychological processes, Dr. Jenny Cundiff and other researchers are helping to illuminate the mechanisms behind persistent disparities and identify opportunities for upstream interventions. As she notes, tackling these challenges requires changing the social environments that shape stress and opportunity—not just treating their downstream effects.
Jenny M. Cundiff, PhD, received her PhD in clinical psychology with an emphasis in health psychology from the University of Utah. She subsequently completed postdoctoral training at the University of Pittsburgh through the Cardiovascular Behavioral Medicine T32 training program. She currently works as an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Alabama. Her program of research examines how biopsychosocial processes impact health, with a particular focus on social processes and cardiovascular risk. The bulk of her work focuses on sharpening our understanding of these processes in the context of socioeconomic and racial health disparities.
Chapter Activities Submission
Guidelines
With more than 1,100 chapters, Psi Chi members can make a significant impact in their communities. Reviewing Chapter Activities in Eye on Psi Chi is a great way to find inspirational ideas for your chapter and keep in touch with your chapter after you graduate. Activities are listed in the following categories:
• COMMUNITY SERVICE
• CONVENTION/CONFERENCE
• FUND-RAISING
• INDUCTION CEREMONY
• MEETING/SPEAKER EVENT
• RECRUITMENT
• SOCIAL EVENT
Share your chapter’s accomplishments with others in the next issue of Eye on Psi Chi! Chapter officers and advisors are encouraged to visit https://www.psichi.org/page/eye_activity
Submission deadlines*
Fall: June 30
Winter: September 30
Spring: December 15
Summer: February 28
*Reports received (postmarked) after the deadline will appear in the next issue of Eye on Psi Chi
EAST
Fordham University at Lincoln Center (NY) MEETING/SPEAKER EVENT: Under Jamilla Perez-Hosein (chapter president), the chapter again hosted a full program of seven activities in summer 2025. A few of these were “urban psychology” visits to Manhattan landmarks like Wall Street and the United Nations. The largest of these activities was a psychology alumni reunion on June 20, where 40 years of Psi Chi alumni heard Dr. John DiMino (’80) discuss his new book on “the use of mythology in psychotherapy.” Alumni posted a group photo from 1980, with eight of them pointing to themselves 45 years earlier: John DiMino, Joe Dash,
(Right) On June 20, eight alumni pointed to themselves 45 years later in a Fordham University at Lincoln Center (NY) psychology group photo from 1980. (Below) Fordham University at Lincoln Center’s (NY) summer induction ceremony brought together 20 Psi Chi and family members.
Dore Shepherd, Clotilde Ibarra, Harold Takooshian, Elizabeth DeSario, Pascal Sauvayre, and Maritza Martinez. INDUCTION CEREMONY: The chapter held a summer induction ceremony for about 20 Psi Chi members and family, which also saluted Harold Takooshian (chapter advisor) for his 50 years of service to Fordham (https://now.fordham. edu/inside-fordham/a-half-centuryof-highlights-from-the-psychologydepartment/).
MIDWEST
Indiana University – Bloomington COMMUNITY SERVICE: The chapter collaborated with Elara Caring Hospice
Foundation to plan an event where chapter members could learn about neurodegenerative disorders and make cards for hospice patients in Indiana. The chapter president, an advanced hospice companion with Elara Caring, gave a presentation about why patients choose hospice care and the reality of living with a neurodegenerative disease. The goals for this event were to provide members with an opportunity to make a positive impact on hospice patients’ mental health and provide resources about how to get involved in their community!
University of Missouri
COMMUNITY SERVICE: The chapter participated in decorating the district
to celebrate Mizzou homecoming by painting a downtown business. The theme for this year was board games, and the chapter’s category was Scattegories. This was important for Columbia pride as Mizzou was the first to start the homecoming tradition, and the celebration has been holding strong for 114 years! Fifty thousand people attended the homecoming parade, and the route went through the painted windows. The paintings were up all weekend for the community to enjoy!
Western Illinois University
SOCIAL EVENT: On September 22, 2025, the chapter hosted a Student Research Mixer for any students who
wanted to present their research work. Eight students chose to participate in presenting their research and discussing their findings. Students and professors attended the mixer, and it was a great opportunity for students to ask questions and learn more about getting involved in Psi Chi and in research. The event also provided an opportunity for students to meet additional professors in the psychology department and receive feedback and mentorship about their research and ideas for further research on their topics.
FUNDRAISER: The chapter partnered with the psychology club and crisis hotline to raise money for the Out of the Darkness Suicide Prevention Walk.
As a team, they set a goal to raise $2,000 for the organization. The team raised $2,959 and was the top fundraising team for the event. Addie Fitzgerald (secretary) was also third place for raising $1,135 for the cause. The walk took place on September 27, 2025.
SOUTHEAST
University of Mary Washington (VA) RECRUITMENT: Chapter officers identified 16 new eligible members to invite to join with the help of this chapter’s faculty advisor, Dr. Marcus Leppanen, and created a “tapping” schedule to announce eligible inductees. The officers visited
psychology classrooms and announced the inductees to congratulate their successes. The inductees were given mugs with blue ribbon, candy, and a colorful pen, honoring their academic accomplishments as psychology majors. While still waiting for more forms, five inductees have completed filling out Psi Chi forms, and one inductee has paid.
MEETING/SPEAKER EVENT: The chapter invited three faculty and one alum to panel at a Graduate School Forum. The panel included UMW faculty Drs. Marcus Leppanen, Erin Palmwood, Dave Kolar, and PhD candidate Nicole Altenberg. The event was designed to introduce students to different paths they can take after
(Left) On July 13,
(Below left) Members from the University of Missouri Chapter paint Scattergories-themed window art in downtown Columbia!
(Below center) University of Missouri Chapter members paint Scattergoriesthemed window art in downtown Columbia!
(Below right) Final product of the University of Missouri Chapter’s painted window!
Fordham University at Lincoln Center (NY) students visited the United Nations General Assembly chamber.
graduating. The students attending were able to ask questions to a specific person or the panel as a whole.
University of Mount Olive (NC) COMMUNITY SERVICE: Chapter students responded to the call from the Children’s Advocacy Center for stuffed animals to use with children during their evaluations to bring comfort, reassurance, and a sense of safety during
an incredibly difficult time. People from all over campus dropped off stuffed animals for this very worthy cause, and everyone was so grateful! Thank you for helping provide support and compassionate care in our community!
Yerevan State University (Armenia)
MEETING/SPEAKER EVENT: The chapter was installed on August 20, 2020, and celebrated its fifth anniversary in
summer 2025. Under Diana Sargsyan (faculty advisor), the chapter had another active semester. On September 16, the chapter organized its Education EXPO-25 (#BanuGorst), which included the faculty in philosophy and psychology, explaining the value of membership in Psi Chi. Chapter members are now preparing to help Professor Hrant Avanesyan staff the biennial Tenth YSU congress of
psychology, set for October 10–12, 2025 (https://psyarm.com/).
WEST
University of Victoria (Canada) SOCIAL EVENT: The chapter hosted a Back-to-School Barbecue for current and past chapter board members to bond. This allowed current board members to
)
(Right) Western Illinois University Student Research Mixer. Students Claire Bockenhauer (chapter treasurer) and Addison Fitzgerald (chapter secretary) presenting research to Dr. Intrieri (faculty advisor) and Ariana Sanchez (chapter president).
(Far
2025.
(Below) Western Illinois University Student
Mixer. Ariana Sanchez (chapter president) with students Patricia Klein and Claire Bockenhauer (chapter treasurer), and Dr. Intrieri (faculty advisor).
(Above
On September 16, 2025, Diana Sargsyan (faculty advisor) with members at the Psi Chi table for the Yerevan State University (Armenia) Education-EXPO-25.
right) Western Illinois University Out of the Darkness Suicide Prevention Walk on September 27,
Research
familiarize themselves with their fellow executives and receive tips from previous members in similar roles. Past board members were able to feel safe knowing that the board is in good hands, while the current board used their guidance to plan ahead for the future.
MEETING/SPEAKER EVENT: Following their annual “Meet and Eat,” the chapter organized “Meet the Department,”
where students had the opportunity to learn about various members from the department of psychology. Professors from four psychological streams (mental health and well-being, mind and brain, lifespan, and social psychology) spoke on their interests and research, as well as other aspects of undertaking a psychology degree. Following this, students could network with members of the department to
make connections and learn about opportunities within the department.
MEETING/SPEAKER EVENT: The chapter hosted its annual “How to Get Into Grad School” event, which provides resources for current undergraduate students who are interested in attending graduate school after their bachelor degree. Dr. Stephen Lindsay (professor from the University of Victoria) provided an
opening speech to motivate attendees. Dr. Frederick Grouzet (associate professor and graduate advisor from the University of Victoria) provided insight into the application process for attendees to consider. Additionally, a panel of current graduate students were present to share their experiences during the application process and their current experiences within the program.
(Above left) Current and previous board members from the University of Victoria’s (Canada) Chapter at the Back-to-School Barbecue.
(Top right) Dr. Frederick Grouzet (associate professor and graduate advisor at the University of Victoria, (Canada) showcasing the various paths to attending graduate school, including the career paths that become available.
(Above right) Isabel Davies-Stevenson and Elena Richardson (copresidents) of the University of Victoria’s (Canada) Chapter moments before “Meet the Department” begins.
(Left) University of Mount Olive (North Carolina) students collecting stuffed animals for the Children’s Advocacy Center to bring comfort to children being evaluated.
You might be surprised by how fast one of your graduation photos could appear on your mom’s hearth or on social media. Wherever it goes, look your best with Psi Chi Graduation Regalia!
Psi Chi offers honor cords, stoles, medallions, lapel pins, certificate holders, and even stationery for thank-you cards! To save on purchases, see our special Commencement Bundle deal. Psi Chi congratulates you on your academic achievements!
