kWh m2
LANDSCAPE AND ENERGY Designing Transition
Edited by Dirk Sijmons Jasper Hugtenburg, Fred Feddes and Anton van Hoorn
kWh/m2 is an initiative of Dirk Sijmons and H+N+S Landscape Architects
nai010 publishers
CONTENT 01 INTRODUCTION
04 HEAT
10 The Reciprocity of Energy and Space
192 Footprints 192 Geothermal Energy
02 Past, present and future 24 Past / A Brief History of High-Energy Life 50 Present / Introduction to the
Knowledge of Energy Use and Energy Chains
70 Future / Spatial Scenarios for
196 Residual Heat 200 Peat 204 Natural Gas 208 Shale Gas 212 Biomass 216 Survey 218 Case Study / Rotterdam
the Energy Transition
86 Case Study / Europe
Economic Transition 248 The Economic Transition
03 ELECTRICITY
250 Essay / The Economic Landscape
114 Footprints 114 Nuclear Power 118 Coal
05 FUEL
06 NETWORK AND STORAGE
APPENDIX
326 Footprints
420 Lexicon
326 Electricity Network 328 Heat Network 330 Gas Network 332 Electricity Storage 334 Thermal Energy Storage (TES) 336 Fuel Storage 338 Survey 340 Case Study / The Northern Netherlands
Technological Transition 366 The Technological Transition 368 Essay / The Technological Landscape
07 HUMAN SCALE
122 Lignite
266 Footprints
126 Waste Incineration
266 Petroleum
130 Hydropower
270 Tar Sands
134 Solar
274 Biofuel
138 Wind
278 Algae
142 Survey
282 Survey
398 The Emotional Transition
144 Case Study / Arnhem
284 Case Study / The ‘Green Metropolis’
400 Essay / The Emotional Landscape
Mobility Transition
Political Transition
170 The Mobility Transition
308 The Political Transition
172 Essay / The Mobility Landscape
310 Essay / The Political Landscape
424 Bibliography
384 Case Study / Household Consumption
Emotional Transition
08 EPILOGUE 414 Epilogue
CREDITS 430 Credits
01 INTRODUCTION
86
01 Past, present and future
CASE STUDY / EUROPE
CASE STUDY
EUROPE
↑↑Energy use and energy networks in Europe
87
116
03 ELECTRICITY
FOOTPRINTS
117
FOOTPRINT
Nuclear Power Nuclear power is energy that is generated by controlled nuclear reactions. The enormous amount of energy embedded in matter at the atomic level can be released in two different ways: by splitting heavy nuclei (fission), and by fusing light atoms (fusion). This latter method, fusion (which actually mimics the processes that that occur in the sun), is still a long way from being commercially feasible. That means that in practice, nuclear fission is what we mean when we discuss nuclear power. The raw materials for this process are uranium and thorium, which are mined in various places, including Australia and Canada. Nuclear power is made available in the form of heat. This heat is converted into electricity at the power plant in a conventional way, using steam, turbines and generators. The Netherlands has one genuine nuclear power plant, in Borssele. Plans for a second nuclear power plant have been put on hold. The former nuclear power plant in Doodewaard, which was in operation from 1969 to 1997, is currently undergoing a long period of ‘safe inclusion’ and can be dismantled after 2045. There are small research reactors in Delft and Petten, and in Almelo uranium is enriched. Interestingly, there are also several reactors just over the Belgian and German borders; the NIMBY effect clearly also has an international version. Following the nuclear disaster in Fukushima (Japan), Germany has decided, however, to eventually close all of its nuclear power plants, an explicit choice against nuclear power and in favour of renewable energy. Nuclear power itself is a clean energy source. The problems are with the raw material and the waste products. During extraction, the leaching of uranium from the ore is a potential source of serious environmental pollution. But the heaviest burden of nuclear energy is the storage of its radioactive waste. Due to their long half-lives, the waste materials generated by nuclear power plants remain radioactive for an extremely long time, and therefore need to be safely ↑↑The spatial footprint that would be required to provide electricity for 1 million households by means of nuclear energy, superimposed onto the Wieringermeer polder.
stored for very long periods (thousands of years in the case of long-lived isotopes). Nuclear power therefore has a skewed distribution of benefits (now) and costs (many generations to follow). The spatial footprint of a nuclear power plant and the safety zone that surrounds it is comparable to a gas-fired power plant. The mining of uranium largely takes place in open-pit mines. Because a lot of energy is generated per unit of uranium, the space that these mines take up is relatively small. The amount of waste energy per volume is limited, but the repositories for radioactive waste do indeed take up a large amount of space. Moreover, they take up this space for a very long period of time. For underground storage, some ideas that have been considered include salt domes or other very stable formations in the deeper strata. A convincing solution to this problem has not yet been found. Potential disasters are not included in the calculations of nuclear power’s spatial footprint (which is also the case with oil). Disasters such as Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Fukushima have made it clear that calamities do, however, have a major spatial impact in both the short term and the long term.
↑↑Detail of the spatial footprint for nuclear energy, superimposed onto a part of the Wieringermeer polder.
118
↑↑Slag heaps
03 ELECTRICITY
FOOTPRINTS
119
126
↑↑Household waste
03 ELECTRICITY
FOOTPRINTS
127
270
05 FUEL
↑↑Mining of tar sands
FOOTPRINTS
271
200
↑↑Peat extraction
04 HEAT
FOOTPRINTS
201
CREDITS
CREDITS
kWh/m2 The kWh/m2 project, of which this book is a result, is an initiative of Dirk Sijmons and H+N+S Landscape Architects. The following people have made important contributions to the project’s implementation:
Advisory board for regional case studies
This publication was made possible through support from and contributions by:
Credits
Arnhem
The northern Netherlands
The northern Netherlands
Idea and supervision
Image editing
Rogier van Aken The Province of Gelderland (NL)
Emiel Adema The Province of Groningen (NL)
Melanie Koning Wageningen UR
Dirk Sijmons Delft University of Technology
Jasper Hugtenburg H+N+S Landscape Architects
Hans van Ammers The City of Arnhem (NL)
Arnout Garrelts The Province of Groningen (NL)
Erik Smits Wageningen UR
Coordination
Dirk Sijmons Delft University of Technology
Albert Anijs (coordinator) The City of Arnhem (NL)
Willem Huizing The Province of Drenthe (NL)
Jasper Hugtenburg H+N+S Landscape Architects
Joppe Veul H+N+S Landscape Architects
Lydia Dijkshoorn NL Agency
Peter van den Broek The Province of Gelderland (NL)
Editors
Translation Dutch – English
Andy van den Dobbelsteen Delft University of Technology
Gijs Frencken The City of Arnhem (NL)
Klaas Jan Noorman (coordinator) ProDo Consult
Fred Feddes
Michiel Hekkenberg Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN)
William Hartman Alliander
Douglas Heingartner Introduction, texts ‘Energy Use and Energy Chains’ and ‘Getting to Work on the New Energy Landscape’, footprints
Consulted specialists
Albert Jansen Innovatief Denkschap BV Ruud van den Wijngaard Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) Coordination of graduate studios Adrian Hill Delft University of Technology Fransje Hooimeijer Delft University of Technology Sven Stremke Wageningen University Set up of case studies Conny Bakker Delft University of Technology
Pieter van der Ploeg Alliander Rudy Rooth DNV-KEMA Hans Schneider Alliander Jos Verweij The City of Arnhem (NL) Marion Visser The City of Arnhem (NL) Rotterdam Sebastian Carney Carbon Captured Ltd Manchester Roland van der Heijden The City of Rotterdam (NL) Robbert Bastiaan Schuijff The City of Rotterdam (NL) Nico Tillie (coordinator) The City of Rotterdam (NL) / Delft University of Technology
Alex van Oost The Province of Drenthe (NL) Boris Pents Natuur- en Milieu Federatie (NMF) Groningen Desmond de Vries The Province of Groningen (NL) Students – Delft University of Technology / Wageningen UR graduate studios Arnhem Jaime Gómez de la Fuente Wageningen UR Tong Li Delft University of Technology Taícia Marques Wageningen UR Willem Minderhout Delft University of Technology
The Green Metropolis
Rotterdam
Nikol Dietz H+N+S Landscape Architects
Peter Bertholet The Stadsregio Parkstad Limburg (NL)
Leah Kim Delft University of Technology
Jasper Hugtenburg H+N+S Landscape Architects
Mareike Buttstädt The StädteRegion Aachen (DE)
Willem Minderhout Delft University of Technology
Véronique Claessens The City of Genk (NL)
Joppe Veul H+N+S Landscape Architects
Volmar Delheij The Stadsregio Parkstad Limburg (NL)
Melvin Creemers H+N+S Landscape Architects
Philippe Gelders The City of Genk (NL) Leo Gommans Zuyd University of Applied Sciences Thierry Goossens (coordinator) The Stadsregio Parkstad Limburg (NL) Paul Ramsak NL Agency Isabelle Vanderheyden The City of Genk (NL) Uwe Zink The StädteRegion Aachen (DE)
Darius Reznek Wageningen UR Laura Spenkelink Delft University of Technology Matthijs Wentink Delft University of Technology Neil Zandstra Delft University of Technology The Green Metropolis Roxana Florescu Wageningen UR Irene Jialling Delft University of Technology Gillian McKellar Delft University of Technology Lucia Pro Wageningen UR Yasemin Sünbül Delft University of Technology Anyi Zhou Delft University of Technology
Tim Snippert Wageningen UR Supervising faculty – Delft University of Technology / Wageningen UR graduate studios Thijs Asselbergs Delft University of Technology Conny Bakker Delft University of Technology Inge Bobbink Delft University of Technology Andy van den Dobbelsteen Delft University of Technology Jan Engels Delft University of Technology Robbert Nottrot Delft University of Technology Sven Stremke Wageningen UR John Westrik Delft University of Technology
Anton van Hoorn Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) Jasper Hugtenburg H+N+S Landscape Architects Dirk Sijmons Delft University of Technology Authors Conny Bakker Delft University of Technology Michiel Hekkenberg Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) Adrian Hill Anton van Hoorn Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) Jasper Hugtenburg H+N+S Landscape Architects Nikol Dietz H+N+S Landscape Architects
Beverley Jackson Case studies, Epilogue
Frans Rooijers CE Delft Dirk Sijmons Delft University of Technology Jan Paul van Soest De Gemeynt Dominic Stead Delft University of Technology Copy editing D’Laine Camp
NL Agency The City of Arnhem (NL) The City of Genk (BE) The Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment (NL) The Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds The Province of Drenthe (NL) The Province of Groningen (NL) The Stadsregio Parkstad Limburg (NL) The StädteRegion Aachen (DE)
Lithography and printing NPN Drukkers
N
Production Mehgan Bakhuizen nai010 publishers, Rotterdam
Marcel Witvoet nai010 publishers, Rotterdam
Karel Mulder Delft University of Technology
EU INTERREG IVB project MUSIC
Catalogtree
Dirk Sijmons Delft University of Technology
Adrian Hill Delft University of Technology
Edgar Doncker Fund
Design
Publisher
Machiel van Dorst Delft University of Technology
Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands
Laura Vroomen Essays ‘The Economic Landscape’, ‘The Political Landscape’, ‘The Technological Landscape’ ‘The Emotional Landscape’
Fred Feddes
Essayists
Creative Industries Fund NL
H
S
Landschapsarchitecten
430