Pablo fernandez colon paper on montserrat 12 16

UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES ENGLISH GRADUATE PROGRAM

MONTSERRAT: The Emerald Isle – British Colony The Future of Montserrat: Reconstruction or disappearance?

A Paper presented as partial requirement s of for Course ENGL 8007: Language Birth and Death Dr. Alicia Pousada By: Pablo Fernández Colón 842-74-3010

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Abstract: This paper aims to:

present the historical linguistic background of the

Caribbean British Colony of Montserrat, ―The Emerald Isle‖, before and after the eruption of the Soufriere Volcano on September 18, 1996. It also aims to describe the island‘s population shifts before and after the volcano‘s eruption. The relevance of language and culture: and the influence of the Irish and British (initial inhabitants of Montserrat) and other regional Creoles will also be discussed seen as in the section on linguistic approaches to the Montserrat Creole : Irish influences and regional Creole influences – based on reports and studies conducted on the Montserrat English and its evolution. Then the paper turns to consider the future of Montserrat: reconstruction or disappearance? Will be Montserrat be a source of a possible language change, revival or in the worst of the cases, death? A final conclusion will close the paper.

Introduction: The Caribbean island of Montserrat is taken as model to demonstrate the life cycle of a language variety ( pidginization, creolization, transformation, shift, revival or death). When taken as a model In the discussion of pidginization, the focus is on the distinctive language origins of the language initially spoken on Montserrat since its very beginning as a British colony since in 1633, the year in which Montserrat started to be populated by Irish Ccatholics started coming from St. Kitts. A historical background of this island will be provided in the following paragraphs in order to trace its language origins, specifically talking, English. While As the historical background is discussed, the relevance of creolization, transformation or language shift, if any, will be sustained by two studies conducted in Montserrat prior to the volcano‘s eruption in 1996, which caused a massive emigration of a large majority of its residents.

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Specifically, this paper is an investigation of the English variety of Montserrat before and after the eruption of the Soufriere Volcano on September 18, 1996. It considers the impact of two natural disasters as main reasons for a transformation and possible language death or revival of the creole on this British Caribbean English-speaking island.

1- Historical background of Montserrat, The Emerald Isle: Montserrat, like many of the lesser or Leeward Caribbean Islands, was first discovered by Christopher Columbus in on his second trip to America in 1493 to America. He named it Santa Maria de Montserrate in allussion of to the Abbey of Montserrate near Barcelona. (Fergus, H., 2004). Montserrat was originally inhabited by Arawak and Carib Indians like many Caribbean islands (The Handbook of Latin American Studies, HLAS, 1996). , http://www.visitmontserrat.com.

Moreover, According to the History of Montserrat (CIA World Factbook, 2006), Montserrat was ―populated by first occupied by Arawaks and Caribs peoples‖.

According to this same reference, Montserrat was claimed by Christopher Columbus on

Comment [AP1]: There is no need to quote here.

Save quotations for very memorable or meaningful things. Otherwise just use your own works to transmit the meaning and give the source to indicate where you got the information.

his second voyage for Spain in 1493. Correspondingly, Columbus named the island ―Santa María de Montserrate, after the Blessed Virgin of the Monastery of Montserrat, which is located on the Mountain of Montserrat, in Catalonia, Spain.‖, as quoted.

It is alsoIrish (1991) mentioned mentionsin this same reference (Caribbean Research Center, 1991), that Montserrat ―fell under English control in 1632 when a group of Irish fleeing anti-Roman Catholic sentiment in Saint Kitts and Nevis settled there‖.

As

mentioned before in the previous paragraph, tThe import of Aafrican slaves, mainly

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Comment [AP2]: You have the wrong citation for this source. The author is Irish. See bibliography for correct citation.

Comment [AP3]: Page?

coming from West Africa, was a common success to aloccurrence in many the Caribbean Islands as well as Montserrat. This practice was followed during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The main reason for the importation of Aafrican slaves import to Montserrat was because its economy during these two centuries, was based on the production of ―sugar, rum, Sea Island cotton, arrowroot and arrowroot, Sea Island cotton‖, as described in the aforementioned source as well as in : Montserrat CIA World

Comment [AP4]: Again, no need to use quotation. Just list the items and give the source of the information.

Factbook, (2006).

Bill Innanen's "Condensed History of Montserrat", Innanen (200?) presents a chart

Field Code Changed

where he briefly illustrates the four major changes which have taken place in Montserrat since 1493. (see appendices).

According to Bill Innamen‘s historical chart, these main four changes have been, Ffirst, the island (of Montserrat) was used as a sugar cane plantation from the end of 1500‘s up to early 1600‘s (1633). Second, during 1700‘sa and 1800‘s, it was captured by the French for a period of nine months., (In 1782, during the American Revolutionary War, Montserrat was briefly captured by France), and then, as a result of a rebellion, (a failed slave uprising on 17 March 17, 1798), it was returned to the British again. Later on, between 1800‘s and 1900‘s, the sugar cane plantation was sold in 1869 to the philanthropist Joseph Sturge of Birmingham in 1869, who formed the Montserrat Company and converted Montserrat into a lime plantation (Sturge‘s Montserrat Company), due to the lack of demand for sugar. This plantation became famous for its lime juice afterwards. Third, during this century ( the mid of -1800‘s) took place the first Charter from Queen Victoria was granted. Finally, fourth, byduring the mid of -1900‘s, hurricanes were commonly present inplagued the region. N, and near the end of the 4

Comment [AP5]: What sort of charter was it? A land charter?

1900‘s, the first commercial flight visited the island, as sited and illustrated in Bill Comment [AP6]: You don‘t need to cite it again.

You already did at the beginning of the paragraph.

Innanen's "Condensed History of Montserrat", http://www.ms/history.htm..

Wells ,( 1980), adds the fact that Joseph Sturge ―set up a school, and sold parcels of land to the inhabitants of the island, with the result that much of Montserrat came to be owned by smallholders.‖ (p. ??).

Comment [AP7]: You must always give page numbers for quotations, so the reader can find the quotations in the text cited.

In The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776, by Wells, Robert V. (1975) provides, valuable information is provided in with regards to the ethnology of Montserrat during their its first century of existence as a British colony. Within Among the most significant historical aspects presented on in this source, are the following: ―In 1678 the population consisted of 992 slaves and 2,682 mainly Irishdescended planters. By 1805 there were 9,500 slaves and about 1,000 settlers of European descent. Montserrat was captured by the French on three occasions for short periods but was finally restored to Britain in 1783. (p. ??)‖ Another Two other important information events related to the history of Montserrat,

Comment [AP8]: Always make block quotes out of long quotations, and don‘t forget the page numbers.

during the last two centuries (1800‘s-1900‘s) is the fact that ―T were the abolition of slavery in 1834 and falling the fall in sugar prices during the 19th century. According to Wells (1975), both had an adverse effect on negatively affected the island‘s economy.‖ Finally it is expressed on this sourceWells points out that other natural catastrophes have taken place specially by the mid and end of 1900‘s: ―Moreover, the island has suffered frequent damage from hurricanes and earthquakes‖. Wells, 1975. also had serious Comment [AP9]: Note how I rewrite the information without using the same words as the author, yet I respect the origin of the ideas by citing the source.

repercussions for the economy.

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The introduction of Catholicism Christianity as. the first European religion brought to the New World, including the Caribbean Islands during the 1500‘s and 1600‘s, first by the Spanish, then by the English, Dutch, and French explorers of the recently discovered West Indies also has played an important role of in the development of language on in the Caribbean as well as on Montserrat. With it, the Catholicism, was also brought to the CaribbeanReligion was an important vehicle for

the European languages (Spanish,

French, English, Dutch). as well as slaveryThe enslavement of Black Africans, coming mainly from the west region of Africa. , was another historical event that had great linguistic implications since it brought African and European languages into contact and fomented the development of pidgins and creoles. (Caribbean Research Center, 1991).

2- Language and Culture: Influence of the Irish and British - First inhabitants of Montserrat:

The first European inhabitants or settlers of the island by the end of 1632 were primarily Irish Catholics brought over from the Protestant island of St Kitts by Englishman Thomas Warner. According to Fergus (1975) Montserrat‘s first settlers were not English but ―a group of disaffected Irish Catholics‖ ‖, ―Whilst Catholics‖ or protestants who came from St. Kitts in 1633 (Le Page, 1957-8: 55; Fergus, 1975: 7-12; [Fergus, 1994: 16-35)].

These Because of the presence of this Irish unhappy Catholics, who were persecuted elsewhere for their differences in beliefs with thereligious differences from the Roman Catholic Church, attracted other Irish Catholics because their religion (not Catholicism) ―was tolerated on Montserrat‖ this ―people‘ (Irish Catholics) moved to the island. In this way, the island of Montserrat came to be ―a refuge for persecuted Irish Catholics‖ and

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came to be known as the ―Emerald Isle of the Caribbean‖. (Caribbean Research Center, 1991).

According to this same source, (Caribbean Research Center, 1991), Montserrat was called the Emerald Isle ―not just because of its lush, green, tropical landscape‖ (similar to a region of Ireland), but this reference also points out it was also due to ―its unique Irish connections, which date back centuries‖, because the Irish were ―unwelcome in other British colonies‖. In addition to this fact, this source sites that the governor of the Island, Cromwell, ―sent some of his Irish political prisoners to Montserrat following his victory at Drogheda in 1649‖.

According to the ethnological data presented by the Caribbean Research CenterIrish,

Comment [AP10]: Incorrect citation of course.

See bibliography for complete citation.

(1991), ―By 1678, a census showed that more than half the people on the island were Irish, with the remainder a combination of English, Scots and Africans‖. Nonetheless, this study concluded: ―It is hardly surprising, therefore, that the Irish had the strongest Comment [AP11]: Page numbers?

influence on the developing culture of Montserrat, which is still apparent today‖.

Both Wells ,( 1980) and, Fergus,( 1994), indicates ―The Irish connection is obvious upon arrival in Montserrat‖ by the presence of Irish elements such as their ―distinctivethe shamrock‖ placed at the Governor‘s House as well as it is ―stamped‖ in the Montserratian passports. The Montserrat national flag also ―bears‖ or contains ―athe crest‖ of the legendary Irish figure of Erin with a harp standing alongside the Union Jack. (Caribbean Research Center, 1991). http://www.ms/history.htm (see appendices)

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Comment [AP12]: Unnecessary quotations—you must be more selective. Only quote significant language. Otherwise summarize the content in your own words and give the source.

While relating the Montserratians to the irish traditions and festivities, Montserrat is the only country in the world outside Ireland where St Patrick‘s Day is a public holiday. On March 17th, (Caribbean Research Center, 1991). fFestivities and celebrations (including concerts and other performances) takes place across the whole island. Special events, such as concerts and performances, take place in this festivity lasting over a week. A distinctly and unique ―Caribbean flavour with blends of calypso, reggae and iron band music of all types is‖ are part of this festivity. (See appendices of showing people celebrating St. Patrick‘s Day). As it is expected, duringDuring the celebration of this week, ―the old custom of wearing green still remains‖ (Caribbean Research Center, 1991).

Wells ,(1980, and Fergus (,1994) expresses that it is also found that the ―Irish heritage‖ in Montserrat is up to date, highly evidenced in the names of towns :(e.g., Farells Yard, Flemmings

Gerald's Hope , Old Towne, Olveston, Plymouth (official capital,

abandoned), Sweeney's and Woodlands) as samples and their towns and in the names of their inhabitants (e.g., : ―West Indian names as O'Hara, Riley and O'Connell)‖ (Wells, (1980)). Wells also indicates Irish names on theirfor roads and pubshideways: ―where local hideaways include Cork, Kinsale and Sweeney's Well‖. Another Irish cultural element presented in Montserrat meals, is their national dish, ―goat water‖, which, is based on a traditional Irish recipe for stew. (Wells, 1980). Finally, Wwells mentions the precense presence of a popular local Montserratian folk dance, ―the Bam-chick-a-lay‖, which, according to Wells, is also considered to have ―its root in Irish step dance‖. Wells, 1980, Fergus, 1994, http://www.visitmontserrat.com

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History: Ethnology, Social and Political development of Montserrat

In terms of political status and socio-political development of Montserrat, the following information was gathered: ―From 1671 Montserrat and the other Leeward Islands were administered by a Captain-General and Commander-in-Chief. In 1871 the Leeward Islands became a federal colony with a governor. The federation was abolished in July 1956, and Montserrat became a colony in its own right. In 1958 it joined the Federation of the West Indies; in 1962, when the Federation broke up, it gained separate administration; and in 1971 the administrator was promoted to governor‖. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/. This fact is important in order to see the political administration of the island and how it works in order to stabilize their government as well as their economy.

As it has already been pointed, Monserratians is a society is primarily composed of two eEthnic groups: black and, white — mainly of mixed Irish and African descent (Harman and, D., Kenson, A.,, 1997;, Fergus, H., 1994), Demographics of Montserrat. Black with a sligty brougue of Irish, in Wells, (1980,) reports that in 1977-78 there were around 12,000 , many ―blacks (around 12,000 currently on the strength, by 1977-78) but where the ethnics are called by with Irish names.‖.

Religions: as time has passed out, diferentDifferent religions Christian denominations have flourished in Montserrat: Seventh

-Day

Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal,

Adventist.,

other

Christian

denominations.

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Comment [AP13]: This should have been summarized in your own words.

http://www.thecommonwealth.org/. The language spoken in Montserrat has beenEach of these has utilized English since it became a British colony in 16 (or Creole) in their services. 32-33. in the section:

Linguistic approach to the Montserrat Creole: Irish influences and regional Creole

Comment [AP14]: Doesn‘t belong here.

influences – Reports and studies conducted on Montserrat Creole and its evolution: an analysis of the Montserrat English Creole will be discussed in deph.

Education: As of the 2002-3 school year, the In terms of government efforts to educate their young population, th e Mmontserratian school system consists of 10 years of compulsory or obligued education at the, primary and secondary education levels which startings at the age of five. (2002/03 estadistics). This is in reference to primary and secondary education levels. The language of formal education is standard Caribbean Comment [AP15]: You should have said this and added a reference.

English.

While talking about Ppost-secondary or ‗tTertiary‖ education, College bound education of montserratians is provided at the regional University of the West Indies, with campuses in Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. (2002/03 estadistics).

When reffering to adult education, ―Adult illiteracy is reported to be less than 10%.‖

Comment [AP16]: You should have checked the census figures.

http://www.visitmontserrat.com, http://www.ms/history.htm.

Finally, ―Montserrat is an internally self-governing UK overseas territory. Government is executed through a governor appointed by the British monarch, an executive council, which has the general control and direction of government, and a legislative council.‖ In terms of the governor‘s functions, ―The governor retains responsibility for external

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affairs, defence, internal security, the public service (as head of the civil service) and offshore finance‖, as it appears in http://www.ms/history.htm as well as different other sources

concerning

Montserrat

government

(Montserrat

Info:

2007.)

Comment [AP17]: This doesn‘t belong here. It should follow the section on history.

http://www.thecommonwealth.org., http://www.Ethnologue.com

Due to the impact of Hurricane Hugo in 1989 (which resulted in, the partial destruction of the island and a, the negative impact into on its economy as well as its depopulation), and further more, due to the awakening of the Soufriere Volcano in 1995, the normal or as usual everyday life of Montserratians was deeply changed in ways that have serious implications for language development. .

In the following section, the impact of these two natural phenomena will be discussed in order to establish a relationship between nature and population shifts, before and after.

Of course, howThe ways in which these changes affect language usage will be considered and brought into discussion.

2- Soufriere Volcano on September 18, 1996 - Population shifts before and after the volcano eruption:

Details : Soufriere Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, began erupting on July 18, 1995. As recorded in the pages of the The Montserrat Reporter, a cloud of confusion and insecurity covered the thoughts of descended upon the Montserratians. ―This is the first recorded eruption of the volcano in modern times, and that eruption spread ash across the island‖. Most of Montserrat (the Emerald Isle) was

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devastated and more than two-thirds of the population left.‖.( Montserrat Volcano Comment [AP18]: Don‘t use quotation marks for long block quotes. Just indent the lines.

Observatory Retrieved 2 October 2006.)

In the current year 2007, of nearly 11,000 inhabitants prior to the volcano‘s eruption in 1996,

there

remain

only

8,400

(Montserrat

Info:

2007.)

http://www.thecommonwealth.org.

If we could recall this moment on the island of Montserrat, the picture we could have seen would be as this: People were desperate, and started calling the radio station of the government of Montserrat, ZJB 90.9 fmFM, expressing their fears as well as their needs for updated information regarding their present and future. A sample of this moment was recorded and transcribed by the authorities and the Montserrat Reporter. (See appendices: Just Wonderin…).

The normal and usual life of a whole country has turned into a caos.

MVO Scientific Reports:

Periodically, rReports (102) were offered by the

Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) were placed, beginning with: Scientific Comment [AP19]: Double space

Reports 01 (06 December 1995) through 102 (March 1999). Special Report 01

Report Of The Explosive Event Of September 17-18, 1996 The first official report concerning the situations at Soufriere Hills Volcano Montserrat, West Indies was posted on September 17-18, 1996 by W. J. McGuire, G. E. Norton, R. S. J. Sparks, R. Robertson and S.R. Young (with a contribution from A. D. Miller). http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/west.indies/soufriere/govt/

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What has happened in Montserrat since thoese terrible days during and after the erppution of the volcano? What measures of precaution as well as prevention have been placed for helping Mmontserratians and in benefit of the community of Montserratas a nation?

In the following paragraph, an educational experience provided by gubernamental agencies of Montserrat as well as other countries initiatives, is the Operation Montserrat.

Operation Montserrat: As a gubernamentalTo illustrate the governmental response to this terrific terrifying experience, ―Operation Montserrat live simulation‖ was prepared for American and British middle school students. are considered eligible to participate in an ―Operation Montserrat live simulation‖. As it is described in the e.Mission Operation Montserrat, ―This operation consists of a videoconference program based on events of 1996 in which a hurricane approaches and a volcanic eruption occur nearly at the same time.‖ The purpose of this emergency drill or simulation is that to make the ―students are responsible for rescuing saving all of the people‖. In preparation for the simulation, students The finality proposed as a follow up- activity, consists on that: ―In the weeks leading up to this, they ―practice the skills they need in their classroom‖, e-Mission: Operation Montserrat The Operation Montserrat website. Retrieved 1 May 2007

Today Montserrat is coming back to its normality. After almost ten years, its inhabitants are returning home. (Montserrat Info: 2007.)

http://www.thecommonwealth.org.,

http://www.Ethnologue.com. As of 2002 (according to the Demographics: As provided in Demographics of Montserrat, Montserrat CIA World Factbook), 19 September, 2006

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Comment [AP21]: No need for quotation— rephrase and cite source

Montserrat demography consists of: the population of the island was approximately Population: 8,400. (2002 estimate)

Note: anAn estimated 8,000 refugees left the island following the resumption of volcanic activity in July 1995; few many have yet to returned. The pPre-eruption population was 13,000 in 1994.

According to the most recent ethnological studies, Montserrat currently has a pPopulation of 7,300 (www.worldatlas.com, 2006). The previous estimates of population from 2002, were: Population: 8,400 Demographics of Montserrat, Montserrat CIA World Factbook, 19 September, 2006.

How has Montserrat changed since 1996? Montserrat has changed drastically since 1996.. a few aspects of the Montserratians life changes are described in the next lines.

Transport to Montserrat: Helicopters to and from Antigua are the only means of air transportation to the new capital city of Montserrat, Brades, and a heliport has been built recently.

The reconstruction of Montserrat is taking place at present in a secured area for inhabitants at the opposite side of Soufriere, protected by Chances Peak, Montserrat‘s highest mountain (3,000 feet of elevation). An interim capital was constructed at Brades Estate in North Montserrat.

Economy:

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Montserrat was, prior to these natural disasters, ―the home of a branch of George Martin's AIR Studios (and other amenities)‖, for important artists and musicians, that made the island popular and brought tourists coming from all over the world, thus increasing the Montserratian economy Economy of Montserrat, CIA World Factbook, 2006. The gross income per capita (GDP):was

US$43 millions by 2005. as it appears in the cited

reference. In terms of tourisim,The Montserrat government reported Tourist arrivals: 10,000 tourist arrivals during 2004 alone.

Economy of Montserrat,( CIA World

Factbook, 2006) .

How was Montserrat, in terms of its economy, before Tthe natural disasters were very costly to the Montserratian economy. ?

Official damage estimates of the damage due to Hurricane Hugo in 1989 came to between presented by the govenrment were estimated at US$100 and.–300 million (due to damages caused by hurricane Hugo in September 1989.

http://www.visitmontserrat.com). This source presents an overview of the financial catastrophe due to the hurricane: Overview: “In the 1980s, the main economic activities were agriculture and tourism (especially luxury villa holidays) with some light engineering. Hurricane Hugo destroyed 90% of infrastructure in September 1989, severely damaging the tourism and agriculture sectors (the damage caused in 24 hours was estimated at US$100–300 million)‖.

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Comment [AP22]: Don‘t keep asking questions.

Just state what you have found.

Since then the main economic activity has been reconstruction which suffered a major set-back when The volcanic activity, which began in 1995, also cost Montserrat dearly:. ―GDP fell from EC$163 million in 1995 to EC$90.5 million in 2000‖, the government expressed at: http://www.visitmontserrat.com. Moreover, it concludes: ―Reconstruction of Montserrat‘s economy and infrastructure, are being rebuilt in the 2000s including a new airport (opened in 2005) and ferry port.‖ As, consecuence,has left ―Montserrat heavily dependent onwith a large foreign aid dependence. Main The primary providers of aid partners are the United Kingdom and Canada.‖ http://www.visitmontserrat.com

Certain celebrities Who were the people responsible for the growth of the Montserrat economy prior to its natural disaster?

At least four of them are mentioned below. Who have made brought Montserratian to be known in the whole world and how their participation in world events have brought light to others about their music, sports, and other cultural manifestations to the whole world, as well as exporting their linguistiac Montserrat Creole peculiarities.?

Famous Montserratians:

aAmong the most worldwide world- renowuned famous

Montserratians are:

1. Alphonsus "Arrow" Cassell, MBE born in Montserratwho is well known for his soca song "Hot Hot Hot" which has sold over 4 million copies and appeared in countless movies. (www.georgemartinmusic.com ) 1. .

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2. www.George Martin Music: Montserrat.ms, (CIA World Factbook, 19 September, 2006).

3.2.

Shabazz Baidoo — A footballer who makes a living in the Coca

Cola Championship in England, playing for the Queens Park Rangers, (CIA World Factbook, 19 September, 2006).

4. Tesfaye Bramble — A footballer who makes a living in League 2 in England, playing for Stockport County. (CIA World Factbook, 19 September, 2006).

3.

5.4.

And Jim Allen - A former cricketer who represented the World

Series Cricket West Indians. (CIA World Factbook, 19 September, 2006).

Sports: Montserrat has its own FIFA Affiliated Football Team, and has twice competed in the World Cup qualifiers. Commonwealth Secretariat website: Montserrat., 2007.

These Montserratians, among many others, are the voices of their country outside Montserrat,; and many of them have souded very strongbrought the Monserratian Creole to the attention of the world, as in the case of Alphonsus "Arrow" Cassell, with his ―his well known Hot Hot Hot‖ hit (see lyrics and song included in the CDcd provided, in appendices).

3- Ethnology: Languages of Montserrat In order to analyze the language characteristics of the Montserrat English, the following

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fFacts concerning its ethnology are presented. According to Ethnologue, the official language of the 9,245 Montserratians is English, but most people also speak Montserrat Creole English (approximately 7,574 in 2001). There are also speakers of

Montserrat. 9,245. National or official language: English. Literacy rate: 97%.

Also includes Arabic (500) and, Chinese (500). The number of languages listed for Montserrat

is 2. Of those, both are living languages. http://www.ethnologue.com.

Living languages:

English: [eng] 100 in Montserrat (2004). Classification: Indo-European,

Germanic, West, English

Montserrat Creole English: [aig] 7,574 in Montserrat (2001). Alternate names:

Leeward Caribbean Creole English. Classification: Creole, English based, Atlantic,

Eastern, Southern. http://www.ethnologue.com

In the following section, a description of two studies conducted in Montserrat areexploring

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presented and deeply discussed. In terms of the a possible Irish influence upon the

Montserrat English Creole are presented.

4- Linguistic approach to the Montserrat Creole: Irish influences and regional Creole influences – Reports and studies conducted on Montserrat Creole and its evolution:

Wells (1980) in his article ―The brogue that isn‘t,‖ conducted linguistic research on the presence of Irish in the Montserrat Creole (MC). He visited the Emerald Isle for five weeks during 1977-1978 and made a contrastive analysis among Montserratians in the United Kingdom as well because there were proportionately more West Indians from Montserrat than from any other territory (Wells,1980, citing Philport,1977: 90). Wells‘ intention was to find influences of Irish English in Montserrat English Creole. Among his findings are the following: Montserrat Creole has a great deal in common with other Caribbean Englishbased Creoles (p.1) That means, MC is like the regional English shared with other Caribbean English speaking islands http://www.ethnologue.com.

Phonological traits of MC such in the case of plosive [t] and [d] are similar to the Southern Irish English (IE) (p.1) In terms of dental fricatives, Wells states:

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―where Standard accents of English have dental fricatives /T,D/ as in thing, both, there, breathe. (p.1), both IE and MC have /t/ and /d/.‖

In terms of the search for ―Irishisms‖ or influences of Irish, his attention was focused on the ―broad Creole end of this continuum‖ (p.1). He summarizes this as follows: Montserratians ―do not drop historical and standard /h/ as opposed to Jamaican Creole (JC) as in hand (/an/ vs /han,/‖. (Wells, 1973: 93).

Wells considers JC dropping of /h/ as an innovation of JC not present in MC. He presents the following: The /u/ in MC as a reduction vowel as a difference between MC and JC. MC tends to change the /a/ for /u/ -as in /krismus/ for Christmas, and /brókfus/ for breakfast, /fu pórpus/ for on purpose, /áatu/ after,/mushíin/ machine, /kòpukáafi/ cup of coffee.

Wells says, ―It must be an independent development in Montserrat; it is certainly not Irish‖ (p. 2).

Another finding of Wells is in terms of dropping of final /r/ by Jamaicans.

He

emphasizes: JC do not drop final /r/ but MC does: /staa/ star, (and similar as in bar,jar,etc) (p.

4).

Moreover, Wells found that: /Jaa/ is the MC pronunciation for jar (but different from JC /jar/ which is pronounced as /jaw/ ) (p. 4).

In terms of sounds omitted or cut at the end of the words (inflections), Wells found:

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―Final shortening and final r-deletion are the most striking phonological differences between MC and JC, but not found in IE‖ (p. 4).

Another observation of Wells in terms of differentiation of long and short /u/ consists of the following: Phonological differences between long vowels as in cook, book, took, hook, for short /u/, /(/-u:k/) could not be established as typical MC because they were shared with the rest of the region pronunciation (RP) like most varieties of English (p. 4).

The only phonological characteristic found by Wells which he considered an ―Irishism‖ was the existence of /ou/ variants the words cold and old sounding similar to goal, goat, /koul/, /oul/, /gguol/, /guot/ (p. 4), Wells sees them as examples of ―Hiberno English‖ (p.4), not as influences of IE.

In terms of syntax, no similarities between IE and MC were found in his study ―because the morphology and syntax of MC were also found typical of Creoles but not of Irish,‖ Wells concluded.

In terms of vocabulary, the only word identified as a sample of Irish origin was the word /ménsha/ or /ménshan/

referring to ―young female goat‖, also in the Gaelic Irish

minseach “goat” (p.5).

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Wells considered that:reached to the following: ―if there was any linguistic influence considered as the Irish contribution to Montserrat‖, it has certainly been very small. (p.

5).

He Wells concluded: ―Of the vaunted ‗soft Irish brogue‘, the Emerald Isle of the Caribbean retains barely the tiniest trace‖, (p.5).

A second study considered in this paper is the one conducted by Donald, Harman and A. Kenson (1997) in their book ―If Irish ran the World – Montserrat, 1630-1730‖. The most significant findings presented on this book are the following:

The presence of ―Black Irish Africans‖ with a slight Irish English pronunciation (pp.175184).

American and Scotthish influences on MC. They mentioned the findings of Wells (1980) concerning the word minseach referring to a ―female goat‖, which certainly had its origin ion the Irish Gaelic language upon Montserrat Creole and Montserrat English (MC, ME) (pp. 185-187).

They concluded that ME and MC are mostly influenced by the Dutch and American English, common to the Regional Creoles (RC) shared upon other English speaking islands of the Caribbean (p. 187).

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5- The future of Montserrat: reconstructing or disappearing?: My principal motive for writing this paper is because I believe that Montserrat may shortly experience language shift and death sh. Since nearly 11,000 inhabitants were forced to leave due to eruption of the Soufriere Volcano on September 18, 1996 and several hurricanes that hit the island. There are 8,400 in the island and other 7,000 who have gained theiremigrated to the United Kingdom and obtained citizenship.

Two questions which remain in my mind are the following: will the Montserratians be able to keep their characteristically MC language traits they had before their massive emigration to the UK when they return to the island? Is the MC English different from that spoken before 1996?

These two questions are essential to demonstrate how a

country, in this case, Montserrat, can reflect a very clear example of language transformation, shift, evolution, or in the worst of the cases, language death.

Since practically nofew books have recently been published to bring shed light onto the possible answers to these two questions, my paper is presented as a call for research.

There is a great need to study this Caribbean Island as an immediate case of language Comment [AP23]: You can cite Aceto & Williams (2002) regarding the need to study more Caribbean islands in terms of language.

revival if and when the country is reconstructed and re-populated.

6- Conclusion:

Montserrat, a British colony located at 40 kms. of Antigua in the

Leeward Islands in the Caribbean, is beginning to be reconstructed. The vVolcano which erupted on September 16, 1996 and other natural catastrophes such as hurricanes, have devastated the island. This small Caribbean island represents a possible source of

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information regarding language change, shift, revival

or in the worst of the cases,

language death. Two main linguistic studies are discussed in this paper: The brogue that isn't, by Wells, J.C., (University College London , 1980) and: If the Irish ran the World – Montserrat 1630-1730, by., Donald, Harman and, A Kenson . Liverpool University Press.( 1997).

An invitation is presented in this paper to gather information regarding English and Creoles spoken in this island. Samples of Montserrat Creole English have been presented in this paper as a model of MC spoken by civilians asking to be heard by the government during the success of the Soufriere Volcano eruption in 1996.

Finally, two questions have been brought to attention in this paper as a call for further research on Montserrat. The up-growing population at this island, from 4,000 who remained there after the catastrophical situation by 1996, there are 8,400 inhabitants at present. Possible changes in their MC could have been taking place. The call is for further research concerning on this matter.

Comment [AP24]: This is repetitive.

Bibliography on Montserrat IRISH, James A George – Life in a Colonial Crucible: Labor and Social Change in Montserrat, 1946-Present. (Plymouth: JAGPI Production.

Caribbean Research Center, (1991) Labor and Social Change in Montserrat 1946Present. New York.

Fergus, H. (1994) Montserrat: History of a Caribbean Colony, London : Macmillan Caribbean.

Harman, D. and , Kenson, A. (1997) If the Irish ran the World – Montserrat 1630-1730.

Liverpool University Press, pp 175-187

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Innanen, W. ( ). Condensed history of Montserrat. http://www.innanen.com/montserrat/history

Comment [AP25]: This page is based on Montserrat West Indies: A chronological history

by Marion M. Wheeler, published by The Montserrat National Trust, 1988. You should have acquired and cited this primary source.

Macmillan, (1994) Handbook of Latin American Studies Moyano Martin, D. Editor, Suel Mundell, P., Assistant Editor, (1996) The Handbook of Latin American Studies: HLAS. A paper written for SALALM's Annual Meeting (41st, New York City.

Wells, J.C., (1980) The brogue that isn't, published in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, vol. 10 74-79. University College London Wells, Robert V. (1975) The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776 Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Internet Articles and electronic addresses: Commonwealth Secretariat website: Montserrat.

Economy of Montserrat, CIA World Factbook, (2006).

Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress. Annual Handbook of Latin American Studies. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/hlas/ http://www.Ethnologue.com/ show_country.asp?name=MS http://www.montserratreporter.org/20_2004.htm [Jus Wonderin, A sample of Montserrat English Creole] http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/montserrat/resources/montserratsociety.html http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/caribbean/montserrat/essential http://hapi.gseis.ucla.edu. Hispanic American Periodical Index http://www.visitmontserrat.com

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Appendices

Samples of Montserrat Creole language:

As a sample of the Monserrat Creole

English, the website csited here: http://www.montserratreporter.org/20_2004.htm was visited. These samples were the product of telephone calls directed to the radio station broadcaster of Radio Montserrat ZJB, as representation ofby civilians asking for help and

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willing to be heard as the events of the Soufriere Volcano was were happening at their island. Here is just a sample: Jus wonderin why no more ministers don't come out an talk. Is friad dey friad so?

Jus wonderin why dis big, huge, large increase in duty for wines.

Jus wonderin if de powers dat be doh know dat is what a lotta de money-spenders does drink; like dem tourist and such.

Jus wonderin how come dey take aaf duty on some things like shrimp and ting because tourist like dem, but dey ehn leave nothing to wash it down with.

Jus wonderin if soon de Spanish dem will run Montserrat.

Jus wonderin if is a certain Gov. Official that giving them de authority or is it the law force.

Jus wonderin if there is no child endangerment law in Montserrat mek dem de group who dey say steal from Arrow was sent off to Antigua with de child.

Jus wonderin wha mek de chief always off island on official business and he never seem to be doing any big for de country.

Jus wonderin why de news report only mention de Guyanese and not de Montserratian.

Jus wonderin why it hard to say and what's new that a fellow Montserratian tryin to bring down another Montserratian.

These conversations are taken from: http://www.montserratreporter.org/20_2004.htm

Maps:

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28

http://www.ms/maps.htm

Flag:

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Coat of arms:

http://www.ms/history.htm

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For a detailed chronological history see Bill Innanen's "Condensed History of Montserrat". http://www.ms/history.htm

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Satellite and Aerial Pictures of Montserrat

Picture 1: Satellite photo taken on September 18, 1996 during the Soufreire Vocano eruption. (NASA, 2007).

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Picture 2: Aerial view of Montserrat after the volcano‘s eruption in 1996.

Pictures 3 and 4: Aerial view of the runway and city of Plymouth after 1996’s eruption of Soufreire Volcano.

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Music: Alphonsus Celestine Edmund Cassell MBE (born 16 November 1954, Montserrat, West Indies) is a soca musician who performs under the stage name Arrow.

One of his most well-known songs is "Hot Hot Hot" (1982) - later covered by David Johansen in his Buster Poindexter alter ego. Although native to Montserrat (and most famous representative of its music) Arrow attributes his success to his time in Antigua, and time spent with Antiguan bands such as Burning Flames.

Arrow continues to be much in demand in the Caribbean, and most recently performed at the Cricket World Cup 2007 opening ceremonies with Shaggy, Byron Lee and Kevin Lyttle.

Arrow's "Hot Hot Hot"

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One of his most well-known songs is "Hot Hot Hot" (1982)

Hot, hot, hot!

Ole ole - ole ole / Ole ole - ole ole EE-Yessa Ha-ha Ee-yes girls Me mind on fire -- Me soul on fire -- Feeling hot hot hot Party people -- All around me feeling hot hot hot What to do - On a night like this Music sweet - I can't resist We need a party song - A fundamental jam So we go rum-bum-bum-bum Yeah we rum-bum-bum-bum Feeling hot hot hot -- Feeling hot hot hot - oh Lord (me la la la lum bum bum) See people rocking -- Hear people chanting -- Feeling hot hot hot Keep up this spirit -- Come on let's do it -- Feeling hot hot hot It's in the air - Celebration time Music sweet - captivate your mind We have this party song - This fundamental jam So we go rum-bum-bum-bum Yeah we rum-bum-bum-bum Feeling hot hot hot -- Feeling hot hot hot - Oh Lord Ha-ha Ole ole - ole ole / Ole ole - ole ole Ole ole - ole ole / Ole ole - ole ole EE-yes girls People in the party - hot hot hot People in the party - hot hot hot They come to the party know what they got They come to the party know what they got I'm hot -- You're hot -- He's hot -- She's hot I'm hot -- You're hot -- He's hot -- She's hot

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(Real hot) -- (Real hot) -- (Real hot) -- (Real hot)H a-ha-ha - Oh Lord How you feeling? (Hot hot hot) How you feeling? (Hot hot hot) How you feeling? (Hot hot hot) How you feeling? (Hot hot hot) (Hot hot hot)(Hot hot hot) (Hot hot hot)(Hot hot hot) {repeat & fade}

(Courtesy of Dr. Alicia Pousada).

Taken from: http://www.lyricsandsongs.com/H/index.html

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