Strengthening Urban Climate Policy and Finance in Dakar, Senegal

STRENGTHENING URBAN CLIMATE POLICY AND FINANCE IN DAKAR, SENEGAL

A Proposal for the African Climate Foundation (ACF)

STRENGTHENING URBAN CLIMATE POLICY AND FINANCE IN DAKAR, SENEGAL

A Proposal for the African Climate Foundation (ACF)

Princeton School of Public and International Affairs

January 2025

FacultyAdvisor

Dr.DevanneBéda-Geuder

AssociateResearchScholarandLecturerinPublicandInternationalAffairs,Princeton University

Authors

AmyChang|ManueldeFaria|KatieDeal|FranciscoGonzalez

SamHau|FatimaMumtaz|RosemaryNewsome|FerdinandQuayson RiasReed|EleniSmitham|AyushiVig|JingXie

FRONT MATTER

Preface and Acknowledgements

Glossary

Executive Summary

Purpose

I. CONTEXT

Climate Profile

Socioeconomic and Environmental Vulnerabilities

Policy and Institutional Landscape

II. METHODOLOGY

Literature Review

Stakeholder Interviews

Data Analysis and Synthesis

Limitations

III. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Current State

and Opportunities

IV. STRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACF

1. Strengthen Senegal’s climate change data ecosystem

2. Launch a “Climate Finance Accelerator” program

3. Build capacity for accessing climate finance

4. Support and scale existing governmental efforts to facilitate local access to global climate financing

5. Bridge the implementation gap between finance & sustainability

6. Promote participatory monitoring and evaluation

7. Position the ACF as a voice for elevating regional stakeholders during the energy transition V. CONCLUSION

PREFACE

This report is the final product of a Policy Workshop sponsored by the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs (SPIA), as part of the Master in Public Affairs (MPA) degree program. It was produced by twelve graduate students advised by Dr. Devanne Béda-Geuder, Associate Research Scholar and Lecturer in Public and International Affairs, Princeton University.

The report’s information and recommendations stem from four months of research and interviews with government agencies, civil society organizations, academics, and international institutions. A full list of stakeholders interviewed is Included at the end of the report. The group conducted in-person and virtual interviews in both Dakar, Senegal and Princeton, New Jersey, USA.

Throughout the report, we make reference to some of those we interviewed by name, indirectly by title, or as a workshop interview. This was done at the request of those we interviewed to allow them to speak freely and for us to be able to use the information they provided to us in this report. The report does not necessarily reflect the views of any individual interviewee or respondent, Princeton University, our client the African Climate Foundation, or any person or their affiliated organizations who collaborated with the workshop.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply grateful to the many people who supported us in our policy workshop. Thank you to the government officials, researchers, and civil society leaders who so generously shared their expertise with us. Thank you also to Dr. Devanne Béda-Geuder, Dean Amaney Jamal, Senior Associate Dean Paul Lipton, Associate Dean Karen McGuinness, Associate Director Tam Le Rovitto, Finance and Operations Manager Shannon Presha, and the rest of the SPIA team who made this learning experience possible.

A special thank you to the African Climate Foundation and Lamine Cissé for hosting us and providing invaluable guidance throughout our journey. We have greatly appreciated the opportunity to learn more about Senegal and its dynamic context of climate adaptation and mitigation. We look forward to carrying these insights with us as we move forward.

We are grateful to the stakeholders who took the time to speak with our Policy Workshop. Their comments were invaluable and helped to inform the perspectives and recommendations presented in this report. The content of the report does not necessarily reflect their views or the views of their affiliated organizations. The interviews are listed below in alphabetical order by organization.

African Development Bank (AfDB) Agence de Développement Municipal (ADM) Centre de Suivi Ecologique (CSE)

City of Dakar

Enda Energie  Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)

Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) Heinrich Böll Stiftung

La Banque Agricole

Ministry of Environment

Prime Minister’s Office

Université Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD)

World Bank

GLOSSARY

Definitions

Blendedfinance:Useofcatalyticcapitalfrom publicorphilanthropicsourcestoincreaseprivate sectorinvestmentinsustainabledevelopment.

Climateadaptation: Processofadjustingtoand preparingforthecurrentandprojectedeffectsof climatechange.

Climatemitigation:Actionstakentoreduceor preventthereleaseofgreenhousegasesintothe atmosphere,ortoincreasecarbonsinksthat removegreenhousegases.

Climatefinance:Local,nationalortransnational financing—drawnfrompublic,privateand alternativesourcesoffinancing—thatseeksto supportmitigationandadaptationactionsthatwill addressclimatechange.

Senegal2050:NationalAgendaforTransformation (orSenegalVision2050),introducedbyPresident BassirouDiomayeFaye’sadministration,outlininga strategicroadmaptotransformSenegalintoa sovereign,prosperous,andjustnationby2050. Targetedreformsandregionaldevelopment initiativesinclude:economic competitiveness, territorialimbalances,sustainability,and social equity.

UrbanMasterPlanoftheCityofDakar2035: Acomprehensivedevelopmentplantoguide Dakar’surbangrowthanddevelopmentuntil2035, focusingon:creatingamulti-polarurbanstructure withnewdevelopmentpoleslikeDiamniadioand DagaKholpa,improvingpublictransportation systems,andprioritizingenvironmental sustainabilitybymanagingflood-proneareasand preservinggreenspaces;essentiallyaimingto createamoreefficient,inclusive,and environmentallyconsciouscityby2035.

Acronyms

ACCF:AfricaClimateChangeFund

ACF:TheAfricanClimateFoundation

ADM:AgencedeDéveloppementMunicipal (MunicipalDevelopmentAgency)

AFD:AgenceFrançaisedeDéveloppement(French DevelopmentAgency)

AfDB:AfricanDevelopmentBank

ANSD:AgenceNationaledelaStatistiqueetdela Démographie(NationalAgencyforStatisticsand Demography)

APRI:AfricaPolicyResearchInstitute

CAR:Communautéd'AgglomérationdeRufisque (RufisqueAgglomerationCommunity)

CCDE:ClimateChangeDataEcosystem

CGQA:CentredeGestiondelaQualitédel'Air (CenterfortheControlofAirQualityofSenegal)

CIRAD:CentredeCoopérationInternationalen RecherchéAgronomiquepourleDéveloppement (InternationalCooperationCenterforAgricultural ResearchandDevelopment)

COMNACC:LeComitéNationalsurles ChangementsClimatiques(NationalCommitteeon ClimateChange)

COPERES:ConseilPatronaldesÉnergies RenewablesduSénégal(BusinessCouncilof RenewableEnergiesofSenegal)

CPI:ClimatePolicyInitiative

CRADESC:CentredeRechercheetd'Actionsurles DroitsÉconomiquesSociauxetCulturels(Centre forResearchandActiononEconomic,Socialand CulturalRights)

CRSE:CommissiondeRégulationduSecteurde l'Electricité(ElectricitySectorRegulation Commission)

CSE:CentredeSuiviEcologique(Ecological MonitoringCentre)

DHS:DemographicandHealthSurvey

EO4SD:EarthObservationforSustainable Development

ESG:Environmental,social,andgovernance

EV:ElectricVehicle

FCFA:FrancdelaCommunautéFinancièreAfricaine (FrancoftheFinancialCommunityofAfrica)

FONSIS:FondsSouveraind'Investissements Stratégiques(SovereignFundforStrategic Investments)

GCF:GreenClimateFund

GDP:GrossDomesticProduct

GEF:GlobalEnvironmentFacility

GGGI:GlobalGreenGrowthInstitute

GIZ:DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GermanAgencyforInternational Cooperation)

IFC:InternationalFinanceCorporation

IRD:Institutderecherchepourledéveloppement (ResearchInstituteforDevelopment)

ISRA:InstitutSénégalaisdeRechercheAgricole (SenegaleseInstituteofAgriculturalResearch)

JETP:JustEnergyTransitionPartnerships

LBA:LaBanqueAgricole

MEDDTE:Ministèredel'Environnement,du DéveloppementDurableetdelaTransition Écologique(MinistryofEnvironmentandSustainable Development)

MRV:MonitoringReportingandVerification

MSSAT:MeghalayaSocietyforSocialAuditand Transparency

MTGDMT:MinistèredelaGouvernanceTerritoriale, duDéveloppementetdel’Aménagementdu Territoire(MinistryofTerritorialGovernance, Development,andSpatialPlanning)

NAP:NationalAdaptationPlan

NDC:NationallyDeterminedContribution

PARIS21:PartnershipinStatisticsforDevelopment inthe21stCentury

PASTEF:PatriotesafricainsduSénégalpourle travail,l'éthiqueetlafraternité(TheAfricanPatriots ofSenegalforWork,EthicsandFraternity)

PM2.5:ParticulateMatter2.5

PM10:ParticulateMatter10

PPA:PowerPurchaseAgreement

PROGEP:ProjetdeGestiondesEauxPluvialeset d’adaptationauchangementclimatique (StormwaterManagementandClimateChange AdaptationProject)

PSE:PlanSénégalEmergent(PlanforanEmerging Senegal)

QGIS:QuantumGeographicInformationSystem

Senelec:SociétéNationaled'ÉlectricitéduSénégal (Senegal’sNationalElectricityAgency)

TER:TrainExpressRégional(RegionalExpress Train)

UCAD:UniversitéCheikhAntaDiopdeDakar

UN:UnitedNations

UNCDF:UnitedNationsCapitalDevelopmentFund

UNFCCC:UnitedNationsFrameworkConventionon ClimateChange

SDI:SlumDwellersInitiative

SFI:SenegaleseFederationofInhabitants

WASCAL:WestAfricanScienceServiceCentreon ClimateChangeandAdaptedLandUse

WATHI:WestAfricaThinkTank

WB:WorldBank

WHO:WorldHealthOrganization

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Across Sub-Saharan Africa, the impacts of climate change—ranging from coastal erosion to flooding, drought, and heatwaves—are becoming increasingly acute. Senegal is no exception, with its capital city, Dakar, facing disproportionate risks as a rapidly urbanizing coastal hub. Dakar’s unique position as the economic and cultural center of the country amplifies the urgency to address these challenges, particularly as vulnerable communities, including those in informal settlements, are disproportionately affected. The intersection of urban poverty, social inequality, and climate vulnerability underscores the need for coordinated, inclusive, and sustainable climate adaptation and mitigation strategies.

This report provides an in-depth analysis of the challenges and opportunities Dakar faces in implementing its climate agenda. It highlights the need to address critical gaps in data availability, institutional capacity, and access to climate finance while fostering collaboration between local, national, and international stakeholders. Our research aims to support the African Climate Foundation (ACF), the client for this policy workshop, in advancing Dakar’s climate resilience through targeted interventions that prioritize equity, transparency, and sustainability. Our findings are informed by stakeholder interviews, geospatial analysis, and a review of existing climate policies and frameworks.

This approach enabled us to offer the following recommendations for ACF:

1.FacilitatestrengtheningofSenegal’s ClimateChangeDataEcosystem: FacilitatetheClimateChangeDataEcosystem efforttoimproveaccessibility,identifygaps,and enableinnovativeapproachestounderstanding climaterisks.

2.LaunchaClimateFinanceAccelerator: Buildlocalcapacityforgrantwritingandproject development,whileleveragingAItoolstosimplify applicationprocessesandenhancefunding successrates.

3.FosterParticipatoryGovernance: Implementaframeworkforsocialauditsand communityengagementtoensurevulnerable populationsareempoweredandincludedin decision-making.

4.StrengthenLocal-NationalCollaboration: Partnerwithnationalentitiestoimproveaccessto climatefinanceandscalesuccessfulpilotprograms invulnerableregions.

5.ElevateDakar’sGlobalLeadership: PositionDakarasamodelcityforurbanclimate resiliencethroughstrategicadvocacy, partnerships,andshowcasinginnovativepractices onaninternationalstage.

6.PromoteParticipatoryMonitoringand Evaluation: Promotesocialauditsforitsfundedprojectsand programsinDakar.

7.PositiontheACFasaVoiceforElevating RegionalStakeholdersDuringtheEnergy Transition: AdvocateforregionalstakeholdersinAfrica’s energytransition,ensuringthatlocalperspectives, needs,andinnovationsareprioritizedinglobal climateconversations.

With a focus on inclusive, data-driven, and participatory approaches, the ACF can emerge as a global leader in climate adaptation and mitigation, ensuring a sustainable future for Dakar’s residents. This report provides a roadmap for action, empowering the ACF to champion these efforts and drive impactful change.

PURPOSE

The African Climate Foundation (ACF) is a leading philanthropic organization dedicated to fostering climate resilience and advancing equitable development across the African continent. Guided by a mission to catalyze systemic change, the ACF works to bridge gaps between climate policy, finance, and implementation, with a focus on empowering communities most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The ACF currently works in “pivot countries” which involve incountry work and act as entry points to expanding sub-regional work, including South Africa, Namibia, Nigeria, and Senegal. By leveraging strategic partnerships with government, private sector, philanthropic organizations, and civil society, the ACF seeks to bolster the climate agenda in Senegal and beyond.

The purpose of this workshop is to support the ACF in enhancing its work to implement its climate adaptation agenda. As a uniquely positioned institutional actor, the ACF offers distinct value by serving as an independent, agile convener of diverse stakeholders, enabling crosssectoral collaboration that is often challenging for government or private entities alone. The ACF’s ability to combine policy expertise with strategic funding, with an emphasis on equity and inclusion, positions the organization as a critical driver of transformative change in Senegal’s climate landscape.

Ourresearchquestionsfortheworkshopwere: Inthecurrentcontextofclimatepolicyand financeinSenegal,howdoesthecurrent landscapeofstakeholders,priorities,resources, andneedsshapethekeyopportunitiesfor impact?HowcantheACFbestsupportthose opportunities? 1.

2.

Whatarethecriticalalignmentpointsandgaps betweenclimatefinanceflows,policypriorities, andimplementationcapacityacrossSenegal's climateactionlandscape,andhowcanthese informtheACF'sstrategicinterventions?

Toaddressthesequestions,weidentifiedthree strategicobjectivesforourworkshop,whichform thebasisofthisreport:

AnalyzetheimplicationsofSenegal’srecently releasedSenegal2050forclimatemitigationand adaptationinDakar,particularlyinthecontextof pre-existinglocal,national,andinternational policiesandagreements,withafocuson vulnerablepopulations(women,youth,and informalsettlements).

3.

2. Developstrategicrecommendationstosupport theACFasachampionoftheclimatepolicyand financeagendainSenegal.

Identifythechallengesandopportunitiesin climaterisksandfinance,focusingonthegapsin bothfieldsthatwillproverelevanttotheACF executingitsmissioninSenegal.

Thisreportbuildsoninsightsgatheredthrough stakeholderengagement,policyanalysis,and geospatialassessments,offeringactionable pathwaysfortheACFtostrengthenitsimpactin Senegal.

POSITIONALITY STATEMENT

WesoughttocenterourresearchonwhatwelearnedfromgovernmentandcivilsocietystakeholdersinDakar, prioritizingactionablerecommendationsthataresensitivetolocalcontextwhileincorporatingglobal perspectives.Nevertheless,wewishtoacknowledgeourpositionsandlimitationsasgraduatestudents receivingpolicytraininginaneliteWesterninstitution.Thistrainingoftenprivilegescertainparadigmsof development,suchastechnocraticsolutionsandassumptionsofobjectivityandneutrality,whichmaynotfully alignwithlocalrealities.ManyofusarefromtheGlobalSouth,butmosthavenopriorexperienceinSenegal. Whilewehavemadeeffortstoincludediversestakeholderviews–throughinterviews,literaturereviews,and othermeans–weacknowledgethatnotallvoicesarerepresented.Weofferthisreportnotasanauthoritative assessment,butratherasastartingpointfordialogueandcollaborationtowardsclimateadaptationand mitigationinDakar.

I. CONTEXT

Senegal, situated along the Atlantic coast and within the Sahel and larger West African region, finds itself at the crossroads of climate change, urban transformation, and economic development. As a country with a rapidly growing population and a high reliance on climatesensitive industries such as agriculture, fishing, and tourism, Senegal is highly vulnerable to the impacts of a changing climate. Rising global temperatures, shifting weather patterns, and intensifying natural hazards are exacerbating pre-existing social and economic inequalities.

Rapid urban transformation in Senegal amplifies these risks. Over 49% of the country’s population now resides in urban areas, a figure projected to exceed 60% by 2035. However, this urbanization is starkly dominated by the Dakar metropolitan region, which, despite occupying only 0.3% of the national territory, houses 25% of the population (see Figure 1) and generates over half of the country’s GDP. This economic and demographic concentration also leaves secondary cities underdeveloped, with limited economic and infrastructural development.

The capital of Senegal, Dakar, faces unique urban and climate challenges. As the westernmost point of mainland Africa, situated on the Cap-Vert peninsula, the city is particularly at risk of coastal erosion due to its geographic position, coastline dynamics, and low-lying area. As the largest city of Senegal, Dakar city spreads across almost 80 square kilometers (~31 square miles). The department of Dakar, one of four administrative districts (Dakar, Guédiawaye, Pikine, and Rufisque) within the Dakar metropolitan region, has a population of more than 1 million, and the broader Dakar metropolitan area has a population of approximately 4 million.

Dakar’s historical trajectory under colonialism and beyond highlight the intersection of colonial urban planning and the ongoing challenges of urbanization combined with climate challenges. Colonized by the French in 1857, Dakar replaced the island city of Saint-Louis to the north as the capital of French West Africa in 1902. Initially, colonizers promoted the assimilation of the local population, and city plans incorporated European features. However, by the early 20th century,

Source: ISS African Futures (Link)

Figure 1: Urban hierarchy of Senegal by population density

Figure 2. Green Spaces in Dakar

Source: Data from the Earth Observation for Sustainable Development (EO4SD) Urban Project Map, created by authors

assimilation efforts faltered and the French shifted to a policy of segregation. This policy was formalized in 1914 with the creation of the Médina, a “native quarter” to separate the African population. After World War II, rapid urban growth, fueled by migration and housing shortages, led to an increase in informal settlements. Today’s urban structure and infrastructure development stem from this colonial history, which created patterns of exclusion that persist.

Given this unique combination of factors, Dakar is the primary focus of this Policy Workshop and report.

Climate Profile

Among Senegal’s pressing climate challenges, Dakar’s vulnerability stands out due to its geographical position, population density, and socioeconomic disparities. The city grapples with three interconnected natural hazards that threaten its urban development and resilience: coastal erosion and sea level rise, urban flooding, and extreme urban heat. These hazards not only disrupt daily life but also jeopardize critical infrastructure, health, and livelihoods. Understanding the drivers and scale of these vulnerabilities is essential to developing targeted solutions that can mitigate risks, protect communities, and support sustainable urban development.

GeographyandClimateVariability

Urbanheat

Urbanheatpresentsagrowingchallengefor Dakar,drivenbyrapidurbanization,limitedgreen spaces(seeFigure2),andtheuseofheatretainingconstructionmaterials.Risein temperatureacrossSenegalisexacerbatingthe urbanheatislandeffectinDakar,whichoccurs whenametropolitanareaismuchwarmerthan thesurroundingruralareas. Vulnerable communitiesaredisproportionatelyaffected,as theyoftenlackaccesstocoolinginfrastructureor resourcestoadapt.Inadequateurbanplanning andlimitedinvestmentingreeninfrastructure continuetoworsentheserisks,threateningpublic healthandproductivityinthecity.TheWorld HealthOrganization(WHO)hasemphasizedthat heatstresscanworsenconditionssuchas cardiovasculardisease,heatstroke,diabetes, mentalhealthdisorders,andasthma,whilealso heighteningtheriskofaccidentsandthespread ofcertaininfectiousdiseases.

Coastalerosionandsealevelrise Senegalhasexperiencedsevereimpactsof coastalerosion,withitscoastlineretreatingatan averageof2.2metersannuallybetween1954and 2002,acceleratingto3metersperyearfrom 2014to2018.Thiserosionhasdevastated housing,tourism,andfishinginfrastructure,while causingbeachloss,agriculturallanddegradation,

and increased salinity in groundwater and estuarine areas, which threatens mangroves and fisheries. Coastal erosion is projected to cause significant economic losses for the district municipalities along Dakar's coastline, estimated at 38.5 billion FCFA by 2030 and 57.8 billion FCFA by 2040. Without proactive adaptation measures, coastal erosion is poised to become one of the most severe climate threats to the Dakar region.

Flooding

Flooding poses a significant and recurring challenge for Senegal, particularly coastal cities like Saint-Louis and Dakar. In 2018, the World Bank launched the Saint-Louis Emergency Recovery and Resilience Project, relocating nearly 10,000 people living within the 20-meter zone from the coastline considered at very high-risk of flooding. Dakar, driven by intense seasonal rainfall, limited urban planning, and inadequate drainage systems (see Figure 3). Since 2005, repeated flooding events have displaced thousands of residents in Dakar, particularly affecting low-income neighborhoods such as Pikine and Guédiawaye, to the east of the city center. A 2021 study estimated that nearly 40% of the population in Dakar and its peri-urban areas live in flood-prone areas, where unplanned urban expansion has exacerbated the issue. For instance, Grand Yoff is one of the areas most susceptible to flooding. Despite having a natural marshland where rainwater runoff from the surrounding watershed is collected, the marshland area was degraded by rapid urbanization, land use change, poor upstream management, and unmanaged wastewater discharge. This degradation means that the retention basin overflows during heavy rains and floods the surrounding catchment area with contaminated water that impacts health, the local economy, livelihood, and environment. The economic impacts are staggering: a 2021 report by the C40 Cities Finance Facility estimates that floods along Senegal's coast in 2017 cost the national economy approximately $230 million, equivalent to about 1.4% of the country's GDP. Moreover, floodwaters often remain stagnant for extended periods due to poor drainage, posing significant public health risks by facilitating the spread of waterborne

Source: World Bank Group (Link)

diseases such as cholera and malaria. In addition to economic and health impacts, flooding intensifies existing social inequalities in Dakar. Vulnerable communities in informal settlements are disproportionately affected, with limited access to resilient infrastructure and emergency response systems. For example, during the severe floods of 2009, approximately 360,000 people were directly affected, with the peri-urban areas of Pikine and Guédiawaye being the most impacted due to unfavorable existing condition in the area. The expansion of informal settlements into these high-risk areas reflects a combination of inadequate urban planning, lack of enforcement of land use regulations, and limited access to affordable, safe housing. These factors, rather than topographical realities alone, exacerbate the vulnerability of marginalized populations to the impacts of flooding. Climate projections indicate that extreme rainfall events in Dakar are likely to increase in frequency and intensity, further exacerbating the city’s vulnerability. The inadequate capacity of drainage systems, which is insufficient to handle the city's rainfall during heavy storms, highlights the urgent need for improvements in urban planning and management. Without targeted interventions, flooding will continue to undermine Dakar’s urban resilience, development, and public health.

Figure 3. Flood risks map of Dakar

Drought

Ontheoppositeendofthespectrum,Dakaralso experiencesrepeateddroughts,whichhas resultedinpooraccesstowaterresources.Urban areasandlow-incomecommunitiesexperience frequentwatershortagesandlimitedaccessto cleanwater.Insufficientwastemanagementand pollutionalsocontributetothedegradationof watersupply,reducingavailabilityandcreating healthrisksforlow-incomecommunities.For agriculture,watershortagesduringdroughts resultindiminishingproductivityandlossof crops,inmostcasesseverelyaffectingthe livelihoodsofcommunitiesdependenton agriculturalyields.

SectoralImpacts

Dakarfacesaseriesofclimateadaptation challengesthatreflectitspositionasarapidly urbanizingcoastalcity.Increasinglysevere climateimpactsareexacerbatedbyinadequate urbandevelopment,infrastructure,and governancegaps.Thesechallengesdemanda deeperunderstandingofadaptationacross diversesectors.Whileclimatechangetouches nearlyeverysectorofurbanlife,threeareof primaryimportancebasedontheircriticalrolein supportingDakar’sresilienceanddevelopment, eachrepresentinganexuswhereclimateimpacts intersectwitheconomicandsocialvulnerabilities: agriculture,infrastructure,andhealth.

Agriculture

Climatechangeisoneofthegreatestthreatsto agricultureinSenegal,resultinginreduced productivityandseverelyaffectingthelivelihoods ofruralcommunities.Agricultureisaffectedby issuessuchasvulnerabilityoftraditional agriculturalsystems,limitedarableland,water andenergyscarcity,andurbanization.Traditional systemsaresusceptibletoclimatevariability, whichcontinuestoincreaseinrecentyearsas seenthroughunpredictablerainfallpatterns, temperatureshifts,andextremeweatherevents. These,combinedwithdroughtsandlackofwater andenergyforirrigationandotherprocesses, resultindecreasedproductivity.Urbansprawl alsocontinuestotakeoverperi-urbanareas, resultingindecreasingavailablelandfor

agriculture. These issues create challenges for local communities that rely on their agricultural production and have the potential of resulting in significant food shortages, highlighting the pressing need for adaptation efforts.

Gaps in the agricultural sector include urbanization of peri-urban areas, challenges in water access, and increased use of technological innovations. Even though urban sprawl is seen as a threat to agricultural production, particularly the availability of arable land, there is only a limited focus on the strategies that need to be implemented to preserve agricultural spaces. Similarly, even though new irrigation systems improve water usage, future shortages of water resources still need to be addressed to ensure that agricultural production is resilient to climate change. Lastly, small pilot projects to transition to solar water pumps and improved seeds need to make use of technologies for sustainable agriculture and be implemented at scale across the country and a variety of agricultural producers.

Infrastructure

Dakar’s urban infrastructure plays a dual role in both mitigating and exacerbating climate risks. Gray infrastructure, such as drainage systems, is essential for managing flooding, while green infrastructure, such as urban vegetation, can help mitigate heat risks. However, Dakar's rapid urbanization has outpaced its infrastructure development, leaving critical gaps in access for the population as well as climate resilience.

18 19

Many neighborhoods lack adequate drainage systems, leading to frequent and severe flooding during the rainy season. Unplanned urban growth, coupled with outdated planning frameworks, exacerbates these vulnerabilities. Further, climate change also poses significant challenges to Dakar's transportation infrastructure. Extreme weather events such as flooding, sea level rise and urban heat can cause extensive structural damages to transport infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and drainage systems, disrupting mobility and economic activities. The economic implications of these disruptions are significant, as Dakar is a key economic hub in Senegal. Without climate-resilient infrastructure, the city

faces escalating costs due to infrastructure damage, reduced productivity, and longer recovery times from extreme weather events. Interacting with these challenges is the city’s air quality, which has reached hazardous levels in Dakar according to the WHO guidelines. Airborne particulate matter (PM10) frequently exceeds recommended limits, sometimes by as much as sevenfold. Emissions from second-hand vehicles with outdated and inefficient engines is a major contributor to Dakar's worsening air pollution, as well as natural phenomena like the Harmattan winds, which carry fine desert dust particles into the urban atmosphere. Without proactive measures, Dakar faces a growing risk of worsening public health crises and escalating economic losses tied to its infrastructure vulnerabilities.

Health

Human health is deeply intertwined with both the built and natural environments in Dakar. Not only does flooding ruin homes and cause displacement, but stagnant water resulting from flooding is also a breeding ground for water borne diseases like malaria, coughing, and diarrhea in children. Risks of vector-borne diseases like malaria are associated with rising temperatures and rainfall variability. Furthermore, air pollution, toxic smoke from improper waste disposal, and general rapid urbanization and density increase risks for respiratory illnesses like influenza, bronchitis, and tuberculosis. Hospitals in Dakar have reported a notable increase in admissions for respiratory illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic lung conditions.

Senegal struggles with an underfunded health system, a shortage of healthcare professionals, and overcrowded health facilities, which result in disparities in both accessing care and in health outcomes between regions, income levels, living environments, and education levels. Climate impacts reinforce existing health disparities and exacerbate vulnerabilities.

Socioeconomicand EnvironmentalVulnerabilities

EconomicContext

MostofSenegal'surbandevelopmentand economicactivityisconcentratedalongthe coast,withDakaratitscore—apatternshapedby thecountry’sgeographicfeatures,colonial presenceandresultantinvestmentsin infrastructure,housingandindustryaswellas currenteconomicdynamics.Thisconcentration hasledtosignificantpopulationclusteringin coastalzones,heighteningexposureto environmentalvulnerabilitiessuchasflooding andcoastalerosion,whichareworseningdueto climatechange. Atthesametime,secondary citiesinSenegalstruggletoattractinvestments andgenerateemploymentopportunities,limiting theircapacitytoeasetheburdenonDakar.

UnderpinningthiscontextisSenegal's macroeconomicenvironment,particularlythe risingpublicdebtlevels.Asthegovernment borrowstofinanceinfrastructureprojectsand socialprograms,thedebt-to-GDPratiohas increased,raisingconcernsaboutfiscal sustainability.Risingpublicdebtreduces Senegal’scapacitytodevelopinnovative instruments.Additionally,theburdenofdebt servicingcanlimitthegovernment’sabilityto investininfrastructuredevelopmentandcapacity building,furtherdiminishingtheattractivenessof theinvestmentlandscape.

Relatedly,theeconomy'svulnerabilitytoexternal shocksexacerbatesthesechallenges. Fluctuationsincommodityprices,whichheavily influenceSenegal'sexportrevenues,cancreate instabilityandunpredictabilityforinvestors. Coupledwithhighinflationrates,currency depreciation,andregulatorycomplexities,these factorscansignificantlyimpactbusiness operationsandprofitmarginsoratleastdeter prospectiveinvestors.

SocialVulnerability

Socialvulnerabilityisacriticalfactorshapingthe adaptivecapacityofDakar'spopulationtoclimatehazards.Marginalizedgroups,particularly

those residing in informal settlements, face disproportionate risks due to their socioeconomic status and geographic location. These communities are often situated in flood-prone or precarious areas, where access to basic infrastructure and public services is minimal. Residents are excluded from formal urban planning processes, leaving them exposed to significant environmental hazards.

Moreover, insecure land tenure exacerbates vulnerability. Without legal rights to their homes, residents face potential eviction, which discourages investments in resilient housing or infrastructure. Systemic governance inequities further marginalize these populations, limiting their access to resources and adaptive support. The intersection of poverty, exclusion, and inadequate planning creates a cycle of vulnerability that requires urgent attention.

Because informal settlements are usually located in precarious locations, such as beside rivers, residents are vulnerable to floods. Meanwhile, many rivers next to informal settlements become dump grounds for trash and waste, attracting malariacarrying mosquitos and other blood-borne diseases. When climate-induced heavy rainfall occurs, residents lose their poorly built homes and are vulnerable to waterborne diseases. Furthermore, the high density of informal

settlements increases heat because of a lack of open space. Informal settlements, often constructed with heat-retaining materials like concrete and cinder blocks, are particularly vulnerable to rising maintenance of drainage systems compound the temperatures. Climate change has intensified these challenges by increasing the frequency and severity of heatwaves, disproportionately impacting residents in these densely populated areas. Additionally, these settlements are highly susceptible to flooding due to their location in low-lying or flood-prone areas. The lack of adequate drainage infrastructure exacerbates the risks, leaving residents exposed to stagnant water, property damage, and health hazards.

Rapid urbanization has intensified vulnerabilities of informal settlements, as unplanned expansions push settlements into high-risk zones. Weak enforcement of zoning regulations and inadequate problem. While initiatives like Stormwater Management and Climate Change Adaptation Project (PROGEP) have reclaimed 900 hectares of flood-prone land, fragmented coordination among stakeholders and the limited inclusion of informal settlements in flood management plans undermine sustainable resilience. Without cohesive urban planning and resource allocation, informal settlements remain disproportionately exposed to climate hazards.

PolicyandInstitutional Landscape

NationalandUrbanPolicyFrameworks

NationalandurbanframeworksinSenegal(see Figure4)haverecognizedtheneedtobalance economicdevelopmentandclimateaction. AlignedwithSenegal’sdevelopmentframework underthePlanforanEmergingSenegal(PSE), thenationaimstoachieveeconomic developmentby2035throughatransitiontoa moresustainableanddiversifiedenergymix. Renewableenergyinvestmentsarecentraltothis strategy,withsolarandwindprojectsexpanding acrossruralareasandlarge-scalefacilities enhancingnationalelectricityproduction.These initiativesaimtopositionSenegalforeconomic growthwhileguidingittowardapathof sustainabledevelopment.

Senegalfindsitselfatacriticaljunctureinits developmenttrajectory,grapplingwiththedual challengesofeconomicgrowthand transformationandclimateresilience,while navigatingacomplexlandscapeofgovernance reformsandpoliticaltransition.Asthecountry workstoharmonizeitsdevelopmentgoalswith climateimperatives,itsapproachtoclimate financehasemergedasakeydeterminantofits future.

Thenation'searlyadoptionofclimateaction withintheAfricancontext,markedbyits1994 ratificationoftheUnitedNationsFramework ConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)and subsequentdevelopmentofitsfirstNational AdaptationProgrammeofActionin2006, establishedafoundationforprogressiveclimate policy.However,thisproactivestancehas consistentlyfacedtensionwithSenegal's pressingeconomicdevelopmentneedsand heightenedvulnerabilitytoclimateimpacts.

Thenation'sdevelopmentcontextpresentsa strikingparadox:whileachievingconsistent economicgrowth,averaging6%annually between2014and2018,Senegalcontinuesto strugglewithpersistentpoverty,withoverathird ofitspopulationlivingbelowthenationalpoverty lineasof2023. Additionally,thegeneral

government gross debt in Senegal is 84.3 percent of GDP, highlighting its high reliance on borrowing to finance its fiscal expenditures. The Senegalese economy struggles with several vulnerabilities such as low productivity, limited human capital, high levels of informality, and youth emigration. This economic precarity is concerning given the country's significant exposure to climate risks, especially in its densely populated and economically vital coastal regions.

The challenge of addressing these vulnerabilities has been further complicated by Senegal's evolving governance structure, which has undergone several significant phases of decentralization reform since independence. The evolution of Senegal's governance framework from a highly centralized system began with the 1972 reforms, which introduced limited administrative autonomy for rural communities while maintaining strict fiscal control at the national level. This initial step toward decentralization was followed by the more comprehensive 1996 Decentralization Law, which significantly expanded the powers of municipalities and regions, particularly in areas of urban management and infrastructure development. The 2013 Act III of Decentralization marked the most ambitious reform yet, emphasizing fiscal decentralization and the territorialization of public policy, though implementation challenges continue to constrain its effectiveness.

The transfer of climate adaptation responsibilities to local governments, especially in vulnerable cities like Dakar and Saint-Louis, illustrates both the potential and limitations of decentralized climate governance. In Dakar's flood-prone district of Grand Yoff, local governments have implemented stormwater retention basins. Yet, these efforts face challenges from rapid urbanization, unregulated construction, and inadequate waste management infrastructure. Similar governance challenges manifest in SaintLouis, where local authorities struggle to address coastal erosion and sea-level rise despite their mandate for climate resilience measures.

TIMELINE: Major Decentralization, Development, and Climate Finance Policies in Senegal

UNFCCC

Senegal ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), becoming one of the early adopters of climate action In the African context.

NAPA Formed

The country developed its first National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), identifying priority actions for climate resilience and funding strategies.

Act III of Decentralization

Act III of Decentralization was launched to empower local governments and facilitate local-level implementation of climate finance.

Emerging Senegal Plan (PSE)

National government launches comprehensive national strategy to transform Senegal into an emerging economy by 2035. The framework integrates climate adaptation and emphasizes green investments.

Oil & Gas Discovery

Sangomar and Grande Tortue Ahmeyim (GTA) field discoveries presented new economic opportunities but added complexity to climate commitments.

Dakar Master Plan 2035

Began as part of the broader PSE strategy, aiming to modernize infrastructure, address urban climate risks like sea-level rise and flooding, and enhance transportation and housing to meet the demands of rapid urbanization.

JETP

Senegal secured the Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP), a $2.7 billion international partnership to transition to renewable energy and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

Vision 2050 Launched

Senegal 2050 builds on the PSE, emphasizing sustainable development, green energy, and local autonomy. It promotes solar and wind power for energy independence and decentralizes governance into eight territorial poles for tailored regional growth. The plan seeks 40% private climate financing while enhancing multilateral and domestic partnerships to address climate challenges.

Thecentralizationofclimatefinance managementbymultilateralentitiesandnational governmentscreatesrisksofinequitable resourceallocation,potentiallybypassingthe mostvulnerablecommunities.While decentralizationhasopenednewpathwaysfor localgovernmentstoaccessinternationalfunding andtechnicalsupport,includinginitiativeslike theJustEnergyTransitionPartnership(JETP), effectiveimplementationremainsconstrainedby financial,institutional,andtechnicallimitationsat thelocallevel.

Politicaltransitionandfuture policydirections

AsSenegalmovesforwardunderthenew presidencyofBassirouDiomayeFaye—whose partyTheAfricanPatriotsofSenegalforWork, EthicsandFraternity(PASTEF)wonanabsolute majorityinParliamentduringNovember2024 elections—thecountrymustnavigatethecomplex interplaybetweeneconomicdevelopment, climateaction,andfiscalsustainabilitywhile addressingpersistentchallengesingovernance reform.

Duringourin-countryresearch,President DiomayelaunchedSenegal2050,anambitious frameworkthatbuildsuponandextendsthePSE whileemphasizinggreaterlocalautonomyin climateinvestmentdecisions.Theinitiative placesstrongemphasisonsustainable developmentandthetransitiontogreenenergy, aimingtoincreasetheshareofsolarandwind powerwhilereachingthecountry’sultimategoal ofenergyindependence.Theplanalsooutlinesa seriesofstrategicreformstostrengthen decentralizationefforts,concentrating administrativeservicesaroundeightterritorial “poles”promotinginclusivegrowthandtailored developmentstrategiesaccordingtoregion.To thatend,climatefinancemustaddressthe economicandclimatechallengesfacedbya particularregion,whilepromotingastronger enablingenvironmentforinvestmentacrossthe country.

MitigationPolicyandEfforts

Senegal’senergymixisshiftingtowards renewablesthroughbothnationaland internationalprograms.Akeycomponentof Senegal’srenewableenergyagendaistherecent JETP,acollaborativeefforttosupportthe country’sshiftfromfossilfuelstoarenewable energy-driveneconomy.Launchedaspartof globalclimatecommitments,theJETPaimsto increaserenewablesto40%ofinstalledcapacity by2030whilereducingthecarbonintensityof electricitygeneration.Thispartnershipinvolves financialandtechnicalassistancefrom internationalpartners,blendingconcessional loans,grants,andprivatesectorinvestment. AlongwithSenegal’sNationallyDetermined Contribution(NDC),theJETPaimstoreduce carbonemissionsandenablerenewableenergy transitions.

TheJETPnotonlyunderscoresSenegal’s ambitiontoaccelerateitscleanenergytransition butalsoservesasamodelforleveragingglobal partnershipstoachievesustainabledevelopment goals.However,challengesremain,includingthe needtoensureaninclusivetransitionthat prioritizesenergyaccessforall,addressesdisparitiesinruralelectrification,andminimizes socialdisruptionincommunitiesdependenton fossilfuelindustries.Additionally,long-term plansbeyond2030remainuncertain,raising questionsabouthowthecountrywillsustain momentumtowardanet-zerofuture.By capitalizingonJETPfundingandfosteringpublicprivatecollaborations,Senegalhasthepotential todrivesignificantinvestmentinrenewables, establishitselfasaregionalleaderinclean energy,andenhanceitsresilienceagainstclimate risks.Thepartnershiprepresentsapivotal opportunitytotransformSenegal’senergy landscapewhilefosteringbroadersocioeconomic benefits.

Recentdiscoveriesofsignificantoilandgas reservesoffSenegal’scoastlinehavethe potentialtotransformthenation’seconomybut carrytrade-offsforthecountry’sclimategoals.

Production from these recent discoveries began in 2024 at the Sangomar oil field, which is expected to produce up to 100,000 barrels of oil per day. Projections estimate these resources would generate billions of dollars in revenue, presenting a unique opportunity for economic growth and energy sector transformation.

Senegal’s oil and gas discoveries highlight the challenge of balancing economic growth with environmental sustainability. These resources offer opportunities to reduce energy costs, boost revenues, and address critical economic and human development priorities like education and infrastructure. However, reliance on fossil fuels risks undermining Senegal’s renewable energy ambitions and climate goals outlined in the PSE.

As a new entrant to the oil producing community, Senegal has an opportunity to make critical decisions regarding green infrastructure, renewable energy projects, and climate resilience initiatives, ensuring resource wealth supports long-term sustainability. By integrating environmental safeguards and prioritizing sustainable practices, Senegal can use its newfound resource wealth to advance both development and climate objectives, setting an example for resource-rich nations striving for sustainable development.

ClimateFinanceLandscape

Dakar’seffortstotackleclimateadaptationand mitigation,aswellasSenegal’seffortsmore broadly,willrequiresignificantadditionalfunding. Historically,climatemitigationandadaptation fundinghascomefromdevelopmentfinance institutionsorofficialdevelopmentassistance, whichmaycomewithconditionalitiesaswellas createunpredictabilityanddisincentivesfor governmentstomaketheirowninvestments.

Fundsfromotherinternationalsources, particularlytheGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF) andAdaptationFund,poseotherchallenges— namely,theintegrationofclimatefinancewith botheconomicdevelopmentanddecentralization efforts.Internationalandmultilateralpartners haveleveragedfinancingagreementstosecure commitmentstorenewablepoweringrid modernization,asignificantshiftfromSenegal's currentenergymix,where61%ofenergycomes fromoil. Thispushforrenewableenergy coincidedwithsignificantoilandgasfield discoveriesbetween2014and2016,creating additionaltensionbe-tweeneconomic developmentandclimatechangemitigation goals.

ThePSE,launchedin2014,attemptstoreconcile thesecompetingprioritieswhileharmonizing internationalcommitments,includingtheUnited Nations'2030AgendaforSustainable DevelopmentGoals.ThePSEhasproveneffective inattractingforeigndirectinvestment,withthe InternationalTradeAdministrationnotinga40% increaseinFDIflowsfrom2020to2022, primarilydirectedtowardinfrastructure developmentprojectsrangingfromelectricityand agriculturalproductivityinvestmentstodrinking waterqualityimprovements.

Buildingonthiscontext,inthisreportweconduct adeeperdiveintopolicy,programs,andfinance tocreaterecommendationstosupporttheACFin bettercombatingSenegal’sconfluenceofclimate andeconomicchallenges.

II. METHODOLOGY

Thisreportwasdevelopedthroughanalysisofa combinationofsecondaryresearchandprimary interviewswithkeystakeholders.Thereport’s objectiveswereco-developedwithourclient,the ACF.Ourworkconsistedofthreecorephases: reviewofliterature,interviewswithkey stakeholdersvirtuallyandin-country,anddata analysisandsynthesis.

LiteratureReview

Weconductedaliteraturereviewcenteredon threethemes:(1)urbanizationandinformality,(2) development,governance,anddecentralization, and(3)climateadaptationandmitigationpolicy andfinance.Ourliteraturereviewspannedboth academicliteratureaswellasgrayliterature includingpolicydocuments,strategicplans,press releases,andimplementationresources.

StakeholderInterviews

Weconductedin-personinterviewswithkey stakeholdersduringoneweekoffieldworkin DakarinOctober2024.Weidentifiedandreached outtokeystakeholdersworkingattheglobal, national,andlocallevels,informedbyour literaturereview.Wescheduledinterviewswithall stakeholderswhorespondedtoouroutreachand wereavailableduringourweekin-country,which primarilyincludedtheACF’sexistingpartners. Duringinterviews,wesolicitedadditional recommendationsandcontactinformationfor otherindividualsandorganizationstospeakwith. Stakeholdersincludedrepresentativesfrom governmentagencies,civilsocietyorganizations, academics,andinternationalinstitutions.Afull listofintervieweescanbefoundattheendofthis report.

Wedevelopedasemi-structuredinterviewprotocol,thatwasadaptedforstakeholder conversations,toaidconsistencyofcoding themeswhileprovidingflexibilitytoexplore specificinsights.Werecordedandtranscribed eachinterviewwithpermission.Forinterviews takingplaceinFrench,wewereaccompaniedby localtranslators.

DataAnalysisandSynthesis

Followingourin-countryexperience,we conducteddataanalysisandsynthesis,usinga rangeofqualitativedata.

Weidentifiedkeyoverallthemesthatemerged fromourinterviews.Wethenreviewedourinterviewtranscriptstoidentifystatementsand quotescorrespondingtoeachtheme.Inparallel, weanalyzedhowthesesamethemeswere discussedinkeynationalstrategiesand internationalagreementsshapingtheclimate policylandscape:Senegal2050,UrbanMaster PlanforDakar2035,ParisAgreement,andthe JETP.Thesefourdocumentscameupas frequentlyreferencedbothintheliteratureand stakeholderinterviews,highlightingtheir centralityinshapingclimateadaptationand mitigationagendasinDakar,particularlyin aligninglocalinitiativeswithbroadernationaland globalobjectives.WeexaminedhowSenegal's internationalclimatecommitments,asoutlinedin theParisAgreementandtheJETP,areintegrated intothenation'slong-termdevelopment framework,Senegal2050.Atthelocallevel,we analyzedDakar'sUrbanMasterPlanto understandhowittranslatessuchcommitments intoactionablestrategies,aligningthecity's urbanizationgoalswithbroadernationaland internationalobjectives.

Additionally,Dakar’svulnerablecommunities havelongexperienceddisparitiesinclimate adaptationandmitigationefforts,highlightingthe criticalneedtostrengthenunderstandingofthe interplaybetweensocialandclimate vulnerability. Targetedclimateresilienceefforts mustfocusonaddressingtheneedsofthosemost atrisk.Tosupportthis,weconducteda comprehensivegeospatialanalysisusing householdsurveyandgeospatialdatainQGISto examinetheoverlapofclimateandsocial vulnerabilitiesacrossDakarandcreatethemaps thatappearinthisdocument,basedon triangulateddatasources.Thisclimaterisk assessmentshowcaseshowexistingdatacanbe utilizedtoprovidevaluable

existing data can be utilized to provide valuable insights on sub-regional vulnerabilities. The outcomes of the assessment could be beneficial to multiple stakeholders, such as local and regional governments, urban planning departments, disaster management agencies, universities and think tanks, and international development partners to better support vulnerable communities (See Online Appendix: Spatial Analysis for Understanding Social and Climate Vulnerability in Dakar for more details).

Limitations

Giventhestrongrolethattheclient’sexisting relationshipsplayedinsettingupinterviews,our in-countryinterviewswerebasedonpurposive selectionandarenotfullyrepresentativeofthe broaderstakeholderlandscape.Inparticular, community-basedandprivatesectoractorsare underrepresentedinourinterviews.Additionally, languagebarriersposedachallengetoseveral interviews,wheretranslatorswerenot sufficientlyfamiliarwithtechnicalterminologyor contextualfactorstopreciselyposequestionsor relayresponses.Thislimitationnotonlyimpacted ourfindingsbutalsoreflectsabroaderchallenge forclimateadaptationeffortsinSenegal,as effectivecommunicationandshared understandingarecriticalforfosteringinclusive andcollaborativesolutionsacrossdiverse stakeholders.Ourinterviewanalysis consequentlyreliesonalesssemanticinterview codingtechniquethatfocusesinsteadonthe mainpointsofinterviewees’comments.

III. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

Tomeetourstrategicobjectivesasdefinedwith theACF,weconductedaseriesofqualitativeand quantitativeanalysestosupplementour stakeholderinterviewsandbetterunderstandthe currentstateofpolicyandoperationsinSenegal. Theseanalysesrevealasetofcontinued challengesandopportunitiestostrengthen existingworkinclimatepolicyandfinance,which directlyinformourrecommendationstotheACF inthenextsection.

CurrentState

ToaddressStrategicObjective1—toanalyzethe implicationsofthenewlyreleasedSenegal2050 inthecontextofpre-existingpolicyand agreements,withafocusonvulnerable populations–weanalyzehowSenegal2050 intersectswith:(a)urbanpolicy,namelythe UrbanMasterPlanforDakar2035,(b) internationalclimateagreements,chieflythe JETPandParisAgreements,and(c)thenational landscape,namelytheclimatefinanceecosystem.

Senegal2050andUrbanMasterPlan 2035Efforts

Senegal2050placesastrongemphasison sustainabledevelopmentasanessential componentofSenegal'slong-termstrategy.It highlightstheneedtoaddressenvironmental challengeswhilefosteringabalancedand equitabletransformation.Thedocument underscorestheimportanceofpreserving biodiversity,integratingacirculareconomy,and transitioningtorenewableenergysystemsaskey measurestoensureasustainablefuture.This visionalsoacknowledgesthecriticalroleof equitableurbanandruraldevelopment,aimingto provideallcitizenswithaccesstoessential servicesandopportunities,irrespectiveof geographiclocation.

Similarly,theUrbanMasterPlanforDakar2035 integratesclimateadaptationandurban resilienceascentralpriorities.Theplan specificallyaimstomitigateurbanvulnerabilities suchasfloodingandheatstressthrough

investmentsingreeninfrastructureand sustainableurbanplaning. Acriticalcomponent ofthisstrategyisitsfocusoninfrastructureasa keyinterventionlinkingclimateresilienceand urbandevelopment.Investmentsinstormwater managementsystems,sustainablehousing,urban transportnetworks,andrenewableenergy solutionsareoutlinedasmeasurestoreduce climateriskswhilefosteringinclusivegrowth. Theseinfrastructureprojectsplayadualrolein addressingenvironmentalchallengesand improvingaccesstoessentialservicesforDakar’s population.

Whilebothframeworksemphasizesustainability andinclusivity,gapsremaininfullyoperationalizingthesegoals.Forinstance,ourgeospatial analysisrevealedthattheUrbanMasterPlandoes notcomprehensivelymapallhigh-riskareas,such asCommunedeParcellesAssainiesand CommunedeDakar-Plateau.Addressingthese omissionsrequiresenhanceddatacollectionand coordinationbetweennationalandurban stakeholderstoprotectvulnerablecommunities fromclimaterisks

Tobridgethegapbetweenurbanizationand climateadaptation,investmentinresilientinfrastructuremustremainacentralfocus.By ensuringtheimplementationofinfrastructure projectslikestormwatersystems,efficienturban transport,andclimate-resilienthousing,the UrbanMasterPlannotonlyalignswithSenegal 2050'semphasisonsustainabilitybutalso addressestheimmediateandlong-term challengesposedbyrapidurbanizationand environmentalvulnerabilities.

Strengtheningcollaborationbetweennationaland urbanstakeholdersremainsessentialtotranslate Senegal2050'saspirationalgoalsintoactionable policieswithinDakar'surbanplanningframework (seeTable1foraside-by-sidecomparisonof salientpolicies).Withconcertedefforts,both Senegal2050andtheUrbanMasterPlancan serveascomplementarytoolstoachievea sustainable,inclusive,andclimate-resilientfuture forSenegal.

Table 1. Overview of Domestic Plans and International Agreements/Partnerships

GOVERNANCE LEVEL

SENEGAL 2050

DAKAR 2035 URBAN MASTER PLAN

PARIS AGREEMENT

JUST ENERGY TRANSITION PARTNERSHIP

Domestic Municipal International Multilateral PURPOSE

Achieve economic sovereignty and sustainable development by 2050

MAIN PROVISIONS

CLIMATE FINANCE

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Focus on economic growth, job creation, energy selfsufficiency, and governance

Emphasis on leveraging local resources and reducing foreign aid dependency

Develop a comprehensive urban strategy for Dakar and neighboring areas by 2035

Urban development management, environmental management, inclusiveness, and sustainable land use planning

Not specifically focused on climate finance, but includes environmental management objectives

Triple per capita income by 2050, focus on industrialization and digital economy

SUSTAINABILITY GOALS

Achieve energy selfsufficiency, enhance natural resource management

Global agreement to combat climate change and limit global warming

Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for emission reductions, climate finance commitments

Developed countries to provide financial resources to assist developing countries in mitigation/ adaptation

Promote economic growth through improved urban infrastructure, public transportation, and service sector development Encourage sustainable economic growth while reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Preserve green spaces, reduce urban sprawl, promote efficient public transportation

Limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels

Facilitate Senegal's transition to a lowcarbon economy while ensuring energy access and equity

Increase renewable energy share to 40% by 2030, develop a long-term lowemission strategy

$2.7 billion secured from international partners for renewable energy projects

Support economic growth through investment in renewable energy and infrastructure

Ensure a socially just transition with universal energy access and sustainable development objectives

Senegal2050andInternationalClimate Agreements

Senegal2050buildsonSenegal’scommitments tointernationalclimateagreements,includingthe JETPandtheParisAgreement,byprioritizing renewableenergyadoption,emissionsreduction, andlong-termclimateresilience.TheseagreementsformthefoundationofSenegal’sclimate ambitions,withtheJETPaimingtoincrease renewableenergyto40%ofinstalledcapacityby 2030andtheParisAgreementemphasizing NDCstoalignwithglobaltemperaturelimits.

Senegal2050integratestheseinternational goalsbypromotingenergyself-sufficiencyanda greenenergytransitionwhileaddressingsocial inequalitiesthroughinclusivedevelopment.For instance,Senegal2050highlightsthepotentialof renewableenergytocreategreenjobsand improveenergyaccessforunderserved communities,aligningwiththeJETP’sfocuson energyequity.Similarly,theParisAgreement’s emphasisonadaptationisreflectedinSenegal 2050’sstrategiestomitigateclimate vulnerabilitiesinruralandurbansettings.

Despitethesesynergies,criticalgapsremain. TensionsbetweenSenegal’srecentoilandgas discoveriesanditsrenewableenergygoalsunder JETPrevealtrade-offsbetweenshort-term economicgrowthandlong-termclimate commitments.Additionally,international financingmechanismsoftenprioritizemitigation efforts,leavingadaptationneedsunderfunded. ThiscreateschallengesforimplementingSenegal 2050’scomprehensivegoals,particularlyin vulnerableregionsthatrequireadaptation investments.

Amajorchallengeliesintherelianceon internationalfunding,whichcanbypasslocal actorsandexcludemarginalizedcommunities fromdecision-making.WhileSenegal2050aims toharmonizeinternationalcommitmentswith domesticpriorities,limitedlocalcapacityto absorbanddeploythesefundshamperseffective

implementation.Addressingthesegapsrequires strengtheninginstitutionalframeworksand ensuringthatinternationalfundingmechanisms alignwithSenegal2050’sinclusive,equityfocusedapproach.

StakeholderLandscapeforSenegal's GreenTransformation

ThetransformationofSenegal'sgreeninitiatives, includingtosupportSenegal2050,currently involvesandneedstocontinuetoinvolvea complexnetworkofstakeholdersoperating acrossglobal,regional,andnationallevels.Each organizationplaysacrucialroleacrossthreekey strategicareas:financingthetransformation, projectimplementationandmonitoring,and thoughtleadership(seeFigure5).

Infinancing,severalmajorinstitutionshave demonstratedstrongcommitmentstoinclusive development.TheAfricanDevelopmentBank (AfDB)hasbeenfirmlycommittedtocentering women,youth,andothervulnerablegroups throughoutitsprojectdesignsandimplementationefforts.Forinstance,whenevaluatingan electricityaccessproject,thebankgoesbeyond theaggregateincreaseinelectricityaccessand extendstoevaluatingtheimpactsspecificallyon women.Inanotherprojectinstallinghydropower, thebankofficialsincorporatedcommunityfeedbackintheoperation,includingspecificmeetings withwomenintheabsenceofmentoensurea safeenvironmentforwomentoexpresstheir opinions.Similarly,theyinvitedyouthfromthe communitytofocusgroupstounderstandtheir perspectivesandneedsontheprojects.Working alongsideAfDB,otherglobalfinancialactorssuch astheUnitedNationsCapitalDevelopmentFund (UNCDF)focusonmakingfinanceworkfor vulnerablepopulations,andnationalinstitutions liketheSovereignFundforStrategicInvestments (FONSIS)andLaBanqueAgricoleprovide strategicinvestmentandagriculturalfinancing support.

Figure 5: Stakeholder Map for Senegal’s Green Transformation

1. Financing the Transition

National Agency for Renewable Energies (ANER)

Ministry of Finance & Budget

2. Project Implementation and Monitoring

Ministry of Interior (Department of Civil Protection) Ministry of Environment & Sustainable Development (MEDDTE)

3. Thought Leadership

Theprojectimplementationlandscapeshows similardedicationtoinclusivepractices.The GlobalGreenGrowthInstitute(GGGI)elevatesthe importanceofincludingwomeninthedecisionmakinganddevelopmentphase.Inarecentsolar panelinstallationproject,GGGIworkedtoensure thatwomenengineersinthecommunitywere involvedintheprocesstosharetheirunique experiencesandperspectives.Additionally,GGGI protectschildrenandyouthfromchildlabourand exploitativeworkintheprivatesector.TheWorld Bank(WB)describestheireffortsinintegrating environmentalandclimate-relatedprogramsinto theprimaryschoolcurriculumtopromoteyouth awarenessandparticipationinclimate-related projects.Meanwhile,WBprovidesfundingfor smallurbanprojectsforyouthtobeinvolvedand appreciatestheimplementationofclimaterelatedprojects.

InthoughtleadershipaddressingSenegal’s climatetransition,regionalthinktankssuchas theAfricaPolicyResearchInstitute(APRI)and WestAfricaThinkTank(WATHI)contribute valuablelocalperspectivestopolicydiscussions. Theseeffortsarecomplementedbynational researchcentersliketheCentreforResearchand ActiononEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights (CRADESC),whichensureseconomicandsocial rightsremaincentraltodevelopmentinitiatives.

TosupportSenegal2050,eachplayerinthis multi-layeredstakeholderecosystem,fromglobal tolocallevels,mustcontinuetobeengagedto ensurethatSenegal'sgreentransformation benefitsallmembersofsociety,withparticular attentiontowomen,youth,andvulnerable populations.Further,asthefirstAfrican-led strategicgrantmakeroperatingatthe intersectionofclimatechangeanddevelopment, theAfricanClimateFoundation(ACF)occupiesa uniquepositioninthisecosystem,servingasa vitalbridgethatspansallthreestrategicareas: abletochannelfinancing,support implementation,andprovidethoughtleadership whileworkingfluidlyacrossglobal,regional,and localcontextstounlockdevelopment opportunitiesinclimateactionthroughoutAfrica.

ChallengesandOpportunities

Takentogether,thecurrentstatedescribedabove revealsaseriesofchallengesandopportunitiesto strengthenpoliciesforclimatefinanceand climatemitigationandadaptation.Inalignment withStrategicObjective2—toidentifythe challengesandopportunitiesinclimaterisksand finance—thissectionfocusesontheremaining gaps,consideringpastandongoingeffortsto addresschallenges.

Wehaveorganizedthechallengesand opportunitiesintofourthemes:(1)data availability,(2)institutionalcapacity,(3) governanceofthegreenenergytransition,and (4)urbanizedinfrastructure.

DataAvailability

Althoughtherehasbeenprogressoverthepast decadeestablishingdatatosupportclimate action,severallimitationspersist:insufficient(1) usabilityofclimateriskandvulnerabilitydata,(2) prospective,disaggregateddataonavailable supplyanddemandofclimatefinancing,and(3) marketandmodelingdata.Thesechallenges affecttheclimatepolicyandprojectprocessfrom end-to-end,limitingdesign,implementation, financing,andmonitoringandcontinuous improvement.

Climaterisksandvulnerability

TheNationalAgencyforStatisticsand Demography(ANSD),theMinistryofEnvironment andSustainableDevelopment(MEDDTE),andthe NationalCommitteeonClimateChange (COMNACC)leadeffortstoproduceandutilize climatedata,supportedbynon-governmentaland internationalorganizationsincludingthe SenegaleseInstituteofAgriculturalResearch (ISRA),InternationalCooperationCenterfor AgriculturalResearchandDevelopment(CIRAD), andResearchInstituteforDevelopment(IRD). Over78climateindicatorsarecurrentlyproduced andaccessiblethroughonlineportals.

52

Effortsareunderwaytofurtherenhancedata availability:ANSDandRufisqueAgglomeration Community(CAR)areworkingtoestablisha

statistical framework to monitor and evaluate public policies and programs at the regional level; ANSD, MEDDTE, and COMNACC are integrating climate change data into policy making and monitoring activities under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change; CSE is organizing capacity building workshops to enhance staff proficiency in monitoring and analyzing weather data; and the Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar (UCAD) conducts diagnostics and surveys in municipalities to gather local data and support municipal master plans to align adaptation strategies with community needs.

However, despite this progress, 112 indicators are still needed to monitor development plans related to climate change. This count does not include the potential new data needs associated with Senegal 2050. In 2023, the Partnership in Statistics for Development in the 21st Century (Paris21) identified two continued weaknesses in Senegal’s climate change data environment. First, resources are insufficient for sustained production of disaggregated, timely, and usable environmental and climate change statistics. Second, there is a shortage of technical capabilities for using climate change and related statistics, including GIS analysis and visualization. Our field interviews affirmed these weaknesses. Stakeholders identified two main drivers of these challenges: insufficient resources for ongoing data collection, maintenance, storage, and capacity building, as well as a lack of standardized protocols for data sharing between agencies, research institutions, and local governments, resulting in fragmented planning and decisionmaking.

Our interviews further highlighted the downstream implications of these data limitations. As representatives from the World Bank Group noted, "When you want to address challenges linked to climate change and climate impact, you need data and you need modeling. [But in Senegal,] data scalability is a real problem," (2024). A key contributor to data challenges is the fragmentation of data systems—data is often siloed within specific agencies or organizations, making it difficult to integrate or share across stakeholders. This issue is exacerbated in

resource-constrainedsettings,wheretechnical infrastructureanddatamanagementcapacity maybeinsufficient.Thischallengeisparticularly pronouncedforadaptationprojects,where proposalstypicallyrequireextensivebaseline dataandclimatemodeling.Thecombinationof insufficientdataandcapacitycreatesacircular problem,whereaccessingsustainedfundingis moredifficult,andlimitedfunding,inturn,makes itdifficulttoimproveneededdatacollectionand analysiscapabilities.

Climatefinancingdemandandsupply

AccordingtoSenegal'sNDC2020,Senegal's cumulativefinancingneedstoadequately respondtoclimatechangeareestimatedatUSD $13billionover2020-2030,withUSD$8.7billion neededformitigationandUSD$4.3billionfor adaptation. Onaverage,theseneedsamountto $1.3billion(6.1%ofGDP)annually,$870million formitigationand$430millionforadaptation. Thisamountdoesnotcoveraspectsrelatedto capacitybuildingatthelocallevel,estimatedat $0.1billionduringtheperiod2020-2030. However,limiteddataareavailabletosupport differentactorsinunderstandingclimate financingneedsatthecommunityandproject level.Thesedataareneededtohelpguide allocationofresources.

Fundingagencieshighlightanapparentdearthof knowledgeregardingthecurrentdemandfor climatefinancing.Nostakeholderweinterviewed wasawareofrobustdatasourcesonclimate financingdemand,atanylevelofaggregation.As oneindicationofthelevelofneedforthisdata, theGCF,throughitsReadinessProgramme, providesdevelopingcountrieswithanallocation ofuptoUSD$3millionfortheformulationof NationalAdaptationPlans(NAPs)andother adaptationplanningprocesses.However,as referencedinaninterviewwithFONSIS,uptake hasbeenlow,suchthattheGCFissettoincrease thisallocationtoUSD$4millioninanattemptto generateinterestandsolicitproposals.

Similar data availability and granularity challenges exist regarding climate finance supply. The CPI regularly aggregates climate finance supply data bottom-up from other stakeholders’ data sets and reports to provide an overall picture of the state of climate finance at a country level. In its most recent 2024 data set, the Climate Policy Initiative (CPI) estimates that across 2019/2020, $562 million of primary climate financing was available across Senegal.

However, the CPI data set is a static and retrospective resource. The main need for climate finance supply data is to provide different actors with a prospective understanding of where to access climate financing and how. Moreover, most sources of funding captured in the CPI dataset are only accessible to national governments and cannot be pursued by subnational actors. We are unaware of any datasets that support local actors in identifying viable sources of funding to address certain needs or projects.

CASESTUDY:THEPOTENTIALOFGEOSPATIALANALYSIS

Paris21identifiedkeyweaknessesinSenegal’sclimatechangedataecosystemasashortageof dataavailabilityandusability,aswellastechnicalcapabilitiessuchasforGISanalysisand visualization.Ourteam’sgeospatialanalysisdemonstratesakeyusecaseforenhancingsuchdata andtechnicalcapabilities:toanalyzeclimateandsocialvulnerabilityinDakarandidentifythe highest-riskcommunitiesinneedofclimateadaptationprojectsupport.

Inourgeospatialanalysisofclimateandsocialvulnerability(seeOnlineAppendix:SpatialAnalysis forUnderstandingSocialandClimateVulnerabilityinDakarformoreinformation),wefoundthat southernandcentralareasofDakarexperienceveryhighclimaterisk.Forexample,the ArrondissementdeDiamniadio,locatedaboutthirtykilometersfromthecenterofDakar, experiencesthehighestclimaterisk.TheUrbanPoleofDiamniadiowascreatedin2014withthe goalofturningitintoanewurbancenteranddecongestingthecapital.However,Diamniadiois locatedinaflood-pronearea,mainlycomposedofswellingclay,marlstone,andlimestone unsuitableforconstruction. Withincreasedprecipitationandrainfallsince2000,thisregionis highlyvulnerabletohydrologicalhazardsandneedsimmediateattentiontoenhanceitsresilience.

Additionally,easternandnortheasternDakarexperiencehighlevelsofsocialvulnerability comparedtoregionswithlowvulnerabilityincentralandwesternDakar.Forinstance,Unit13within ParcellesAssinies,locatedinthenorthernpartofDakar,hasthehighestsocialvulnerability.A ParcellesAssiniesprojectwasdesignedtoaddresshousingneedswiththeurbanexpansion, especiallyforlow-incomehouseholdsintheinformalsector.Althoughtheprojectsupplied householdswithbasicinfrastructureandservices,therecentDemographicandHealthSurvey (DHS)showstheneedforhigheraccesstoelectricityanddrinkingwaterandhighrelianceon agricultureproduction.Thesecharacteristicsreflecttheregion’svulnerabilitytoclimateriskdueto alackofinfrastructureandlimitedeconomicresilience,highlightingtheneedtostrengthen infrastructureandeconomiccapacitywiththeriseofclimaterisks.

Thecompositevulnerabilityindexalignscloselywiththesocialandclimatevulnerabilityindex presentedabove.Similarly,easternandnortheasternDakarexperiencedualchallengesofsocial vulnerability(e.g.,poverty,lackofaccesstobasicservices)andclimaterisk(e.g.,susceptibilityto floodingandwaterscarcity).Incontrast,westernDakarexperiencesrelativelylowvulnerability. Thesedisparitiesemphasizetheneedfortargetedresourceallocationtoaddressandmitigate vulnerabilitiesinthemostaffectedregions.

Detailed SpatialAnalysisforUnderstandingSocialandClimateVulnerabilityinDakarcanbefoundat: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1FXcvfVbvWxjOuHFWaP45e1ve9g1IQxNw/view?usp=sharing

MarketDatatoInformFinancialModels

Climatefinancemodelsrelyheavilyonaccurate dataaboutconsumermarkets,socioeconomicand geographiccharacteristics,andenvironmental risks.Theseinputsarecrucialforassessing financialfeasibility,tailoringinterventionstolocal conditions,andreducinguncertaintyfor investors.

However,alackofaccessibleandreliabledatain Senegalunderminesthereliabilityofthese models.Keygapsincludedataonhousehold incomelevels,consumptionpatterns,geographic vulnerabilities,andtheeconomicimpactof climateadaptationmeasures.Forinstance, financialmodelsforrenewableenergyprojects oftenrequiregranulardataonconsumerdemand, includingincomeelasticity,energyconsumption trends,andtheabilitytopay.Onekeyfinancial stakeholder(FONSIS)highlightedthatthese missingdatapointsincreaseperceived investmentrisks,makingitdifficulttoattract financingandraisingcostsforclimate-related initiatives.

Thischallengeisparticularlysignificantfor adaptationprojects,suchasflood-resilient housing,wheremissinginformationonlocalrisks andaffordabilityfurtherlimitsthedevelopmentof bankableprojects.Thesedatagapscontributeto acyclewhereinsufficientdatadetersinvestment, andlimitedinvestmenthampersthecreationof comprehensivedatasystems.

InstitutionalCapacity

Thesuccessfulimplementationofclimate-related measuresinSenegalisfundamentally constrainedbyinadequatecapacity.These inadequaciesimpedethedevelopmentof‘soft’ architectureneededtoimplementprojectsand heightenthecomplexityofmeetingstandards neededforaccessingvitalfunding.Without sufficientcapacity,therearedifficultiesin preparing,tendering,andoverseeingprojects.

Inacontinuallychanginginternationalpolicy context,itisdifficultforgovernmentagenciesto keepupwithnewregulationsandopportunities. Forinstance,governmentagenciesarestruggling

tounderstandhowtoapplyforandleverage emergingformsofclimatefinance–everything fromapplicationcriteriaforinternationalclimate funds,tounderstandinghowtomobilize additionalfinanceforblendedfinance.AsanAfDB bankrepresentativeexplained,"GCFproposals.. [requireapplicationsupto]170pageswith annexesandcalculations."Thistechnical complexitymeansthatmanylocalandnational entities,intherepresentative’swords,"arenot yetequippedtobeabletotacklethat,"(2024). Whilemultilateralinstitutionshavesubstantial capitalavailable,actuallydeployingthose resourcesremainsachallenge.Whilesignificant progresshasbeenmadetowardsmobilizing capital,Senegalstillrequirescapacityinvestment anddevelopmenttoensureflowsreachrelevant projectsandstakeholders.

However,werecognizethatdifferentactorsare betterpositionedtooperateathighcapacities andinsufficientcapacitydoesnotcharacterizeall actors.Forexample,Dakar’sMunicipal DevelopmentAgency(ADM)isworkingto strengthenthecapacityshortcomingsthatso frequentlyplaguetheclimateadaptationand mitigationspace.InourdiscussionwithADM, representativeshigh-lightedtheirowncapacitybuildinginitiatives,including“skillsenhancement andlocalplanningimprovements.”Byseekingto systematizebestpracticesandengageand educatelocalcommunitiesthroughouttheproject lifecycle,agenciescandirectlyaddresscapacityrelatedchallenges.

Government

Ambiguouspoliciesandoverlapping responsibilitiesamonggovernmentagenciescan exacerbateinstitutionalchallengesinnumerous ways.Fragmentationandinsufficiently coordinatedgovernmentstrategyinvite internationalactorstosettheconditionsfortheir engagement. Institutionalweaknessesallow externalactorstohaveoutsizedinfluencein policy-makingprocesses.Forexample,Senegal’s NationalElectricityAgency(Senelec)underwent un-bundlingandprivatizationreformsunder pressurefrommultilateralactorsleveraging financialinfluence.

Greenjobandgreenentrepreneurshippromotion, astatedgoalofthenationalgovernment,is insufficientlysupported.Ourconversations highlightedadisconnectbetweenhigh-level policyobjectivesandtheavailabilityoftraining andfundingforlocalentrepreneurs,whichlimits thescalabilityofgreeneconomyinitiatives.One cityofficialnoted,“ourpoliciesalwaysinclude sustainabledevelopmentconsiderations, encouragingyoungentrepreneurstoadopt sustainablepracticesintheirprojects.”However, withouttargetedinvestmentsandcoordination, policiesmayfailtoachievetheirintendedimpact.

Weakenforcementofzoninglawshasallowed unregulatedconstructioninflood-proneand high-riskareas,particularlyininformal settlements. Senegal2050emphasizesland-use reformsandbalancedurbangrowthtoreduce suchvulnerabilities. However,asoneofthe governmentstakeholdersfromourmeetingsin Dakarexplained,enforcementmechanisms remaininconsistent,andinformalsettlements continuetoexpandwithoutadequateservicesor infrastructure.Equitableland-usereformsare neededtoensurethatallcommunitiesare includedinclimate-resilienturbanplanning.

Conditionalities

Attractinginvestmentforclimate-relatedprojects dependsheavilyontransparency,reliability,and stablerevenueprojections,allofwhichareoften guaranteedintheformofeligibilityrequirements andconditionalities.Whiletheseconditionshelp promoteinvestorconfidence,theyalsoplace substantialdemandsonthecapacityof developingnationslikeSenegal.These conditionalitiesincreaseprojectcomplexityand requireSenegaleseinstitutionstobuildcapacity inareaslikecompliance,evaluation,andreporting inordertomeethigherstandards.These requirementsplaceadditionalburdenson ministriesandstakeholdersalreadyfacing limitationswithintheirroles.Therequirementto meetfirmenvironmentalandsocialsafeguards pairedwiththeneedforongoingcompliance, evaluation,andreportinghasincreasedthe demandfortechnicalexpertisewithininstitutions thatmayalreadybestretchedforsufficient

resourcesorstaff.Ontheotherhand,the structuringofprojectsinthiswayinviteslocal ministriesandrelevantstakeholderstoprovide valuableinputonprojectexecutionand maintenance.

ProjectDevelopment

Projectpreparation,specificallyforrenewable energyprojects,alsorevealsthechallengesand opportunitiesrelatedtoinstitutionalcapacity. StakeholdersfromourmeetingsinDakarciteda shortageof‘bankable’projects,meaningthat whilethereisdemandandmarketopportunities, projectstructuresareoftennotprofitableor attractivetoinvestors.Moreover,evenwithan influxofcapital,theremustbesufficientcapacity toabsorbfunding.Alackofawarenessregarding fundingopportunities,oralackofcapacityto implementprojects,canleadtomissed opportunitiesinaccessingcriticalfinancial support.

PlayerssuchastheGermanAgencyfor InternationalCooperation(GIZ)areworkingto combatthischallenge.GIZhasconducted workshopsforlocalauthoritiesininformal settlementsonenergyefficiency,community engagement,andequityinclusiontoensurethey canhandletherapidsustainablegrowthinthese areas.Similarly,AfDBtiesclimatefinancein informalsettlementstocapacitybuildingto ensurethatutilitiesandlocalauthoritiesare trainedtoincorporateclimateadaptation measuresintheseareas.

Lackofcommunicationamongrelevantactors canalsohinderprojectdevelopment.For instance,stakeholdersfromourmeetingsin Dakarreportedthatrenewableenergyprojects oftenfacechallengesintegratingintonational gridsduetomisalignmentbetweentheenergy sectorandmunicipalurbanplans.Thiscanleadto projectsthataredisjointedinnature.Similarly, urbaninfrastructuredevelopmentfrequently excludesconsiderationsforclimateresilience, resultinginunsustainablegrowthpatterns. Conversationswithinnovativefinanciers,suchas LBA,suggestthatdurabilityisthegoalwhen securingclimatefinance.Awareofcapacity

CASE STUDY: THE SCALING SOLAR PROJECT

The Scaling Solar project exemplifies capacity constraints. For instance, the Electricity Sector Regulation Commission (CRSE), a pre-existing regulatory body, was required to enhance its abilities to effectively manage large-scale solar projects. Additionally, the project required updates to regulatory frameworks, particularly around Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs), to meet international standards and attract investment. This relationship was made viable through the 'take-or-pay' structure in PPAs, which ensures that private sector investors are guaranteed payment for a certain amount of electricity, even if the government does not end up using all the power due to issues like grid limitations. While this approach provides security for investors, making their participation more likely, it also places a financial burden on the governmental entities, which may have to pay for power it ultimately cannot use.

While blended finance is often hailed as a solution to delivering much needed financing, the model introduces additional complexity, as the project came with conditionalities tied to the financing provided by international private lenders. De-risking mechanisms, like guarantees from the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency and partial risk guarantees from the International Development Association, helped lower financing costs but required local Senegalese institutions to adhere to stricter standards of transparency and financial management. One of the International Finance Corporation’s (IFC) takeaways from these arrangements was that “although IFC is there to help, governments must lead the process for projects to succeed,” highlighting the common perspective taken by lending entities that more of the responsibility should fall upon local institutions. These conditions place further pressure on already burdened institutions, requiring a more concerted coordinated effort between multiple ministries and local stakeholders. Further complicating the matter is the fact that international partners are not subject to the same accountability measures as governments, despite having access to public funds.

constraintsandthechallengesoffragmented financing,oneLBAemployeenotedthatan advantageofconcessionalfinancingisthatit allowsLBA,initscapacityasacommercialbank, toofferlonger-termloans,minimizingimpactson downstreamproducers.

GovernanceofGreenEnergyTransition

InstitutionalfragmentationinSenegalposes significantchallengestotheeffective implementationofitsenergytransition.Key dimensionsofthisfragmentationincludeissues relatedtocommunityengagement,decentralization,governance,funding,andcoordination.

Decentralization

Thecentralizednatureofclimatefinance managementpresentsawrinklefor implementation.DespiteSenegal'sActIIIof Decentralizationin2013,whichaimedto empowerlocalgovernments,inconsistentsupply ofdirectfundsandlimitedfiscaldistribution channelsoftenpreventfinancingfromactually reachinglocalauthorities.Asalocalactor explained,"althoughwehavetheActIIIof Decentralization,youhavetoadmitthatthe decentralizationisjustonpaper.Wehaveavery centralizedgovernmentwithaverylowcapacity oflocalgovernments."

Politicization

GovernanceplaysapivotalroleinSenegal’s climateadaptationandmitigationeffortsbutis frequentlyshapedbypoliticalconsiderations. High-profileprojects,suchastheconstructionof urbanhub,Diamniadio,illustratethechallenges associatedwithcentralized,top-down governance. Diamniadioisanurban developmentprojectintendedtodecongestthe capitalandpromoteeconomicgrowthbycreating amodernadministrativeandcommercialhub locatedoutsideDakar.Conceivedundera presidentialdecree,theprojectlackedbroadcivic participationandmunicipaloversight,raising concernsaboutaccountabilityandthe effectivenessofverticalgovernancestructures.

InDakar,floodmanagementeffortshighlight anotherfacetofpoliticizedgovernance.Civil societyorganizationsadvocatedforacommunitydrivenapproach,whilepublicauthoritiesand multilateralorganizationspromotedatop-down, technicalsolutionthroughthePROGEPproject. Thesedivergentstrategiesunderscorehow governancefragmentationcancomplicateefforts toaddresssharedchallenges.

RevenueSources

Themobilizationandequitabledistributionof climatefinancingremainpersistentissues. Historically,Senegalhasstruggledtoeffectively administerandcollectlocaltaxesandfees, creatingaheavyrelianceonexternalfunding. Oncesecured,fundingmayoftenbedirected towardprojectsorregionswithstronger institutionalcapacity,ratherthanareaswiththe mosturgentneeds.Thiscreatesatension betweenefficiencyandequity,withdonor prioritiesfrequentlyoutweighingtheneedsof recipientcommunities.Civilsocietyactors,who areoftenexcludedfromfundingdecisions,further highlightgapsininclusivityandresponsiveness.

Coordination

Coordinationamongstakeholdersisanother criticaldimension.Whileexternaldonors, includingtheWorldBankandAfDB,offer opportunitiesforpolicyharmonization,

misalignmentwithlocalactorsoftenlimitsthe effectivenessofthesepartnerships.Effective coordinationrequiresnotonlydialoguebutalso mechanismsthatempowerlocalstakeholdersto influencedecisionsmeaningfully.Forinstance, theGCFandothermultilateralmechanismshave beencriticizedforinsufficientcapacity-building measurestoensurethatvulnerablepopulations arenotexcludedfrombenefits.

CommunityParticipation

Althoughtheimportanceofcommunity engagementiswidelyrecognized,barrierspersist ineffectivelygeneratingbuy-infrom communities.Resourceconstraintshinderthe abilitytoinvestinlocalleadership,whichis essentialforlong-termprojectownership.In responsetolimitedinstitutionalcapacity, communitiesareincreasinglyreliedupontolead initiatives,oftenwithoutadequatesupportor resources.Externallydrivenprojectsmissan opportunitytointegratelocalknowledgeand validateexistingbestpractices.

Thebenefitsandcostsofthegreentransition requireinterventiontoensureequitable distributionacrosspopulationswithinSenegal, especiallyforyouthandwomen.Thecountryhas anopportunitytofurtherdevelopandcontinue participatorygovernancestructuresinboththe designandfinancingofclimateprogramsand policyinterventions,buildinginclusionintothe process.Asonerepresentativefromamunicipal agencynoted,“localinvolvementiscrucialfor implementinginfrastructureprojects,making themmoresustainable,andfosteringasenseof ownershipwithinthecommunity.”

Furthermore,marginalizedgroupsmustbe considered.Eventhoughseveralstakeholders, suchasAfDBandGGGI,aredevotedtoincluding womenandyouthinthedesigningand implementationphaseoftheirdevelopment projects,thereisstilllimitedrepresentationin decision-makingwithinclimateprojects.Cultural norms,biases,andlackofeducationaccessmay discouragewomenandyouthfromactively participatingandengagingintheparticipatory process,ifitexistsatall. Delaysinengaging

thesegroupsleadtomisalignedpriorities betweenpoliciesandcommunityneeds,reducing theeffectivenessofadaptationprojects.When designingparticipatoryengagementsinclimate projects,stakeholdersshouldconsiderfacilitating safespacesforwomenandyouth.Forexample, stakeholderscouldprovidegender-oragespecificspacestoavoiddominancebymenorthe elderlyintheconversation.

ProjectDurability

Maintainingthemomentumoflong-termprojects beyondthetypical2-5yeartimeframeremainsa significantchallenge.Manyprojectsaredesigned withshortfundingcycles,whichlimittheirability toachievelastingimpact.Asaresult,initiatives frequentlyfacedisruptionsorevencomplete discontinuationonceinitialfundingexpires. Additionally,withoutmechanismstoensure continuity—suchasembeddingprojectswithin governmentframeworks,fosteringlocal ownership,orbuildingrobustpartnerships— effortsstruggletomaintainrelevanceand momentumovertime.Long-termsustainabilityis oftenunderminedbyalackofadaptiveplanning; projectsmustevolvetocontinuallyrespondto shiftinglocalneeds,emergingchallenges,and externalpressures,suchaseconomicinstability orenvironmentalcrises.Withoutflexibleand forward-lookingstrategies,theyriskbecoming obsoleteorineffective.

UrbanizedInfrastructure

Urbanizationandinfrastructurepresent significantchallengesinDakarasthecity grappleswiththeeffectsofclimatechange.Urban infrastructureplaysadualroleinmitigatingand exacerbatingrisks,suchasflooding,coastal erosion,andurbanheatislands.Despiteeffortsto addresstheseissues,criticalgapsremain,leaving manypartsofthecityvulnerable.

Floodingandcoastlineerosionaresomeof Dakar’smostpressingclimate-relatedchallenges, drivenbyheavyrainfallandrisingsealevels whichendangerdrainagesystemsandcoastal defenses.Thesehazardsputlargepartsofthe city,particularlyinformalsettlements,atrisk. To tackleflooding,thePROGEPinitiative

successfullyimproveddrainageinhigh-riskareas byimplementingflooddefensesandstormwater systems.Totacklecoastlineerosion,localized coastalprotectionmeasures,suchaserosion monitoringandsmall-scaleshoreline stabilization,havebeenimplemented.These effortsaresupportedundernationalplansand internationalagreementsliketheParis Agreement,andlargelyfundedbymultilateral banks. Despitetheseeffortstocombatflooding andcoastlineerosion,thereisnocomprehensive strategytoaddressthesehazardsandsolutions areoftenlocalized,leavinginformalsettlements vulnerable.Mangroverestorationandothergreen solutionscouldprovideeffectivenaturalbarriers butremainunderfundedandpoorlyscaled.

Rapidurbangrowthhassignificantlyreduced greenspacesinDakar,worseningtheurbanheat islandeffectandlimitingnaturalabsorptionof floodwaters. Accordingtoaninternational environmentorganization,someinitiatives,such ascreatingsmallurbanparksandincorporating renewableenergyintogreeninfrastructure,have beenpilotedundertheUrbanMasterPlanfor Dakar2035.However,theseprojectsare fragmentedandlackcitywideintegration.Urban forests,vegetativerooftops,andpermeable pavementsareprovensolutionsthatcould mitigatebothheatandfloodingrisksbutarenot prioritizedincurrentplanningframeworks.

Althoughexistingstrategiestargetinginformal settlementsprovideseveralprotectionsforthese vulnerablepopulations,Dakarstillhasthe potentialtoimplementmorecomprehensive planstoenhancetheclimateresilienceofwider dwellersofinformalsettlements.Becausemany informalsettlementsarenotofficiallyrecognized, theyareoftenexcludedbymunicipalservices, earlywarningsystems,anddisasterpreparedness plans.Furthermore,duetopoverty,residentsof informalsettlementstypicallylackthefinancial resourcestoinvestinflood-resilienthousing.

Rapidurbanizationalsoplacesastresson transport,forwhichDakaris,throughmultiple initiatives,movingtowardstransitioningtoa sustainablenetworkwhilemeetingthegrowing

urban demand. One success has been the implementation of The Train Express Régional (TER), a modern commuter rail system designed to enhance transportation between Dakar and its suburbs. The TER connects Dakar to Diamniadio and, eventually, the international airport. A key initiative is the fully electric Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, designed to serve around 300,000 passengers daily. This system is expected to cut average travel times from 95 minutes to 45 minutes, providing a reliable and efficient alternative to private car travel. By reducing traffic congestion and promoting sustainable transportation, the BRT system aims to significantly decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Complementing the BRT, Dakar is enhancing its bus network through a €320 million investment from Team Europe, which includes the European Investment Bank, the French Development Agency (AFD), and the KfW Development Bank. This funding will facilitate the acquisition of 380 buses, construction of depots, and development of 30 kilometers of roads, thereby improving the quality and accessibility of public transport.

Moreover, the first regional trains in Senegal that connects Dakar and Diaminiado: the Dakar Regional Express Train opened to passengers on December 27th, 2021. As part of the former president’s Macky Sall’s plan to revamp the nation’s infrastructure by 2035, the train provides a total of 565 seats with a frequency of 6 trains per hour and a speed of 16 km/h. The Dakar Regional Express enables Dakar inhabitants to travel to the city center conveniently, improving connectivity and accessibility while reducing urban congestion.

Additionally, the Senegalese government is preparing to establish a regulatory framework to encourage and oversee the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) nationwide. As part of this initiative, a comprehensive transport infrastructure master plan will be developed, emphasizing multimodal connectivity across various transport options, with a particular focus on Dakar.

Furthermore, the city is promoting non-motorized transport by planning a 175-kilometer network of cycling lanes by 2035. This initiative aims to encourage cycling as a viable mode of urban transportation, contributing to emission reductions and offering residents healthier mobility options. During his address on World Metropolitan Day 2024, the Mayor of Dakar emphasized the city government's commitment to advancing sustainable transportation. This vision aligns with Dakar's strategic approach to building a transport system that is sustainable, efficient, and inclusive, effectively meeting current mobility demands while addressing longterm environmental challenges.

To effectively address the issue of pollution, monitoring pollution levels is a crucial first step. Recently, the Senegalese Center for Air Quality Management (CGQA) launched an air quality monitoring program to regularly assess and understand the extent of the problem, providing a foundation for informed action. With transportation being one of the primary factors for degrading air quality in the city, the implementation of the fully electric BRT system, and the government’s plan to promote EVs as well as non-motorized transport will play a crucial role in reducing air pollution from the transportation sector.

IV. STRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE ACF

Thefollowingsetofrecommendationsaimsto supportourclient,theACF,inbetterachieving theirstatedobjectivesofmobilizinginvestment platformsbyengagingpublicandprivateactors toaddressclimatechangechallenges.Asdefined incollaborationwiththeACF,these recommendationsseektoaddressStrategic Objective3—todevelopstrategic recommendationstosupporttheACFasa championoftheclimatepolicyandfinance agendainSenegal.BecausetheACF’sstated priorityinourdiscussionswasstrengtheningtheir approachtoclimatefinance,manyofour recommendationsaredirectedthere.However, ourrecommendationsalsosupportclimatepolicy morebroadly,includingadaptationandmitigation initiatives.

Overall, each recommendation targets a different point along the value chain. We recommend first (1) facilitating a centralized climate data platform, so that more usable and accessible data can inform prioritization, allocation, and implementation of climate policy, programs, and financing. To attract new funding sources, we recommend (2) launching a climate finance accelerator. To help optimize available funding to support both adaptation and mitigation initiatives, we recommend (3) building capacity to access funds, (4) translating global funding into municipal/local level resources, (5) providing implementation support, and (6) supporting enhanced monitoring and evaluation. Finally, to strengthen the ACF’s ability to drive change, we recommend (7) building the ACF’s brand.

1. STRENGTHEN SENEGAL’S CLIMATE CHANGE DATA ECOSYSTEM

What

The ACF, with its focus on advancing climate resilience, equitable development, and innovative climate solutions, is well-positioned to support Senegal's Climate Change Data Ecosystem (CCDE). Spearheaded by the National Committee on Climate Change (COMNACC), the CCDE aims to address critical gaps in climate data availability, accessibility, and utilization—barriers that hinder effective climate adaptation and mitigation.

The ACF can support the CCDE by facilitating capacity-building workshops tailored to Senegal’s National Statistical System and relevant government stakeholders. These workshops would focus on climate data methodologies, disaggregation techniques, and the integration of geospatial data tools. ACF can establish partnerships between Senegalese institutions and regional or global climate organizations to enhance technical expertise through knowledge transfer and mentoring. Additionally, ACF can advocate for and co-fund the creation of a specialized Climate Data Coordination Unit within the ANSD, which would act as a focal point for climate data management and inter-agency collaboration. Furthermore, ACF can invest in the development of a centralized climate data platform that enables real-time updates and public access to reliable climate statistics. By collaborating with Senegalese agencies, ACF could pilot digital tools for sector-specific data monitoring, focusing on agriculture, water, health, and other climate-vulnerable sectors. This platform could incorporate innovative data sources such as satellite imagery to monitor landuse changes, remote sensing data to predict extreme weather events, and telecom data to track population movement patterns during crises.

Finally,theACFshouldfacilitateregional knowledgeexchangeswithotherAfrican countries(e.g.,SouthAfrica,Kenya)thathave successfullyimplementedclimatedatasystems. Thiscouldincludeprovidingapeerlearningor bestpracticesharingplatformtoidentifyand documentsuccessfulclimatedatainitiatives acrossAfricaandhelpinformSenegal’sCCDE strategy.

Rationale

Enhancedaccesstoreliable,timely,andusable datawouldimproveclimateadaptationand mitigationplanning,ensuringresourcesare directedtowheretheyaremostneeded.These datacouldalsohelptomoreclearlyarticulate climateneedsandgaps,tohelpmobilizeclimate finance,attractdonorconfidence,andenable targetedinterventions.

WhyACF

ThisinitiativewouldalignwiththeACF’s strengthsinpilotingprograms,convening stakeholdersacrossarangeoflevels,and mobilizingphilanthropy.Asanactorwithstrong conveningcapabilities,particularlygivenits presenceinmultiplecountries,theACFiswellpositionedtofacilitatecollaborationson establishingadatasystemandprioritizingdata projectsandneedsacrossmultiplestakeholders.

ImplementationConsiderations

ACFshouldcollaboratecloselywiththeNational AgencyforStatisticsandDemography(ANSD) andCOMNACCtoalignwiththeirexistingCCDE strategy.Toensureeffectiveimplementation, ACFcanpartnerwithWASCAL,anorganization withprovenexpertiseinclimatedata management,tosupportSenegal’sdataneeds.

2. LAUNCH A “CLIMATE FINANCE ACCELERATOR” PROGRAM

What

To bridge the gap between private sector capabilities and climate finance requirements, the ACF should establish an innovative “Climate Finance Accelerator.” This program’s responsibilities would be two-fold, aiding in (1) project scoping & due diligence, and (2) investor match-making.

Project Scoping & Due Diligence involves conducting a comprehensive mapping of potential renewable energy and climate-resilient projects across Senegal. Once a list of potential projects has been established, ACF can then develop standardized criteria for “investment-ready” projects. Such criteria would lend itself to an “ACF-certified” designation whereby projects meeting key performance criteria would receive a certification, signaling to investors project readiness and scalability. Establishing a system of criterium-driven certification would aid investors in measuring impact and returns, which is particularly useful for investors that require certain ESG standards in their portfolio. This process presents an opportunity—for ACF or a tapped partner—to help companies develop attractive business plans and to provide technical assistance to help projects meet certification requirements.

Investor Matchmaking involves creating a database of potential investors. ACF can then facilitate connections between projects and potential sources of private investment, which could occur through investor showcases. In this way, ACF can aid in supporting a pipeline, with identified and prioritized projects, for private investment.

Rationale

Despite growing opportunities through mechanisms like the JETP, there remains a need to mobilize the private sector, chiefly through reducing investment risk, increasing “bankability” of climate projects, and enhancing investor confidence.

Why ACF

As a third party, the ACF is well suited to offer qualified, non-partisan opinions in the due diligence process and, with its sectoral expertise and exposure to energy transitions across the continent, the ACF can draw on knowledge regarding what constitutes an “investmentready” project. As a convener in the climate policy space, the ACF is already positioned to leverage existing partnerships and open pathways for further collaboration. Our proposal aligns with the ACF’s activity to “support initiatives to increase access to finance for the local private sector to mobilize investments into the JETP” as part of their planned Investment Plan for Senegal.

Implementation Considerations

Suggested partner is the Business Council of Renewable Energies of Senegal (COPERES) given its experience in collaboration and partnerships. This organization has already achieved significant headway in advancing renewable energy in Senegal in support of the Senegalese government's objective of securing universal access to energy by 2025.

3. BUILD CAPACITY FOR ACCESSING CLIMATE FINANCE

What

ACF should implement a comprehensive initiative to enhance stakeholders’ ability to access global climate finance from sources like the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and African Development Bank (AfDB). Many local actors face challenges in navigating complex application processes due to technical, language, and resource constraints. To address these barriers, the ACF could offer capacity-building support, such as tailored workshops and training sessions on grant writing, project development, technical skills, and financial management. ACF could also develop a technical assistance hub to create a centralized support system to guide stakeholders through application processes. Lastly, ACF could champion an exploration of how AI-powered tools might bridge capacity gaps—such as for translating application materials into local languages, thereby reducing language barriers, and automating repetitive tasks such as formatting and document preparation to streamline the application process.

Rationale

Improving access to climate finance is crucial for enabling Senegal’s stakeholders to implement critical adaptation and mitigation projects. By bridging technical and resource gaps, the ACF can help local actors unlock much-needed funding to bolster Dakar’s climate resilience and sustainability. Enhanced access to global finance would also increase Senegal’s ability to articulate climate needs, attract donor confidence, and strengthen project implementation capacity.

Why ACF

The ACF’s role as a convener and facilitator makes it uniquely positioned to address these capacity gaps. With its expertise in mobilizing philanthropy, strong stakeholder networks, and history of supporting innovative solutions, the ACF can effectively provide both the training and tools necessary to empower local actors. This initiative aligns with the ACF’s broader mission to enhance access to climate finance and build resilience in vulnerable regions.

Implementation Considerations

One suggested partner could be GIZ to integrate capacity-building efforts into existing frameworks. We also recommend exploring partnerships with local universities and international organizations to deliver workshops and provide ongoing technical support.

4. SUPPORT AND SCALE EXISTING GOVERNMENTAL EFFORTS TO FACILITATE

LOCAL ACCESS TO GLOBAL CLIMATE FINANCING

What

The ACF should build on existing efforts to facilitate local access to global climate financing by partnering with the Ministry of Territorial Governance, Development, and Management of the Territory (MTGDMT). Local governments in Senegal face significant challenges accessing global climate funds due to a lack of capacity to develop project proposals and manage projects in collaboration with national or multilateral entities. These challenges are exacerbated by incomplete fiscal decentralization, leaving municipalities resource-constrained and undermining the ownership and sustainability of local adaptation and mitigation efforts.

By building on existing initiatives, such as MTGDMT’s efforts to establish a climate finance support unit and provide technical support to municipalities, the ACF can contribute to scaling these efforts and ensuring their effectiveness. This collaboration would enhance coordination between national and subnational actors and promote the long-term sustainability of climate resilience projects.

Rationale

Strengthening local governments’ ability to access climate finance is critical to ensuring that adaptation and mitigation projects are effective, inclusive, and aligned with community priorities. Scaling existing governmental efforts will enhance local ownership, improve resource allocation, and bridge the gap between national policies and local implementation.

Why ACF

As a trusted partner to government entities and civil society, the ACF is well-positioned to support ongoing efforts, foster collaboration, and amplify the impact of existing initiatives. Its expertise in climate finance and capacity-building aligns with the needs of local governments in Senegal.

Implementation Considerations

The ACF should align its efforts with existing governmental frameworks and ensure that its support complements ongoing initiatives. Collaborating with technical partners and leveraging lessons learned from pilot projects will further enhance the impact of these efforts.

CASE STUDY: REMOVING BARRIERS TO CLIMATE FINANCE ACCESS

In 2021, the Ministry of Territorial Governance, Development, and Management of the Territory (MTGDMT) received $576,840 in grant funding from the African Development Bank’s Africa Climate Change Fund (ACCF) for the Removing Barriers to Climate Finance Access project. This initiative aimed to strengthen local governments’ ability to access global climate funds by:

Establishingaclimatefinancesupportunittoprovidetechnicalassistancetomunicipalities. Settingupahelpdesksystemtoofferclimatefinanceinformationandonlinesupporttolocalactors. Pilotinglocalgovernmentaccesstoglobalclimatefundsintworegions,FerloandFatick.

The project highlights the importance of equipping local governments with the tools and knowledge needed to navigate complex financing mechanisms and demonstrates the potential for scaling these efforts to other regions. Lessons learned from this initiative offer valuable insights for broader efforts to enhance local access to climate finance.

5. BRIDGE THE IMPLEMENTATION GAP BETWEEN FINANCE & SUSTAINABILITY

What

Local governments and implementing organizations in Senegal face significant challenges in deploying climate finance effectively, even when funding is available. Infrastructure projects often fail within “four to five years” due to inadequate maintenance capacity and limited technical expertise at the local level. This represents an implementation gap between available international climate finance and tangible, on-the-ground impact. To address this, the ACF can adopt a two-pronged approach focusing on technical assistance for sustainable financing and operations, combined with convening and coordination efforts to build institutional capacity and strengthen climate finance governance.

The ACF should begin by establishing a Project Preparation Facility to support municipalities in creating revenue models, maintenance plans, and capacity-building programs for staff. A Climate Data & Monitoring Hub can track project outcomes, build data-driven evidence for funding proposals, and facilitate knowledge sharing. A Municipal Climate Finance Accelerator can provide municipalities with technical assistance for proposal development, financial management, and project pipeline creation, ensuring that projects meet clear, actionable performance metrics.

To strengthen coordination, the ACF can organize semiannual Senegal Climate Finance Dialogues, bringing together municipal governments, national ministries, funders, and private investors to share lessons learned, align funding opportunities, and coordinate project implementation. Specialized targeted working groups on infrastructure maintenance, blended finance models, and impact measurement can provide actionable recommendations and meet twice a year before major convenings. An online knowledge-sharing platform can document successful projects, share templates and tools, and host virtual training workshops. Regular site

visits to successful project locations can promote peer learning, strengthen funder-local government relationships, and build trust and transparency among all stakeholders.

Rationale

The gap between available climate finance and sustainable project outcomes stems from local governments’ limited ability to manage infrastructure projects over the long term. Factors such as weak financial management, lack of revenue models for maintenance and plans, and limited access to technical training threaten project sustainability. Addressing these constraints requires a comprehensive strategy that empowers municipalities with financial, technical, and operational tools. By providing technical assistance for sustainable financing and operations, the ACF can strengthen municipalities while ensuring more effective climate finance implementation. Establishing platforms for stakeholder coordination and knowledge sharing will further enhance project sustainability and improvement, helping close the implementation gap and driving lasting impact.

Why ACF

The ACF is well-positioned to implement these initiatives due to its ample networks and expertise. The ACF can support municipalities in developing sustainable financing models, including revenue-generating mechanisms such as blended finance structures that combine local taxes, national funds, and private capital. Collaborating with partners like La Banque Agricole and GGGI, the ACF can also create the Climate Data & Monitoring Hub to enhance project accountability and outcome tracking. The ACF can leverage its networks to convene semiannual climate finance dialogues and specialized working groups to strengthen policy coordination, align funding efforts, and ensure meaningful stakeholder engagement.

Implementation Considerations

Successful implementation of these initiatives will require close collaboration with national and local governments, as well as close collaboration with organizations such as La Banque Agricole, GGGI, and relevant municipal agencies. Establishing formal partnerships will help align priorities, enable project development, and ensure effective access to resources. Partner organizations can provide technical expertise, financial support, and capacity-building assistance, creating a robust foundation for long-term project sustainability.

To ensure the ACF has the operational capacity to pursue all proposed initiatives, the creation of key components can be staggered over multiple phases. The first phase could focus on establishing the Project Preparation Facility to support municipalities in developing sustainable financing models, maintenance plans, and technical training programs. In parallel, a Climate Data & Monitoring Hub could be launched to enhance project tracking and strengthen the evidence base for future funding proposals.

The second phase can include the development of the Municipal Climate Finance Accelerator, offering hands-on support for project proposal development and financial management. This phased approach allows the ACF to scale its efforts incrementally, ensuring that institutional frameworks are fully operational before expanding into new areas.

Stakeholder coordination efforts, such as semiannual climate finance dialogues and targeted working groups, can be introduced as other operational structures are in place. Finally, the creation of an online knowledge-sharing platform and the organization of site visits can enhance peer learning, transparency, and trust among all involved parties. This progressive implementation strategy will enable the ACF to build capacity while maintaining momentum on high-impact initiatives.

STRATEGY: Bridge implementation gap between finance & sustainability

PHASE 1: Foundation Setup

ProjectPreparationFacility

ClimateData&MonitoringHub

PHASE 2: Expansion & Acceleration

MunicipalClimateFinance Accelerator

PHASE 3: Scaling & Coordination

StakeholderCoordination

Knowledge-SharingPlatform& SiteVisits

6. PROMOTE PARTICIPATORY MONITORING AND EVALUATION

What

The ACF can promote social audits for its funded projects and programs in Dakar. Social audits are a participatory process where community members are involved in assessing project performance, ensuring that initiatives align with local priorities, and addressing communityspecific challenges. While the Monitoring Reporting and Verification (MRV) system has been set up by the Government of Senegal to monitor GHG emissions and GHG emission reductions in any project, the outputs, outcomes, and impact of the project itself can utilize social audits.

Rationale

Social audits enhance transparency, accountability, and community involvement by creating feedback channels between project implementers and beneficiaries. Drawing from models like India’s Meghalaya Society for Social Audit and Transparency (MSSAT), the ACF can institutionalize a process tailored to Dakar’s context. Community participation addresses monitoring capacity gaps in implementing agencies while encouraging shared responsibility and ownership by local actors. Regular assessments facilitate timely course corrections, improving project outcomes and long-term impact. Such a mechanism for evaluating and enhancing climate action is currently lacking in the government.

Why ACF

This approach aligns with the ACF’s commitment to piloting innovative practices that drive meaningful social change. The ACF is positioned to establish a local framework for social audits tailored to Dakar’s cultural and socioeconomic conditions focusing on community participation, transparency, and actionable outcomes. This could include clear guidelines for public hearings, periodic reporting, and community feedback mechanisms, ensuring that the process is both standardized and accessible. The ACF can partner

withlocaluniversitiesandtraininginstitutionsto developanddeliverworkshopsonsocialaudit techniques,equippingcommunitymembers, especiallyyouthandleaders,withskillsindata collection,evaluation,andpublicengagement. Establishingadedicatedteamornetworkto overseeandsupporttheseauditswillhelp maintainconsistencyandcredibilityinthe process.Moreover,theuseofdigitaltools,suchas mobileappsoronlineplatforms,canfacilitate real-timefeedbackandincreasetransparency.By integratingtheseauditsintoitsoperationsand advocatingfortheiradoptionbyother institutions,theACFcanestablishitselfasa leaderinparticipatorygovernanceand community-drivendevelopment.

ImplementationConsiderations

Todemonstratetheeffectivenessofsocialaudits, theACFshouldlaunchpilotprogramswithinits fundedprojects.Thesepilotscanfocusonpriority areassuchasresourcemanagement,program outreach,andcommunitysatisfaction.Findings fromthesepilotsshouldbedocumented, analyzed,andsharedthroughplatformslike publicforums,reports,andsocialmedia.Success storiescanserveasadvocacytoolstoencourage thegovernmentandotherstakeholderstoadopt socialauditsonabroaderscale.Transparent reportingofauditresultswillenablestakeholders tocollaborativelyidentifygaps,suggest adjustments,andachieveprogress,ensuringthat socialauditsimproveprojectoutcomesovertime.

7. POSITION THE ACF AS A VOICE FOR ELEVATING REGIONAL STAKEHOLDERS DURING THE ENERGY TRANSITION

What

The ACF should position itself as a leading advocate for regional stakeholders in Africa’s energy transition, ensuring that local perspectives, needs, and innovations are prioritized in global climate conversations. Branding itself would be a two-fold process involving (1) the development of a strong online presence, and (2) the vocalization of gaps in international funding mechanisms.

The purpose of developing a strong online presence is to showcase successes and champion equitable policies. The ACF should build a robust digital platform to amplify its own work and highlight regional accomplishments in the energy transition. This platform could feature case studies, interactive maps, blogs, and data dashboards showcasing the impacts of ACFsupported projects. Additionally, a strong presence on social media and digital forums would allow the ACF to engage directly with a global audience, advocate for fairer practices and share innovative solutions emerging from Africa.

The purpose of vocalizing gaps in international funding mechanisms is to hold global institutions accountable. The ACF is well positioned to identify and publicly address shortcomings in international funding mechanisms such as the GCF or bilateral donor programs. By spotlighting barriers, such as onerous application processes, inadequate funding for adaptation, or biases toward large-scale projects over localized solutions, the ACF can push for reforms that ensure regional African stakeholders have better access to global climate finance. This advocacy should balance constructive critique with practical recommendations to make funding mechanisms more accessible and impactful for local actors.

Rationale

By bridging the gap between local realities and global ambitions, the ACF can catalyze meaningful change and drive sustainable, equitable, and inclusive development on the continent.

Why ACF

The ACF’s leadership in this space would not only position it as a trusted partner for global funders and policymakers but also as a champion of equitable, inclusive energy transition efforts across Africa.

Implementation considerations

Given that this recommendation has the potential to be more political, the ACF must weigh to what extent they desire or find feasible the role of being an advocate. Calling out international actors may invite reciprocal criticism and ACF must assess their relationships carefully. Positioning themselves between roles as an investigator and watchdog in comparison to educator and informant might be a delicate process.

V. CONCLUSION

As Senegal navigates the complexities of climate adaptation and mitigation within the context of rapid urbanization, its ability to balance development and economic transformation with environmental sustainability will define its trajectory toward climate resilience. Dakar, as the economic and cultural hub of the country, faces unique challenges exacerbated by climate hazards, social inequities, and infrastructure gaps. This report underscores the necessity of aligning local, national, and international strategies to create robust frameworks for addressing climate vulnerabilities while fostering sustainable development.

The findings presented highlight critical gaps in data availability, institutional capacity, and access to climate finance. These limitations underscore the need for innovative, targeted interventions, such as capacity-building initiatives, centralized data platforms, and participatory governance frameworks. Our strategic recommendations, such as the Climate Finance Accelerator program and scaling existing governmental efforts, emphasize the importance of collaboration, inclusivity, and leveraging technology to empower local actors and enhance Senegal's climate resilience.

The challenges facing Senegal are significant, but so are the opportunities. By prioritizing equitable access to resources, integrating community voices, and fostering cross-sector partnerships, Senegal can position itself as a leader in climate adaptation and mitigation. These efforts will not only safeguard its people and ecosystems but also strengthen its role in the global transition toward a sustainable, low-carbon future. The African Climate Foundation, with its proven track record and established networks across the continent, is uniquely positioned to champion these initiatives, driving impactful change that resonates across sectors and borders.

Through sustained commitment and innovative approaches, Senegal can transform its vulnerabilities into strengths, ensuring a future where development and resilience go hand in hand. This report serves as a roadmap for action, urging stakeholders to work together to unlock the potential of Senegal's climate agenda, paving the way for a just and sustainable transition.

ABOUT THE TEAM

Amy Chang is a second-year Master of Public Affairs student at Princeton University, focusing on economic policy. Prior to graduate school, Amy worked for three years in President Biden’s Administration, as a White House COVID-19 Response Team Policy Advisor, focusing on vaccination policy and operations, and as a Senior Advisor to the Deputy Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Amy has also worked in management consulting to drive strategy and implementation across government agencies and private sector organizations. Amy additionally served in the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services under President Obama. Amy graduated from Yale University with a bachelor’s degree in both Biomedical Engineering and Global Affairs – International Development.

Manuel de Faria is a Brazilian economist born in Rio de Janeiro, deeply committed to building long-term institutional capacity within the public sector. Currently a second-year Master of Public Affairs student at Princeton University, focusing on economic policy, Manuel previously contributed to the Institute for Health Policies Studies (IEPS), aiding policymakers in improving the governance of the public health system. His professional background includes work as a research assistant at the Harvard Kennedy School, in the policy unit of Rio de Janeiro’s Transportation Secretary, and in private consulting on infrastructure policy.

Katie Deal is a second-year Master of Public Affairs student at Princeton University. Prior to graduate school, Katie led public policy analysis at T. Rowe Price, where she advised on political risk for the firm’s Investments division. At Princeton, Katie contributed to climate and blended finance initiatives in the United Nations’ Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) and served as a policy development consultant at Lafayette Square Institute, a platform supporting economic opportunity and stability for low-income workers. She also worked with Nextdoor on developing its Crisis Response product, leveraging AI and government partnerships to support communities experiencing natural hazards and disasters. Katie is a dual-degree candidate at the Stanford Graduate School of Business (GSB), where she is a KnightHennessy Scholar.

Paco Gonzalez is a Master of Public Affairs student and Fulbright Scholar from Guadalajara, Mexico, focusing on international development and program impact evaluation. At Princeton University, he is pursuing his interests in urban development and climate policy in Latin America. Before coming to Princeton, Paco worked in Mexico City as a public policy analyst at Fundación IDEA, providing technical assistance to criminal justice institutions across the country. He holds a BA in Political Science from New York University Abu Dhabi.

Sam Hau is a second-year Master of Public Affairs student at Princeton University, focusing on infrastructure policy and sustainable development. Before Princeton, Sam worked as a Senior Civil Engineer with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), leading critical hydroelectric, water resource, and emergency operations projects, including FEMA’s COVID-19 response. He also served at the Government Accountability Office (GAO), where he evaluated federal infrastructure and environmental programs to ensure efficiency and accountability. His private sector experience spans domestic and international contexts, from designing urban housing in New York City to commercial projects in the United Arab Emirates. At Princeton, Sam is pursuing a Certificate in Science, Technology, and Environmental Policy (STEP). Sam Hau holds a bachelor’s degree in civil and a master’s degree structural engineering.

Fatima Mumtaz is a second-year Master of Public Affairs candidate at Princeton University, specializing in International Development with a focus on climate policy and addressing climate change-induced inequalities. She has worked with UNESCAP, using data-driven research to uncover urban vulnerabilities exacerbated by climate change, and at NITI Aayog, Government of India where she led digital strategy initiatives to enhance government efficiency in climate-sensitive sectors. Fatima is passionate about leveraging data analytics to address the disproportionate impacts of climate change on marginalized communities and drive systemic change.

Rosemary Newsome is a second-year Master in Public Affairs candidate, focusing on economics and international development. Prior to graduate school, Rosemary worked for LPA, a financial analytics firm in Dallas, TX that monitors private asset portfolios on behalf of institutional investors. Before that, Rosemary served in the Peace Corps in Nioro du Rip, Senegal. Rosemary operated as a Community Economic Development Volunteer where she collaborated on entrepreneurship initiatives, particularly among female and young populations. Last summer, Rosemary interned at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Paris, where she researched how Environmental, Social, and Governance aspects are incorporated into pension investments. Rosemary holds a Bachelor of Business Administration in Finance from Texas Christian University.

Ferdinand Quayson is a second-year MPA student, specializing in international relations and economic development. With extensive experience in Ghana’s government and non-profit sectors, Ferdinand has worked alongside different agencies to address key economic challenges. He has led the founding of Young Achievers Foundation Ghana, one of Ghana's largest college access and youth development programs, securing over $50 million in educational aid for low-income students. At the Ghana Ministry of Finance, Ferdinand monitored progress under the IMF Program and assessed the impact of major social protection initiatives. As Co-Chair of the Princeton Africa Policy Network, he has been instrumental in enhancing the network's outreach and fostering policy dialogue on African governance and development issues.

Rias Reed is pursuing a Master in Public Affairs with a concentration in International Development. He holds a bachelor’s degree in Economics from the University of Texas at Austin. Prior to his studies at Princeton, Rias worked with a Texas-based nonprofit, developing affordable housing solutions for veterans and senior citizens. Last summer, he contributed to a think tank in Japan, researching the nation's contributions to international development, economic diplomacy, and transitions to green energy.

Eleni Smitham is a second-year Master of Public Affairs candidate at Princeton University, focusing on international development. Prior to graduate school, she worked at the Center for Global Development in Washington DC, where she collaborated with experts to conduct research on a range of global health policy topics, focusing on global health security and financing for pandemic preparedness and response. Before that, Eleni worked with the West and Central Africa Division at the International Fund for Agricultural Development in Rome and with the United Nations Development Programme's Africa Centre for Climate and Sustainable Development, also in Rome. She has spent time in Malawi researching food security and dietary diversity. Eleni holds a Bachelor of Arts in International Studies and Spanish, with a minor in Health Studies, from Haverford College.

Ayushi Vig is a second-year Master of Public Affairs student at SPIA, concentrating in International Development. Prior to Princeton, she ran a strategic consulting practice for foundations and philanthropists, where she advanced strategies for economic and environmental justice across the US, South Asia, and Southern Africa. Ayushi was a 2023 Fellow at the Just Economy Institute, and was also honored as a 2023 Climate Leader of Color by the People’s Climate Innovation Center. Previously, she was a founding team member of the Trust-Based Philanthropy Project, and a Senior Fellow at Stanford University’s Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society. Ayushi currently serves on the boards of Clean Energy Works, the Energy Justice Law & Policy Center, the Kuyili Foundation, New Economy Coalition, and the Cooperative Economics Alliance of NYC. She received her BA from Stanford University.

Jing Xie is a second-year Master of Public Affairs student at Princeton University, specializing in economic development. Jing has worked at the IMF as a Macroeconomic Analyst, supporting economists on monetary policy and macroeconomic modeling projects and as a lecturer establishing and delivering capacity development programs for government officials from sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Pacific and the Caribbean regions. While at Princeton, Jing served as an Economic Development Consultant at the World Bank. She also contributed to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP), where she used machine learning techniques to evaluate inequalities in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals related to child labor. Jing completed her undergraduate studies at George Washington University in Washington, D.C., where she majored in Economics and Finance.

Dr. Devanne Béda-Geuder is Associate Research Scholar and Lecturer in SPIA at Princeton University. Her work explores the political economy of development, urban transformation, and the production of inequality with a focus on African cities. Additionally, she examines urban climate adaptation, and urban environmental inequality. Devanne teaches graduate courses on Urbanization and Development, Urban Inequality, and is the Faculty Advisor for the SPIA Policy Workshop – Urban Climate Policy and Finance in Dakar, Senegal.

Prior to her time at Princeton, Devanne was Research Coordinator for the Transforming Urban Transport - The Role of Political Leadership (TUT-POL) Sub-Saharan Africa project at Harvard University’s Graduate School of Design. Her doctoral research confronted the dynamics of institutional and societal change related to land governance and its relevance for urban transition in Ghana’s two largest metropolitan regions.

Dr. Béda-Geuder has professional experience in international development practice with The Urban Institute, AED/FHI 360, and Oxfam America; and has consulted for the African Development Bank, UN Habitat, UN ECA, and the African Center for Economic Transformation. Devanne holds a PhD in International Development Planning from MIT and dual Masters’ degrees from Columbia University in International Affairs and Urban Planning.

OnlineAppendix

AdetailedAppendixcanbefoundat: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1FXcvfVbvWxjOuHFWaP45e1ve9g1IQxNw/view? usp=sharing

Thisincludes: SpatialAnalysisforUnderstandingSocialandClimateVulnerabilityinDakar 1. 2.StakeholderMap

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44. P.GraceTeeLewiset.al.(2023).CharacterizingvulnerabilitiestoclimatechangeacrosstheUnitedStates,EnvironmentInternational, Volume172,2023,107772,ISSN0160-4120,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.107772.

RepublicofSenegal(2024).Senegal2050:NationalTransformationAgenda.

46. JapanInternationalCooperationAgency(2016).DakarUrbanMasterPlan2035.

49.

47. UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.(n.d.).JustEnergyTransitionPartnership.https://unfccc.int.48. UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(2015).ParisAgreement.https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-parisagreement/the-paris-agreement.

50. ibid.51.

RepublicofSenegal(2024).Senegal2050:NationalTransformationAgenda.

52. Ibid.53. StakeholderinterviewsOctober2024.54.

PARIS21(2024).Senegal’sClimateChangeDataEcosystemProfilehttps://www.paris21.org/knowledge-base/senegals-climate-changedata-ecosystem-profile

55. Ibid.

PARIS21(2024).Senegal’sClimateChangeDataEcosystemProfilehttps://www.paris21.org/knowledge-base/senegals-climate-changedata-ecosystem-profile

56.

57.

GlobalPlatformforSustainableCities(2019).CapitalizationofADMSenegal’sclimateresilienceinitiatives. https://www.thegpsc.org/sites/gpsc/files/adm-capitalisation-note-02-en-web-191217.pdf

58. GovernmentofSenegal(2022).ContributionDéterminéeauNiveauNationalduSénégal(CDN). https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/CDNSenegal%20approuv%C3%A9e-pdf-.pdf

HabitatInternationalCoalition(n.d.).ParcellesAssainies.https://www.hic-net.org/parcelles-assainies/#:~:text=1%2D%20In%201973%2C%20the%20first,%2DKeur%20Massar%2C%20in%20Dakar

59. "Primaryclimatefinancing"referstofinancialresourcesexplicitlydesignatedforaddressingclimatechangemitigationandadaptation efforts.Thesefundsaretypicallyallocatedtosupportprojects,policies,andinitiativesaimedatreducinggreenhousegasemissions, enhancingclimateresilience,orachievingotherenvironmentalobjectives.Sourcesofprimaryclimatefinancingoftenincludemultilateral developmentbanks,governmentbudgets,privatesectorinvestments,andinternationalclimatefundssuchastheGreenClimateFund (GCF)ortheClimateInvestmentFunds(CIF).

60. Meattleet.al.(2024).LandscapeofClimateFinanceinAfrica2024.ClimatePolicyInitiative. https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/landscape-of-climate-finance-in-africa-2024/

62.

61. Apfel,D.(2022).RenewableenergytransitioninSenegal?Exploringthedynamicsofemergingpathstoasustainableenergysystem. EnergyResearch&SocialScience,92,102771.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102771

63. RepublicofSenegal(2024).Senegal2050:NationalTransformationAgenda.

JapanInternationalCooperationAgency(2016).DakarUrbanMasterPlan2035.

64. UNFoodandAgricultureOrganization(2022).PolicyLetterfortheEnvironment,SustainableDevelopmentandEcologicalTransition Sector(LPSEDDTE)2022-2026.https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/fr/c/LEX-FAOC220648/.

66.

65. DiamniadioisapartofthecollectivedevelopmentprogramofthegovernmentofSenegalundertheleadershipofformerPresidentMacky SalltorevitalizeSenegal’seconomybyeasingthepopulationpressureonDakarwiththenewcitydevelopment.Moreinformationabout theprojecthere:https://www.thegpsc.org/city/diamniadio

67.

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68. JapanInternationalCooperationAgency(2016).DakarUrbanMasterPlan2035.

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69. UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(2015).ParisAgreement.70. RepublicofSenegal(2024).Senegal2050:NationalTransformationAgenda.71. JapanInternationalCooperationAgency(2016).DakarUrbanMasterPlan2035.

72. ITDP(2024).Dakar,Senegal’sElectricBRTLeadstheWayforAfricanCities.https://itdp.org/2024/03/22/dakar-senegals-electric-brtleads-the-way-for-african-cities/

73. EuropeanInvestmentBank(2023).Senegal:GlobalGateway-TeamEuropejoinsforceswithSenegalforcleaner,safeandaffordable transportinDakar.https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2023-081-global-gateway-team-europe-joins-forces-with-senegal-for-cleanersafe-and-affordable-transport-in-dakar

74. AfricaNews,Senegal'sfirstregionaltrainsmakefirstjourneybetweenDakarandDiaminiado75. EnergyCapital&Power(2024).SenegaltoImplementRegulatoryFrameworkforElectricVehicles. https://energycapitalpower.com/senegal-regulation-electric-vehicles/ 76. Reuters(2024).Senegal'surbancyclingtrendoffersachancetoboostgreentransport.https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/senegalsurban-cycling-trend-offers-chance-boost-green-transport-2024-11-08/

77. PurpleAir(2023).TheHistoryofDakarAirQuality&HowThey’reUsingAirQualityTechnologyToday. https://www2.purpleair.com/blogs/collaborations/the-history-of-dakar-air-quality-how-they-re-using-air-quality-technology-today? srsltid=AfmBOoo8KWmpCDx9dk5cxzwPpoiVdPg80oARmwFp1HFRc6HUAl10aQgw

78. Sarr,B.“SystèmeMRVduSénégal.”MRVECOWAS-UEMOA,October2016. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/session_3_babacar_senegal.pdf.

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