The Alps, A Natural Companion by Oxford Alpine Club

THE ALPS A Natural Companion Jim Langley & Paul Gannon With a Foreword by John Beatty

Geology | Flowers | Walks

THE ALPS A Natural Companion Geology | Flowers | Walks

Jim Langley & Paul Gannon

Oxford Alpine Club

The Alps, A Natural Companion

The Alps

A Natural Companion Geology | Flowers | Walks

By Jim Langley and Paul Gannon 1st Edition, October 2019

ISBN 978–1–913167–01–1 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Jim Langley and Paul Gannon have asserted their right under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the authors of this work. All uncredited photographs by Jim Langley and Paul Gannon. Graphics and design by Lina Arthur.

Cartography by GeoGraphics Some maps based on source data from www.openstreetmap.org. All rights reserved Other than in the case of brief quotations in reviews, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form without prior written permission from the publisher. The authors and publisher accept no responsibility for any injury or loss caused as a result of using this book. Images and text contained within this book do not necessarily represent the views or opinions of the Oxford Alpine Club. Front cover image: The Matterhorn, Switzerland.

The Authors

Paul Gannon

Jim Langley

Paul Gannon is a science and technology writer. He is the author of nine books, including the popular Rock Trails series about the geology and scenery of British hillwalking areas (Snowdonia, Lakeland, the Scottish Highlands, the Peak District, and South Wales). He also runs geology workshops in Snowdonia and the Lake District. www.paulgannonbooks.co.uk

Jim Langley is a specialist in alpine �lowers. He has a Master’s degree in conservation and land management, and holds the International Mountain Leader and Winter Mountain Leader quali�ications. He also runs Nature’s Work (www.natureswork.co.uk), an educational consultancy that provides a range of guided walks, training events, and bespoke outdoor learning programmes.

Acknowledgments

There are many people without whose support, assistance and guidance this book would not have been possible. Firstly, Pete Kay, who sparked my interest in alpine �lowers many years ago and, along with Hywel Roberts, shared a passion for exploring Snowdonian relict arctic-alpine �lower communities. I would also like to thank those whose technical knowledge and skills have proved invaluable, namely George Manley for his wonderful illustrations of �lowers and their structures, Professor John Good for checking �lower identi�ications and botanical names, John Rowell and Marion Waine for their assistance with photo-editing, and Rob Collister for his kindness in reading the ecology section and making useful suggestions but also for sharing in botanical forays. Finally, I would like to thank Edith Kreutner for joining me on walks in Austria and for supplying photos, along with Allan Hartley, of Austrian landscapes. JL I would like to thank Ali Rowsell, author of Switzerland’s Jura Crest Trail, for photos of the Jura and Julia Tregaskis-Allen of Tracks and Trails (www.tracks-and-trails.com) for photos of the Subalpine Chain. I am also grateful to Tim Matschak for his guidance on German terms, Reg Atherton for his advice on the Tour of Mont Blanc, and Dr Alison Parker for checking the geology section. Last but not least, I would like to thank Jim Langley for conceiving the idea of this book, and Lina Arthur and Steve Broadbent of the Oxford Alpine Club for enthusiastically taking up and expressing our idea. PG

The Alps, A Natural Companion

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Contents

Contents Foreword .................................................................................................................................... 6 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 8 SECTION I | GEOLOGY 1. The Geography of the Alps .......................................................................................... 11 2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps .................................................................................. 15 3. Sedimentary Rocks of the Alps ................................................................................... 21 4. Thrusting the Alps Upwards ........................................................................................ 29 5. Some Complexities........................................................................................................ 43 6. Mountains Come and Mountains Go ........................................................................ 49 7. Alpine Glaciation............................................................................................................ 59 SECTION II | AREA NOTES 8. The French Alps .............................................................................................................. 79 9. The Swiss Alps ................................................................................................................. 95 10. The Eastern Alps..........................................................................................................113 11. The Southern Alps ......................................................................................................119 SECTION III | FLOWERS 12. Life in the Alpine Zone ..............................................................................................125 13. The Alpine Environment ...........................................................................................135 14. The Uses of Alpine Plants ..........................................................................................145 15. Flower Identification Guide......................................................................................151 SECTION IV | WALKS 16. Walks .............................................................................................................................235 Glossary of Botanical Terms..................................................................................................284 Glossary of Geological Terms ...............................................................................................286 Bibliography of Ecology Sources.........................................................................................289 Bibliography of Geology Sources........................................................................................290 Index ..........................................................................................................................................292 Index of Flowers ......................................................................................................................296

The Alps, A Natural Companion

Foreword High above the Bondasca Valley of Bregaglia, night mist whispered through the trees. In the thin beams of our head torches a narrow pathway led steeply upward through boulders, shadows, dry cones and needles, cushion mosses and draping lichens, up and up to the forest’s edge. In the aromatic savour of mountain pine, memories �lowed with us through the darkness. With shortening breaths and heavy packs, we were reminded on this relentless trail that mountains are big, and mountains are alive.

Dawn, and searing rays pierced the forest canopy to herald our emergence into the vast amphitheatre below the Piz Badile. Huge rock ridges, walls and spires of granite �illed the sky. Shielding our eyes, we gazed aloft, scanning the intricate climb ahead. The dark trees had released us into the luminous intensity of mountain space and light.

As we rested for a while in the warming sun, birdsong echoed from the now distant woodlands. Amongst the open hillocks and rock slabs around us, dense carpets of alpine �lowers were drying from the night-time dew. Their petals, moving now in the mountain breeze, lent a sense of transitory glory beneath the might and drama of the great peaks. We began to look closely. Goldenrod, snowbells, orchids, lilies, and avens, forms of in�inite variety were clinging to life in the rich, glacial clays of these high mountains. A peregrine falcon, drifting in vapours a thousand feet higher, spied for rock partridge in nearby screes. From this high alp we looked out across peaks and valleys at Europe still in shadow, into the teeming throngs of humanity, the commerce, art, science and structures of our age, gladdened to be here for a short while, resting amongst quiet natural forces.

Foreword

Stemless gentians flourish in the alpine sun below Col de Torrent, with the summits of Grand Cornier and Dent Blanche in the distance.

For me, a mountain experience has always been about looking and wondering. ‘Connecting with nature’ is a much-used phrase these days, but how? The nature writer Henry David Thoreau would have advised us to resign ourselves to the in�luences of the earth. To connect. Often to understand a single fragment of the whole is most invigorating and leads us, over a lifetime, to understand relationships between all living things and forces. After all, it is the relationships of things that ultimately hold the human imagination. And it is here in our living mountain landscapes that we are most exposed to fragile life forms, and tectonic and climatic forces. In these explorations and moments of wonder, we may �ind our sense of place in the world. Looking makes me curious. Wondering helps me imagine. In this lovely book, Jim Langley and Paul Gannon piece together the fragments that help us to understand the sheer diversity and wealth of our alpine world.

In the month of June, I accompanied Jim into the heart of a high cwm in the mountains of North Wales, in search of one of Britain’s rarest relict alpine �lower species, the Snowdon lily, Gagea serotina. On this day of blasting rain and gushing streams, we scrambled through crags and boulders in the hope of witnessing this elusive and fragile tiny form of life. After some hours I lay in the soggy moss, bridged precariously across a small fern-�illed chasm, and looked closely at this tiniest wonder, less than two centimetres in height. I didn’t see a half-closed, bedraggled plant; I saw only what it meant to me… a delicate and simple �lower living in an ancient, glaciated world of gothic peaks. A spectacular representative of this living mountain. I closed my eyes and saw the golden peaks of Bregaglia, and knew that the Alps awaited. John Beatty

Bamford, October 2019

The Alps, A Natural Companion

The steely blue flowers of queen of the Alps, Col du Lauteret, Écrins National Park, French Alps.

Introduction The Alps are one of the world’s great mountain ranges, containing a variety and density of geology, scenery and plant life that enthralls millions of people every year. Iconic peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn and the Eiger are among Europe’s greatest natural wonders. Though a few roads and railways cross the Alps, skiing infrastructure litters some lower slopes, and scores of alpine huts are rooted high in the mountains, the Alps remain an authentic natural landscape at the heart of a densely populated continent. The Alps have an amazing geological story to tell. Over the last 100 million years, continents and oceans became mixed up in the collision of the European and African

continents. The underlying rocks were crumpled, folded and transformed into massive mountains. The result is a complex mixture of many different rock types and a variety of geological features. Glacial erosion then carved the mountains into the present landscape. Despite the challenging climatic conditions, the Alps are also home to a stunning array of wild �lowers, which turn a summer visit into a glorious romp through a vibrant world of colour. This book is aimed at the visitor to the Alps who would like to learn a bit more about the natural history of this exceptionally beautiful and easily accessible mountain realm.

Introduction

Ibex grazing outside the Britannia Hut in the Swiss Alps; Hohlaub Glacier in the background.

The �irst section outlines and clari�ies the complex geological story, before looking in more detail at the geology of the most popular areas of the Alps and some speci�ic natural wonders.

The Alps are often said to be a particularly complex mountain range, but this may only seem to be the case because the Alps have been more intensely studied than any other range. This book aims to provide a comprehensible insight into these mountains, which is accessible to the general reader. No special geological knowledge is needed and technical language is kept to a minimum. There is some jargon, such as ‘plate tectonics’ and the like, but everything is explained in straightforward language.

The second section outlines the varied adaptations that allow Alpine plants to survive in this extreme environment. It also provides a plant identi�ication guide covering over 300 of the plants found in the Alpine range. The guide is organised by the colour of the �lowers and is arranged to make it as easy as possible to identify them. As in the geology section, technical language is avoided where possible. Glossaries of technical geological and botanical terms are provided on page 284 and page 286 for handy reference. The third section outlines 20 walks, ranging from fairly easy half-day strolls to more demanding multi-day trips, among some of the very best Alpine scenery, where you can see the geology and, at the right time of year, the spectacular �lowers of the Alps.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology Dorfer Tal in the Granatspitzengruppe (granite summit group). The pyramid-shaped mountain in the background is Medelzkopf (2761m). Photo: Edith Kreutner

SECTION I

GEOLOGY 10

1. Geography of the Alps

Photo 1.0 | The Matterhorn viewed from the summit of Pigne d’Arolla in the early morning light.

1. The Geography of the Alps Overview De�ining where the Alps begin and end is rather arbitrary. The Alps are part of a chain of mountain ranges running from the Pyrenees, the Betic Cordillera in Spain and the North African Atlas mountains in the west, via the Alps themselves, to the Carpathians and Dinarides, and beyond into the Zagros mountains and the Himalaya. All these mountain ranges are relatively young geologically and were (and indeed still are being) created following the break

up of a supercontinent, Pangaea, which existed some 250 million years ago (around the time of the dinosaurs).

In this book we have focused on the geology and �lowers of the traditional Alpine range, which stretches about 1,200 kilometres from France in the west, via Switzerland (and Liechtenstein), Italy and Germany, to Austria in the east, just reaching into Slovenia in the south-east (see page 4 for overview maps). From north to south the distance is much less – the Alps are between 150 and 200 kilometres wide.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology

Photo 1.1 | Panorama of the French–Italian border on the Mont Blanc massif. Left–right: Aiguille Savoie, Pointe Isabelle, Aiguille Rouge de Triolet, Aiguille de Triolet and Mont Dolent.

The Alpine range forms an elongated arc. This is most evident in the Western Alps, where the range runs roughly north–south, while near the French–Swiss border it is more clearly on an east–west axis, with a northwest–south-east axis running into Slovenia.

When thinking about the Alps, we should also remember the areas to the north and south of the Alps proper. North of the Swiss Alps lies the Swiss Mittelland (middle land), while north of the Austrian and German Alps is the Swabian–Bavarian High Plain (Schwäbische–bayerischen Hochebene). To the south, in Italy, lies the Po Basin. These are all comparatively low-lying areas or basins, where vast quantities of material eroded from the Alpine mountains have been deposited.

Further north, the relatively low Jura mountains are really the outermost part of the Alpine range and were created by the same compressive forces. However, the Jura formed comparatively recently – 5 million years ago.

Depending on the area measured, the Alps cover about 200,000 square kilometres of Central Europe, of which 110,000 square kilometres are higher than 2,000 metres. Austria accounts for some 35% of the Alpine mountain area, Italy for 23%, France for 20%, Switzerland and Liechtenstein combined for 13%, Germany for 5% and Slovenia for 2%. The summit of Mont Blanc, near where the French, Swiss and Italian borders meet, is the highest point in the range at 4,810 metres. It is one of 128 Alpine peaks that are higher than 4,000 metres. Most of these mega-peaks are found in the Mont Blanc massif and in the Aar massif in Central Switzerland, though others are found in the Écrins, Gran Paradiso, Monte Rosa and Piz Bernina areas. They are formed from a group of very tough rocks, which are known as ancient crystalline basement rocks.

1. Geography of the Alps In general, the further east one travels, the lower the mountains are in height, though there are exceptions to this in the Ortler Alps and the Hohe Tauern in the Eastern Alps.

Alpine Rivers

One notable feature of the geography of the Central Alps in Switzerland is that the two main rivers, the Rhine and the Rhône, start very close to each other, but end up emptying their waters into the North Sea and the Mediterranean respectively.

The Rhône rises west of the Furka Pass, initially �lowing west, while the Rhine rises east of the Oberalp Pass and initially �lows east. Both rivers run along the same boundary between geological zones of the Alps on an east–west axis. This boundary was created by a huge chunk of the African continent pushing northwards into Europe, piling up the rocks before it like a bulldozer. We can loosely imagine the rocks being pushed up

in slow-moving, linear waves, with one wave of rocks being piled up on top of another (see Chapter 4). This geological feature has determined the patterns of travel and settlement in the core of the Alps, as well as the drainage routes.

Eventually, both rivers curve north – the Rhône at Martigny and the Rhine at Chur. The rivers cut through the main Alpine range by exploiting geological features. The Rhine picks its way north roughly along the boundary between the different geologies of the Swiss Alps and the Eastern Alps, while the Rhône exploits a weakened area of rock created during the mountain-building phase to bear northwards. Similarly, the Inn, Mur (Mürz) and Drau in the Eastern Alps have noticeable linear sections that run parallel to the long axis of the Alpine range. In contrast, the Po, which drains the Southern Alps, �lows towards the Adriatic without the linear diversion of the other rivers.

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Map 1.1 | The Alps and the Po Basin.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology Human Geography The term ‘Alps’ derives from the label used for the alpine pastures that were tilled by generations of hardy mountaindwellers who lived wherever they could �ind adequate space for crops and grazing. When men of science �irst started enquiring of the locals about the names of peaks and pointing upwards, the farmers usually offered the name of their pastures rather than the peaks, and so the name ‘Alps’ grew to cover the whole mountain range. The Alps constitute a tremendous physical barrier between Northern and Southern Europe, though the mountain range has also played a unifying role in European history. The Alps are a symbol of Europe, as well as its best known and most loved mountain range.

Trekking, climbing, skiing and many other physical activities take place in the mountains, as does a great deal of less active tourism, aided by a plethora of mechanical means of gaining height and the enviable railway systems, particularly in Switzerland. Today, the Alps face many challenges due to environmental changes. Due to climate change, the glacial ice cover in the Alps is melting, with potentially signi�icant consequences for those who live and work there, as well as for the thousands of visitors who �lock to see the mountains’ rocky majesty. For overview maps of the Alps, see page 4.

For more detailed maps of the French, Swiss, Eastern and Southern Alps, see pages 79, 95, 113 and 119.

Despite being one of the world’s smaller mountain areas, the Alps are the most densely populated mountain range on Earth. Today, the Alps are home to 14 million people (about the same as London and the south-east of England combined). The bulk of the Alpine population lives in the main valleys that cut deep into the mountains. A score of different dialects, including Occitan, Romansch and Ladin, are spoken in the Alps, though the most common languages are German, French and Italian.

The Alps are one of Europe’s most popular playgrounds. Some estimates suggest that as many as 120 million separate visits are made by tourists to the Alps every year, totalling some 220 million overnight stays. However, these visits are very unevenly distributed, as visitors congregate in the most popular areas, such as Chamonix, Grindelwald and Zermatt.

Photo 1.2 | The early eastward-flowing waters of the Rhine, passing through the Rhine Gorge.

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps

Photo 2.0 | The ancient crystalline massif of the Aiguilles Rouges.

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps The creation of the Alpine mountains was not a single event. Rather, it was a long, drawnout series of processes lasting many tens of millions of years. The choice of when to start this account of the process of creating the Alpine rocks and then pushing them up into a mountain range is thus fairly arbitrary. In fact, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a bit like stepping onto a conveyor belt at some random midpoint on its journey. Most geological accounts of the Alps begin about 300 million years ago, when great swathes of sedimentary rocks, particularly limestone,

were laid down in warm, shallow seas (see page 24). These rocks now form some of the most dramatically shaped mountains in the Alpine mountain range, such as the Helvetic Alps in the Central and Western Alps, and the Dolomites in the Southern Alps. However, these rocks were laid down on top of a basement of preexisting rocks, known as ancient crystalline rocks, which were later thrust upwards and now constitute many of the highest points in the Alps,

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology including the Mont Blanc and Aar massifs. In the context of the Alps, ‘ancient’ can mean anything more than 300 million years old and some of these rocks are around 800 million years old (though even this is fairly young in geological terms, given that the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).

It would clearly be remiss of any author writing about the geology of the Alps not to cover the origins of the rocks of the Mont Blanc massif, so to avoid leaping backwards to incorporate the earlier rocks, this account starts somewhat earlier in the Earth’s history, around 600 million years ago. Starting so long ago also allows us to introduce some basic concepts of geological theory, especially regarding plate tectonics, that are directly relevant to the creation of the Alps.

Plate Tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics was one of the great scienti�ic revolutions of the twentieth century and is fundamental to our understanding of how mountain ranges like the Alps are built.

The basic concept is that the Earth’s surface is divided into a number of independent but interlocking tectonic plates, which move (quite slowly, at a rate of a couple of centimetres per year) around the globe. The plates can slide past one another (as they do along the great San Andreas fault zone on the west coast of North America), pull away from one another (as is happening in the African Rift Valley and also, out of sight, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean), or they can collide, crashing into each other.

Many interesting things happen at these collision points, especially mountain building. Today, this is most obvious in the Himalaya, where the Indian continent is crashing into the Asian continent at a rate of about 5 to 10 centimetres per year.

To put it simply, the Alps resulted from part of the proto-African continent crashing into the proto-European continent. This process started about 100 million years ago but its most intense phase was 40 to 25 million years ago. This collision is still going on today, but much less intensely. The southern margins of the Alps are being pushed north-west at a rate of about 1.2 millimetres per year, while their northern limits are moving in the same direction at just 0.7 millimetres per year. This means that the Alps are still contracting by about 0.5 millimetres per year as the collision pushes the Alps upwards. However, destruction of the mountains (through weathering and erosion) is happening more rapidly than they are currently being pushed upwards.

The Structure of the Earth

To understand why tectonic plates move around the Earth, and how this causes mountain building, we need to look brie�ly at the structure of the Earth. The Earth’s core is extremely hot. This heat moves slowly up through the next layer of the Earth, the mantle. The mantle makes up about 60% of the Earth’s volume and extends from the core to close to the Earth’s surface.

The mantle is solid not molten, but since it is close to its melting temperature, it is ductile

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps

Tectonic plates

the layer of the Earth that we know and exist upon, and will be the focus of our discussion of the Alpine mountain-building processes.

Crust Lithospheric mantle Mantle

To be strictly accurate, we should note that the tectonic plates are made up of both the crust and the outermost layer of the mantle (the lithospheric mantle). We can largely ignore this, because we will mainly be focusing on processes in the crust. However, the lithospheric mantle will occasionally be mentioned.

Liquid outer core Solid inner core

Diagram 2.1 | The composition and internal structure of the Earth.

(i.e. it can be deformed without being fractured). This means that heat can �low through the mantle in great convection currents, moving heat towards the surface. It is thought that it is these convection currents that move the tectonic plates (see Diagram 2.2). The outermost layer of the Earth is known as the crust. It is cool and brittle. The crust is

There are two types of crust – oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is found under oceans; continental crust constitutes the continents and the shallow seabed beside them. The key difference is that oceanic crust is thinner and more dense than continental crust. Oceanic crust is only about 8 kilometres thick, whereas continental crust can be anything between 20 and 80 kilometres thick. As we shall see, the difference in the density of the two types of crust is signi�icant in the processes that created the Alpine mountain range.

Eruption of lava below sea level creates new oceanic crust which spreads out in both directions

Continental plate

Oceanic plate

Convection currents in the ductile rock of the mantle move rock and heat towards the surface

Oceanic crust and upper mantle (tectonic plate) subducts when it meets continental crust

Continental plate

Subducted plate is ‘recycled’ and carried down by convection currents

Diagram 2.2 | Oceanic and continental plates.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology The Creation of Metamorphic Crystalline Rocks About 600 million years ago a long, drawn-out process was under way that led, by about 300 million years ago, to the creation of a single massive continent called Pangaea. As the continental plates bunched together to form the supercontinent, they were involved in several collisions, which produced mountain ranges (though this was many millions of years before the Alps were created). The mountain-building episodes that occurred during the creation of Pangaea produced the ancient crystalline metamorphic rocks that formed the basement on which later Alpine rocks were laid down.

When two continents collide, the rocks in the area are crumpled and pushed upwards to form mountains. However, the mountainbuilding zone doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t just extend upwards. In fact, it also stretches downwards, thickening the crust substantially and creating a massive deep zone, many times deeper than the mountains are high.

Within this deep zone the pressures and temperatures reach high levels and existing rocks may as a result undergo some form of transformation or metamorphosis, such as recrystallisation, in which the mineral Continental plates move towards each other as oceanic plate is subducted away

Continental plate

Subducting oceanic plate

Even as the mountains are being built, weathering and erosion of the mountain range above sea level reduce the weight on the deep zone. As the mountains are reduced in height, their deep roots (and the metamorphic rocks formed there) move upwards towards the surface and form the lower part of the crust.

Mountain-building Episodes

There were three major episodes of mountain building which created the metamorphic crystalline rocks. The Cadomian mountain-building episode occurred around 600 million years ago. The Caledonian was a period of mountain building from 450 million years ago until 400 million years ago. The Variscan mountain-building phase (previously known as the Hercynian) extended from 350 to 300 million years ago. The areas created during the Variscan phase include the rocks of the Vosges, the Black Forest and the Massif Central on the northern and north-western margins of Continental plates collide and mountain building occurs Mountain ranges

Continental plate

Diagram 2.3 | Plate collisions and mountain building.

crystals that make up the rock are changed into different minerals. Metamorphosis (see page 46) is one of two processes that result in the formation of crystalline rocks, the other being igneous activity.

Continental plate

Continental plate Suture

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps the present-day Alps, as well as a lot of the ancient crystalline rocks of the Alps proper. As a result, today Variscan metamorphic rocks occupy vast areas of the Eastern, Central and Western Alps (though not the Southern Alps). The rock types include gneiss, schist, quartzite and many other types of metamorphic rock.

The Creation of Igneous Crystalline Rocks

The Variscan mountain-building episode also led to the melting of sections of the continental crust at the base of the thickened crust. This was a form of igneous activity as it involved the melting of the rocks. The molten rock rose some of the way towards the surface, slowly losing heat and solidifying into the crystalline rock we call granite. This granite, created 305 to 315 million years ago, can be found in several places in the Alps, in particular the greater part of the Mont Blanc massif and much of the Aar massif. The granite intruded itself into the earlier metamorphic rock so the Alpine basement consists of both metamorphic rocks and granite, an igneous rock.

Photo 2.1 | Metamorphic crystalline rock – Aiguilles Rouges gneiss.

Photo 2.2 | Metamorphic crystalline rock – schist.

The later Alpine mountain-building episode that occurred between 40 and 45 million years ago pushed some of these ancient crystalline basement rocks up to the surface, where they became the upper crust. Today, ancient crystalline rocks comprise about 50% of the surface of the Alps.

Photo 2.3 | Igneous crystalline rock – granite.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology

Rock Types Igneous rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

Igneous rocks are created from molten rock or magma which forms beneath the Earth’s surface. The magma is either erupted by volcanoes onto the surface (as lava or as great clouds of hot, pyroclastic fragments) or intruded upwards into existing rock below the surface.

Sedimentary rocks (see Chapter 3) are mainly created by the weathering and erosion of preexisting igneous or metamorphic rocks. These eroded sediments are carried down and deposited in seas and oceans where they are transformed into sedimentary rocks, most commonly sandstone and mudstone.

As it cools, the magma usually solidifies into crystalline form. Faster cooling on the Earth’s surface creates finer crystals and produces rocks such as rhyolite; slower cooling below the Earth’s surface creates larger crystals and results in rocks such as granite. Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are created by the transformation (or metamorphosis) of previously existing rocks. These may be igneous, sedimentary or come from a previous metamorphic event; some may even have experienced several episodes of metamorphosis. Metamorphosis results when those preexisting rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure in a mountain-building zone. This often recrystallises existing minerals into different ones, creating different types of crystalline rock. For example, limestone can be metamorphosed into marble; sandstone can be changed into quartzite. Many different types of metamorphic rock can be created, depending on the original rock type, the temperatures and pressures to which it is subject, and the duration of the process (see page 46).

There are two other major types of sedimentary rock. Limestone forms from calcium carbonate-rich material on the seabed in warm, shallow seas. This is most commonly the bones and shells of marine organisms which are deposited and compacted on the seabed. Evaporites are sedimentary rocks that are created when seawater evaporates in coastal lagoon environments, leaving salts that form rocks such as gypsum. Evaporites are quite weak rocks and were often involved in the thrusting (see Chapter 4) that occurred during the Alpine mountainbuilding episode.

3. Sedimentary Rocks of the Alps

Photo 3.0 | Sedimentary rocks of the Faulhorn massif, Swiss Alps.

3. Sedimentary Rocks of the Alps In the previous chapter we saw that the continents had collected into a single supercontinent, Pangaea, and that the continental collisions which occurred during its long, drawn-out assembly involved several mountain-building episodes.

During these upheavals, previously existing rocks were transformed (metamorphosed) by heat and pressure deep in mountainbuilding zones. Other crystalline rocks, in particular granite, were formed by melting and subsequent cooling of the lowest part

of the crust. Around 300 million years ago, these rocks formed the upper part of the crust in the continental zone of the future European continent.

The Break-up of Pangaea

By 250 million years ago, Pangaea was just about fully formed as a single, global supercontinent, but after just a few tens of millions of years of unity the slowly assembled supercontinent began equally slowly to break up. By about 200 million years ago the

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology The Creation of Continental Rocks

Tethys Ocean Gondwana

Diagram 3.1 | The supercontinent Pangaea begins to break up into two parts – Laurasia and Gondwana. The Tethys Ocean spreads into the gap between them.

southern part of Pangaea, Gondwana (containing proto-Africa, proto-South America, proto-Australasia and proto-Antarctica), had started to shear off from the northern part, Laurasia (containing proto-North America, proto-Europe and proto-Asia), creating a narrow gap between the two dividing halves of Pangaea. As the gap widened, an ocean (called the Tethys Ocean by geologists) spread into it, gradually increasing in size as the gap continued to grow. This expanding ocean and the seas on its continental margins were the environment in which the sedimentary rocks were created from continental rocks over many millions of years. To understand how sedimentary rocks are created, we must �irst look at what they are created from – continental rocks. European upper crust

When two tectonic plates start to pull away from each other, the plates are stretched and thinned, falling below sea level. Eventually they are pulled apart, allowing the mantle rocks below to come up almost to the sub-sea surface. As the stretching continues, the pressure near the surface falls, which lowers the melting point of the mantle rocks. This causes the uppermost mantle rocks to melt and become magma, which erupts as outpourings of lava along the line at which the two plates are pulling apart (see Diagram 3.2). Since these eruptions occur below sea level, the water rapidly quenches the hot lava and it cools to create a rock type called basalt, often in a form known as pillow lava. Over time, the once-new basalt moves further and further away from where it formed as the ocean continues to widen. The eruptions are thus creating new oceanic plate under the widening ocean. When the widening oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the thin, dense oceanic crust is forced down below the thicker, less dense (and thus more buoyant) continental crust. This is known as subduction (see Diagram 3.3). In effect, the basaltic crust is recycled by being pulled back down into the mantle. This means that oceanic

Tethys Ocean

European lower crust Lithospheric mantle

African upper crust African lower crust

Magma

Lithospheric mantle Mantle

New oceanic plate Diagram 3.2 | New oceanic plate is created as the plates pull apart.

Tectonic plate

Laurasia

3. Sedimentary Rocks of the Alps Volcanic eruptions Material is scraped off the descending oceanic plate and accumulates

Molten magma rises towards the surface Ocean

Lithospheric mantle

Continental crust Sub

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Lithospheric mantle

tion

Mantle

Water is released and rocks melt, creating magma

Continental plate

Oceanic plate

Oceanic crust

Cooling lava and pyroclastic fragments solidify into new rocks

Mantle

Diagram 3.3 | Subduction of oceanic plate and accumulation of material at the edge of continental plate.

crust never becomes more than about 200 million years old before it is subducted.

Continents, because they are lighter, are not usually subducted. This means they can be any age, from brand new to incredibly ancient. There are several places on Earth, including Scotland, Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada and Australia, where some rocks are over 3 billion years old (only 1.4 billion years younger than the Earth itself). Continental rock accumulates over time. It is created by two processes related to subduction (see Diagram 3.3). First, some of the subducting oceanic plate may be scraped off as the plate descends. Such ‘rescued’ oceanic rock can be found in a few places in the Alps, including near Zermatt.

Second, the subducting plate drags water down with it, releasing it below the plate where it reduces the melting temperature of the rocks, creating molten magma. Since magma is less dense than cool, solid rocks, it rises towards the surface, melting some of the surrounding rocks as it goes. Eventually

the magma erupts from volcanoes as lava and pyroclastic fragments, which create new continental rocks as they cool.

When the continents are pushed up above sea level by the subducting oceanic plate, they become subject to weathering and erosion. These processes create sediments which collect and are compacted into sedimentary rocks, laid down on the continents’ fringes in shallow seas.

Oceans and Seas

The terms ocean and sea have different meanings for geologists. An ocean is underlain by oceanic crust, while a sea lies over continental crust. The low-lying portion of a continental plate beneath the sea is called a continental shelf. Continental crust may extend hundreds of kilometres below sea level, but is distinguished from oceanic crust by the nature of the tectonic plates. Oceanic crust is thin and dense, while continental crust is thick and less dense, because they are created differently (see page 22).

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Roc de la Pêche Petit Mont Blanc Dents de la Portetta Limestone

Limestone

Gypsum

Photo 8.18 | Petit Mont Blanc is formed of a mass of gypsum and surrounded by limestone and dolomite.

The Vanoise even has a mountain peak, Petit Mont Blanc, which stands between two peaks of limestone and dolomite but is made entirely of gypsum. The name refers to the fact that the gypsum is white and has nothing to do with its famous namesake.

The third zone is known as the Houillère and is made up of sedimentary rocks originally laid down in the Carboniferous and Permian Periods (between 350 and 250 million years ago). These were mainly sandstones but

also include some black schists with plant fossils, and some coal measures (hence the name Houillère – ‘coal mine’). These sedimentary rocks were metamorphosed during the Alpine mountain-building episode. There are also some basement crystalline rocks which were originally metamorphosed more than 300 million years ago and then again during the Alpine mountainbuilding episode.

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ITALY Map 9.0 | The Swiss Alps.

9. The Swiss Alps Grindelwald Area Overview The area around Grindelwald contains some of the best-known Alpine scenery, including one of the most famous peaks, the mighty Eiger, whose notoriously dif�icult north face (Eigerwand) was �irst climbed in 1938. The Eiger is one of a trio of impressive peaks within a larger group of mountains

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9. The Swiss Alps

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on the northern edge of the Aar massif. Both Jungfrau (4,158m) and Mönch (4,107m) exceed 4,000 metres and the North Wall (Nordwand) of the Aar massif is one of the most impressive rock structures in the Alps.

Although the Eiger is only 3,967 metres in height, it dominates the view of the great northern �lank of the Aar massif from Kleine Scheidegg to Grosse Scheidegg, 14 kilometres to the north-east.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes Eiger Glacier

Summit of the Eiger

MÖnch (4099m)

Jungfrau (4158m)

The classic ascent route Eiger Wall Station

Eroded former glacial channel

Photo 9.1 | The North Face of the Eiger and the classic ascent route.

Photo 9.2 | The North Wall (Nordwand) of the Aar massif.

A cogwheel train from Grindelwald calls at Kleine Scheidegg before entering a tunnel carved through the Eiger (complete with viewing windows) and climbing up to the Jungfraujoch col (3,466m) between Jungfrau and Mönch, giving tourists an easy trip to the snow-covered reaches of the Aar massif.

Formation The Aar massif, like the sedimentary rocks to its north (with the exception of some minor klippen of Penninic rock), is part of the Helvetic tectonic unit and originated in the Helvetic realm.

Ancient metamorphic basement rocks (gneiss) Alpine intrusions (granite) Helvetic sedimentary rocks (limestone & mudstone) Penninic rocks Penninic thrust line (barbs point to the direction from which the thrust is coming)

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Brig Map 9.1 | The geology of the Aar and Gotthard massifs.

Gotthard Massif

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9. The Swiss Alps Like the Mont Blanc massif, the Aar massif consists largely of ancient metamorphic rocks – gneiss dating from about 350 million years ago and granite from about 300 million years ago. These basement rocks were subsequently thrust upwards from the lower crust of the European continent and are now exposed on the surface. The northern sedimentary rocks, however, formed as the upper crust of the continent, just as the Subalpine Chain sedimentary rocks did in the Mont Blanc/Aiguilles Rouges area.

The Aar massif is also similar to the Mont Blanc massif in having a smaller crystalline massif running parallel with it, the Gotthard massif. The Gotthard massif lies on the Aar’s south-eastern �lank, just as the Aiguilles Rouges massif lies on the Mont Blanc massif’s north-western �lank.

However, when we look at a tectonic map, we can see a major difference between the Aar/Gotthard and the Mont Blanc/Aiguilles Rouges massifs, namely that the former are considerably larger than the latter. Though their widths are fairly similar (the combined Aar and Gotthard massifs are nearly 30 kilometres wide and the Mont Blanc/Aiguilles Rouges are about 20 kilometres wide), the Aar massif is well over 110 kilometres long, while the Mont Blanc massif is only about 50 kilometres long. The size of the Aar and Gotthard massifs means that they are more complex than their south-western counterparts and consist of several mountain ranges covering a substantial area.

The area to the north and north-west of Grindelwald is another Helvetic tectonic unit, the Axen thrust. It contains some limited outcrops of limestone but consists largely of detrital sedimentary rocks such Wetterhorn (3701m)

Main Helvetic Thrusts – Mudstone and limestone were thrust over the crystalline rocks of the Aar massif

Aar massif Crystalline rocks (gneiss) (gneiss)

Faulhorn massif

Grosse Scheidegg

Limestone (Early Cretaceous and Late Jurassic)

Mettenberg (3104m)

Axen nappe mudstone and limestone (Tertiary and Middle Jurassic)

Grindelwald Photo 9.3 | The geology of the North Wall of the Aar Massif in the Grindelwald area.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes as mudstone. These rocks are much less resistant to erosion than the limestone and crystalline rocks of the Aar massif, so there is a sharp difference (of about 1,500–2,000 metres) in the height of the landscape between the peaks of the Aar massif and those of the Axen nappe massif. Some substantial landslides, Imberg and Gummi, are visible in these softer rocks just north of Kleine Scheidegg on the Lauberhorn/Tschuggen/Männlichen ridge. The track from Kleine Scheidegg to Männlichen curves into one of these landslide areas, Imberg, giving excellent views of the back scar and the hummocky landscape created by the collapsed material (see pages 56–57). The rocks of the Axen nappe have undergone intense thrusting and folding to create some exceptionally dramatic rock structures which can be seen on the Faulhorn massif.

Further north and west, on the outer edges of the Alpine area, there are some klippen (see page 41) which are the isolated remains of Penninic thrusts which once would have covered all the Helvetic rocks (both the crystalline and the sedimentary rocks) but due to

Photo 9.4 | The Faulhorn massif.

erosion are now disconnected from the main Penninic rocks to the south. Glacial Features

The Aar massif is home to the Aletsch Glacier complex, the largest single glacier system in the Alps, which covers over 80 square kilometres and is currently about 23 kilometres in length (in 1870 it was 3.2 kilometres longer). The accumulation area and junction of several glaciers feeding into the Aletsch Glacier can be observed from the Jungfraujoch. This con�luence of several glaciers (Grosse Aletsch�irn, Jungfrau�irn, Ewigschnee�irn and Grünegg�irn) is known as Konkordiaplatz and the ice here is about 950 metres deep.

The tip of the glacier can be seen by ascending from the Upper Rhône Valley to viewpoints on Moos�luh, Bettmerhorn and Eggishorn.

Smaller glaciers, such as the Eiger Glacier and the Upper and Lower Grindelwald Glaciers, �low northwards between the main peaks of the massif. These glaciers are visibly shrinking; obvious signs of their contraction include rockfalls (see page 66).

Photo 9.5 | Abandoned moraine on the melted portion of the Eiger Glacier (top left).

9. The Swiss Alps

Photo 9.6 | The accumulation zone of the Aletsch Glacier seen from Jungfraujoch.

Near to Grindelwald, in the Lauterbrunnen Valley, is one of the most impressive U-shaped glacial valleys. The narrow valley was carved out in the height of the last ice age by several glaciers from the Se�intal, Lauterbrunnen and Kleine Scheidegg areas, which converged and combined their cutting

power to create the dramatic vertical valley sides. Today the Se�intal glaciers have all melted and glacial retreat has left the valley ice-free, though Tschingel�irn/Kander�irn, Tellinggletscher/Inner Talgletscher and the Breithorngletscher are still active glaciers in the upper Lauterbrunnen area.

Photo 9.7 | Lauterbrunnen – a classic U-shaped glacial valley.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Photo 9.8 | The Matter Valley with Zermatt in the centre.

Zermatt Area Overview The Swiss Alpine town of Zermatt, located towards the head of the Matter Valley (Mattertal), is one of the most popular tourist locations in the Alps, largely because it sits at the foot of the Matterhorn. The Matterhorn is one of the Alps’ most iconic mountains due to its classic, pyramidal mountain shape. It is also one of the highest mountains in the Alps, with a summit height of 4,478 metres, which is a massive 2,862 metres above Zermatt.

Few of the tens of thousands of visitors to Zermatt and the surrounding area are aware that the Matterhorn, possibly Europe’s most famous mountain, is actually made largely from rocks derived from the African continent and from an ocean that used to lie between the African and European continents. To �ind rocks derived from the European continent proper, one has to look at the base of the Matterhorn rather than its shapely middle and upper reaches. The Matterhorn is on the Swiss–Italian border, and is called Monte Cervino in Italian

African continental rocks Oceanic rocks European continental rocks Photo 9.9 | The Matterhorn (peak in the meadows) is famous for its striking pyramid shape. Its four sides face north, south, east and west.

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European continental rocks

Diagram 9.1 | The Matterhorn is mainly made up of rocks from the African tectonic plate thrust onto rocks of the European plate.

9. The Swiss Alps

Matterhorn (4477m) Dent Blanche (4356m)

Obergabelhorn (4062m)

Zinalrothorn (4221m)

Weisshorn (4505m)

Dent Blanche nappe

Ocean floor rocks and schist

Triassic sedimentary rocks

Photo 9.10 | Geology of the Zermatt area.

and Mont Cervin in French. The border runs along the skyline seen in Photo 9.14 (page 103), above the small glaciers that feed into the impressive Gorner Glacier. Formation

The Zermatt area is dominated by three major sets of rock types; two of them are part of the Upper Penninic nappes (or thrust complexes) sitting on top of the piles of general Penninic thrusts, and the third is part of a klippe from the East Alpine realm in Africa. The upper nappes are the earliest

ones, created as the ocean ďż˝loor separating Europe and Africa was crushed, along with the marginal continental seas of the African continent and vast areas of the African crystalline basement rocks.

Two large areas of crystalline klippen, the Dent Blanche nappe complex and the Monte Rosa nappe complex, cover much of the area around Zermatt. The Dent Blanche nappe in the north-west of the area includes the Matterhorn and several other peaks which reach well over 4,000 metres â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Dent Blanche itself (4,356m), Obergabelhorn (4,026m),

Weisshorn Dent Blanche Matterhorn

Allalinhorn Zermatt

Continental seas rocks (sedimentary rocks) Ocean floor rocks (ophiolites) Dent Blanche nappe Crystalline basement rocks Monte Rosa nappe Crystalline rocks Penninic rocks

Dufourspitze

Map 9.2 | Geology of the Zermatt area.

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The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes Zinalrothorn (4,221m), and Weisshorn (4,505m). The Monte Rosa nappe lies to the north-east of the area and has its own high peaks, including Täschhorn (4,491m).

The crystalline rocks of both the Dent Blanche nappe and the Monte Rosa nappe date from around 250 million years ago and consist mainly of gneiss, with some granites. Separating these crystalline nappes are two other sets of complex rock types, dating from between 220 and 120 million years ago. One set consists of a variety of rocks created in the Triassic Period from �ine sediments laid on top of ocean �loor rocks. These hardened into sedimentary rocks and include a rock formation known as Bündner schist (German: Bündnerschiefer, French: schistes lustrés). The rocks of the other set, created as new ocean crust expanded, are called ophiolites. Ophiolites are ocean crust rocks that have been thrust up by mountain-building processes. In the Zermatt area, they consist largely of three types of rock – pillow lavas, basalt dikes and gabbro. The key distinguishing feature of the ophiolites in

Photo 9.11 | Bündner schist

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the Zermatt area is their greenish colour, but in some instances traces of the curved shapes of the pillow lavas can also be discerned even though they have undergone metamorphosis.

Some of the big peaks of the area are made up of ophiolites including Alphubel (4,206m), Allalinhorn (4,027m), Rimp�ischhorn (4,199m) and Strahlhorn (4,190m).

Both the ophiolites and the sedimentary rocks, including the Bündner schist, are softer than the crystalline rocks which form the high peaks. The sedimentary rocks are easily eroded away and form the valley areas and slopes around Zermatt. Only three major summits in the area – Oberrothorn (3,414m), Unterrothorn (3,104m) and Mettelhorn (3,406m) – are made up of these rock types. It is thus not surprising, given the complexity of its geology, that the Zermatt area has peculiarities, including the fact that the Matterhorn, one of Europe’s most iconic mountains, is built of rocks from the African continent and from an ocean that once lay between Africa and Europe.

Photo 9.12 | Ophiolite

9. The Swiss Alps

TĂ¤schhorn (4491m)

Monte Rosa nappe (gneiss)

Alphubel (4206m)

Allalinhorn (4027m)

Rimpfischhorn Stockhorn Strahlhorn (4199m) (2532m) (4190m)

Ocean floor rocks (ophiolites)

Monte Rosa nappe (gneiss (gneiss and schist)

Ocean floor rocks (ophiolites)

Triassic sedimentary rocks

Photo 9.13 | Mountains and geology looking north-east from Gornergrat.

Glacial Features The Zermatt area is also renowned for its glaciers. The Gorner Glacier complex is the second largest glacial area in Switzerland, covering about 57 square kilometres. The Zwillings Glacier

Gorner Glacier is about 12 kilometres in length today, but has shrunk by about 2.5 kilometres in the last 150 years as a result of global warming. On average it retreats Breithorn Glacier

Schwarze Glacier

Unterer Theodule Glacier

Glaciers now disconnected from the Gorner Glacier

Gorner Glacier

Photo 9.14 | Surface stream indicating melting on the surface of the Gorner Glacier.

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The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Zwillings Glacier Gorner Glacier (upper)

Grenz Glacier Abandoned moraines Gorner Glacier

Photo 9.15 | Abandoned moraines indicate the previous level of the glaciers.

about 30 metres per year, though in 2008 it retreated a record 290 metres. The main glacier is now about 200 metres lower than it was in 1850; this can clearly be seen on the valley walls above the glacier. Due to the reduction in the size of the Gorner Glacier complex, several of the glaciers that

previously fed directly into the Gorner Glacier have now become disconnected from it, including the Breithorn, Trift, and Unterer Theodule Glaciers, as well as the upper reaches of the Gorner Glacier itself. The main feed into the Gorner Glacier is now the Grenz Glacier (border glacier).

Photo 9.16 | The upper section of the Gorner Glacier (the tongue of ice in the centre) is no longer continuous with the lower section.

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9. The Swiss Alps

Photo 9.17 | A rock glacier in the Quattervals area of the Swiss National Park.

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The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers Mountain avens in bloom.

SECTION III

FLOWERS 124

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Photo 12.0 | View of a classic treeline.

12. Life in the Alpine Zone Despite the apparently inhospitable mountain environment with its extreme temperatures, high levels of rainfall and many months of blanket snow cover, the European Alps are renowned for their �loral diversity and brightly coloured alpine meadows. There are, in fact, many beautiful and distinctive alpine species, which have successfully adapted to the wide variety of habitats, rock types and microclimates present in the Alpine mountains.

The term ‘alpine’ is a well-established and useful description for any plant that is found growing above the natural treeline (see Photo 12.0). In the Alps the treeline is more strongly determined by latitude and aspect than altitude. The warmer, south-facing slopes of a mountain receive greater levels of solar radiation and enjoy a comparatively higher treeline than the colder, more shaded northern aspects (see Diagram 12.1, page 126).

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The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers Some of the plants found above the treeline are found exclusively at this level, but others can also be seen �lowering at lower altitudes. In total, the European Alps are home to over 600 truly alpine species which exist exclusively above the forest limits.

In order to appreciate the diversity of these alpine �lowers, we must �irst understand the impact of the environment in creating their many modi�ications and adaptations and investigate the relationship between climate, soil and geology in determining their distribution. Alpine �lowers tend to be small but have large, well-developed root systems able On the highest summits, only a few mosses and lichens are hardy enough to survive

to store sugars and provide good anchoring. There are very few annual and shortlived plants in mountain ranges around the world; long life appears to be an essential strategy to ensure the long-term survival of a species. Alpine plants generally vary from small perennial herbs and low-lying, prostrate shrubs to compact cushion-forming plants, all of which demonstrate an ability to cope with the extreme climate. Reproduction is also an important aspect of plant life and plants have adapted in many different ways to reproduce both sexually and asexually in the alpine environment. These fascinating mechanisms are explained in more detail later in this chapter (see page 131).

North

Plants growing above the treeline are called alpine plants, but some may also grow at lower altitudes

South

HIGH ALPINE Zone Moss and lichens 2800m

Treeline (the highest altitude where trees can grow)

3000m

ALPINE Zone Alpine meadows 2500m

Cooler, north-facing slopes receive less solar radiation and have a comparatively lower treeline

2300m SUBALPINE Zone Coniferous forests

Warmer, south-facing slopes receive greater solar radiation and have a comparatively higher treeline 1500m

1300m MONTANE Zone Mixed forests

1000m

800m SUBMONTANE Zone Deciduous forests

500m

300m Diagram 12.1 | Illustration of the effect that aspect has on the distribution of plants in relation to the altitude at which they can grow.

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12. Life in the Alpine Zone The Origins of Alpine Plants Alpine regions around the world are often considered to be biodiversity hotspots. Almost all the plant groups found on Earth are represented in these mountainous areas. Some plant families, such as daisy, heather and true grasses, occur in abundance across all alpine regions; families such as gentian are also widely distributed around the globe. Other families have evolved to have a narrow distribution in a particular geographical region and are referred to as endemic to that area. Such species are highly represented in alpine regions, contributing greatly to their �loral diversity. It is estimated that the European Alps are home to 400 endemic alpine species which are either relicts from once widespread species or newly evolved species that haven’t had the ability or time to spread their seed and colonise new areas. Common groundsel, for instance, is widely naturalised around the globe, but its close relative one-headed groundsel dwells in just a few valleys in the Alps. Other examples of endemism are the

Photo 12.1 | Alpine adenostyles is an endemic alpine species.

snowbell, St Bruno’s lily, rampion and adenostyles families whose entire distributions are geographically restricted to the Alps.

The formation of the Alps began during the Tertiary Period when Central Europe was largely under an ancient ocean known as the Tethys Ocean. Many of the world’s major tectonic plates were closely aligned; Scandinavia was connected to Greenland and North America, and these were linked to Central and Southern Asia by land bridges. It is thought that the �irst plant colonists of the Alps originated from neighbouring mountains in the Balkans, Carpathians, Apennines and Pyrenees. These mountain ranges already had high mountain plants through past exchanges with massifs and highlands in Asia and Africa. The treeless grassland environment (steppe) of Central Asia had a similar climate to the Alps with extreme temperatures, limited humidity and strong sunlight. The steppe plants therefore felt at home at altitude in the emerging Alps. Amongst the alpine �lowers known to have migrated west from their ancestry in Central and East Asia are columbines, gentians, alpenroses, primroses and rock jasmines (see Photo 12.2). The Mediterranean basin and North African mountains are two other distinct geographical regions of ancestral origin for Alpine �lowers, including bell�lower, spring crocus, campions, toad�laxes and globularia. North America also had links to Eurasia through a land bridge which allowed the emigration of plants from North America during the last ice age. The wellknown and ancient medicinal plant arnica originates here, along with alpine aster, goldenrod, bearberry and alpine �leabane.

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The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers At the end of the Tertiary Period, 2.5 million years ago, the global climate began to cool with the onset of the Quaternary Ice Age. Alpine glaciers expanded and the Scandinavian ice sheet grew southward, covering vast stretches of Europe. Glaciations do not remove alpine �lora but restrict their distribution to refugia called nunataks (from Inuit nunataq) above or between ice streams.

During the Pleistocene Era there were an estimated twenty glacial episodes. The last glacial episode ended some 12,000 years ago and was followed by a widespread retreat of glaciers. This changing global climate had a huge effect on the distribution of alpine �lowers. Some species became extinct and others were isolated, whilst new species were able to migrate to the alpine region. The widespread distribution of purple saxifrage, for example, across both the Arctic and the Alps is evidence of the glacial advance theory. Other alpine �lowers with origins in Scandinavia include dwarf willow, glacier crowfoot and mountain avens. The iconic edelweiss, a migrant to Europe from the highlands of Asia, travelled along cool, low altitude corridors during the early postglacial period. The highlands of Asia are home to over 50 species of edelweiss and are a centre of diversity for many of the �lower groups that have migrated from there. This distribution pattern illustrates the signi�icant in�luence geographical isolation has upon the evolutionary development of plant species. Other major in�luences thought to affect distribution are the constancy of the environment, genetic variability and reproductive strategy. Our understanding of these processes remains far from complete.

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Photo 12.2 | Many of the flowers in the Alps originate in distant regions of the world that were once connected to Europe by land bridges. Others migrated along the edge of vast ice sheets. From top: arnica, purple saxifrage, bald-stemmed globularia and edelweiss.

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Photo 12.3 | Low-lying plants are a common sight in the Alpine environment. Dwarf shrubs such as mountain avens have woody stems and are found carpeting rocky gardens, especially in limestone areas.

Alpine Growth Forms It is a striking phenomenon that all alpine �lowers, regardless of their origin, closely resemble each other in their growth forms. Alpine plants have adopted similar designs, but differ hugely in appearance from their lowland relatives. This is a good illustration of the concept of convergent evolution – plants genetically adapt to grow in a similar way despite being from unrelated ancestral origins, because they are shaped by their harsh mountain environment. Plant growth forms in the alpine zone can be categorised into a number of distinct groups which we will discuss below, but it is important to mention one striking characteristic common to most alpine plants, namely their stunted growth. Nanism, or low growth, has many advantages and allows plants to absorb ground heat, avoid drying winds, and get protection from overlying snow. An alpine

plant of only a few centimetres in height may in fact have a root system extending several metres in length, providing good anchorage, water storage, and access to scarce water and mineral resources. Dwarf Shrubs

Dwarf shrubs are low-lying or prostrate in nature, often carpeting the ground. They have permanent woody stems and are generally the longest-lived alpine plants, but since the growth rate of woody tissue is very slow they do not dominate alpine communities, despite the advantages of their growth form. Common examples are dwarf willow, mountain avens and trailing azalea. Herbaceous Perennials

Perennial plants live for over two years and make a signi�icant contribution to the overall diversity of �lowering plants. Short-lived

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The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers annual plants on the other hand are very uncommon in the alpine environment. Their survival requires that they complete seed germination and seed production in a single year which is a precarious strategy in such extreme environmental conditions.

Many perennials have very long lifespans; they often live for hundreds of years. We can categorise them into three main groups â&#x20AC;&#x201C; grasses (including rushes and sedges), cushion plants and rosettes. Perennials can be deciduous, dropping their leaves in autumn, or evergreen, retaining their foliage throughout the year. Tussock Grasses

The majority of grasses, sedges and rushes in the alpine zone form tussocks and appear in dense clusters. New shoots grow at their edges by means of vegetative growth and they reproduce through this method, forming dense tufts of shoots. These plants are often found on poor soils or stable rocky habitats, and include mat-grass and cottongrass. Cushion Plants

These plants form a dense, rounded canopy with numerous tightly packed leaf rosettes sheltering the stems beneath. The dense canopy is a very effective heat trap and also provides a moist environment, insulating the plant from the severe climate. Cushion plants are characteristic of the high alpine zone where the climate is most severe and are often found in stable rocky places where soils are limited. Typical cushion plants found at these high altitudes are moss campion, Swiss rock jasmine and king of the Alps.

130

Photo 12.4 | Plant growth forms in the alpine environment exhibit distinct patterns. From top: Mat-grass showing tussock-forming growth; moss campion with cushion-shaped growth; spring gentian with tightly packed leaf rosettes, and lichen growth on bare rock.

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Photo 12.5 | Spring pasqueflower appears shortly after the snow melts, its flowers fully opening for a short time in the late morning sun.

Rosettes The leaves of these plants form compact, �lat, grounded spirals. They are a very common growth form and most frequently encountered in alpine grasslands. Many have thick, deep taproots and tall �lowering stems. Among the many species demonstrating this growth pattern are starry saxifrage, least primrose and alpine dandelion. Succulents

These specialist drought-tolerant plants are found in the driest and most inhospitable environments because they are able to store much-needed water in their leaves or stems. Their swollen, �leshy form makes them good at storing water and also reduces water loss. Cryptogams

These desiccation-tolerant plants are �lowerless, but they are alpine specialists and can be found in the most inhospitable mountain environments, where �lowering plants cannot survive. The term ‘cryptogam’ means ‘spore-bearing’ and includes mosses and

liverworts (bryophytes), lichens, and nonphotosynthesising organisms such as fungi.

Reproduction

Floral diversity and plant growth forms have been mentioned previously but we have yet to touch on the mechanisms by which plants reproduce. Successful reproduction, transmitting genetic material to future generations, is the ultimate aim of all living things. The evolutionary advantage of sexual reproduction by cross-breeding and recombining the genes of two parent plants in their offspring has clear bene�its for the long-term survival of the species.

However, �lowering and producing seed through sexual reproduction is very energyexpensive for a plant and far more pollen and seed are produced than are ever used. The pressures of life in the alpine environment with its short growing season, low air and soil temperatures, drying winds, strong radiation and nutrient-poor soils make this strategy a costly one, which is abandoned by some species altogether.

131

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers Despite all these environmental dif�iculties, brightly coloured �lowers proliferate during the brief summer months as insects go about the business of pollination. Some alpine �lowers appear early in the season, soon after snow has melted. Species like spring pasque�lower commonly appear within days of snow melting in the warm spring sunshine (see Photo 12.6). Some plants, such as snowbells, even appear to melt snow. They burn fuel, stored since the previous summer as starch in their fattened leaves, generating heat as they send their shoots up to the light. Their �lower buds, having been preformed in the previous season, burst out rapidly, ready to develop into a mature �lower.

A wide range of insects aid in cross-pollination, from butter�lies and beetles at lower alpine levels to bees and �lies which become more important at higher altitudes. Each �lower may attract a range of pollinators; edelweiss, for example, receives pollinators from 29 insect groups, most of which are types of �lies. Once the �lower has been pollinated, time is short, as the seed has to

Photo 12.6 | Six-spot burnet moths gathering nectar from a roundheaded thistle and helping to pollinate the flowers in the process.

132

develop before it can be dispersed. Many �lowers have adopted a method to maximise the sun’s radiant energy. Bright, parabolic, disc-like �lowers enable maximum energy capture from the sun, as does sun tracking (heliotropism), a phenomenon whereby �lowers follow the sun’s path across the sky.

Reproduction Without Sex

Many plants are capable of reproducing without the need for sex. Non-sexual or asexual reproduction is usually performed either by vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Vegetative reproduction is where plants produce an identical clone of themselves from a vegetative part of the plant, usually the stem or root. Apomixis is the formation of seed without the involvement of fertilisation through pollination. Despite the strong evolutionary case for sexual reproduction, strategies for asexual reproduction have short-term survival bene�its and can also have signi�icant long-term bene�its too. Clones – The Secret to a Long Life

Vegetative or clonal reproduction is very common in alpine plants and involves fragmentation of the parent plant. It is estimated that more than 80% of all alpine plants are clonal. This is a low-cost strategy in terms of energy and is more likely to lead to success in making an identical replica of the parent plant. The cold climatic conditions and short growing season in the Alps inhibit growth and thus favour vegetative reproduction. There are many forms of clonal growth but it is important to mention here that clonal growth has other bene�its besides compensating for the dif�iculty of sexual

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Clonal Growth Tussock Grasses These form dense clusters of shoots, producing new shoots at the edges; e.g. red fescue and mat-grass. Stoloniferous Grasses These have below-ground runners (stolons) from which new shoots appear; e.g. woodrushes. Mat-forming Herbs These spread outwards, disintegrating from the middle. The outward growth takes root as the plant spreads; e.g. speedwells and mountain everlasting. Stoloniferous / Rhizomatous Herbs Often seen as isolated shoots or groups of shoots connected by over or underground runners well suited to life on unstable screes; e.g. fairyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thimble and alpine toadflax. Dwarf Shrubs These woody-stemmed, creeping plants develop clonal fragments (sub-units) which grow roots (adventitious roots) from a stem rather than a root; e.g. mountain avens and least willow.

Photo 12.7 | Forms of clonal growth. From top: Tufted hair grass with classic tussock-growth grass, mountain everlasting forming thick mats, alpine toadflax with over-ground runners (rhizomes) connecting shoots, the creeping, woody stems of retuse-leaved willow from which new roots develop, and a sea of Scheuchzerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cottongrass spreading via below-ground runners (stolons).

133

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers Common valerian is an alkaloid-containing plant whose roots are used as a natural sedative. Prescribed as a remedy for insomnia in ancient Rome, valerian tea is still sold in supermarkets as a soothing bedtime drink. Valerian also sends cats into an ecstatic state like catnip does.

The more serious effects of alkaloids are seen in plants such as monkshood, which has been used to poison the tips of arrows. The poison can be absorbed through the skin and it is therefore very dangerous to touch the plant. One should also be wary of another alkaloid-containing plant, white false helleborine, whose roots have been used as an insecticide for currant and gooseberry bushes. This highly poisonous plant is very similar in appearance to the medicinal great yellow gentian and could easily be mistaken in the ďż˝ield.

Photo 14.7 | Like many other alkaloid-containing plants, monkshood is highly poisonous.

Photo 14.8 | Some plants look very similar but their active ingredients have vastly different effects on the body. Great yellow gentian (left) is known to aid digestion and is added to alpine schnapps, whereas the active compounds in white false helleborine (right) are poisonous to humans.

150

15. Flower Identification Guide

Photo 15.0 | King of the Alps at Hohsaas.

15. Flower Identification Guide Using the Flower Identification Guide The information provided about each of the species in this guide is intended to inform but not to overwhelm or overburden. The language is kept straightforward and there is a glossary providing brief explanations of technical botanical terms (see page 284). There is also a section detailing the structures, arrangements and shapes of �lowers and leaves (see page 154).

The plants are primarily categorised by the dominant �lower colour and then subdivided by �lower shape. This is indicated in the side bar of the page to help you quickly navigate to the appropriate section.

Both the common and scienti�ic names are given, as are the botanical families to which the plants belong. Many common names exist across a region where different languages are spoken; for example the English bilberry, French myrtille, and Italian

151

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers mirtillo all refer to a single species which is recorded scienti�ically (in italics) as Vaccinium myrtillus. These scienti�ic names get updated from time to time and this book uses the most up-to-date versions at the time of publishing. Botanical families comprise many species with common characteristics such as number of petals or �lower shape. As you become familiar with them, these characteristics will help you to identify related species. Flowering times detail the months when each �lower is likely to be seen in bloom, though this can vary with altitude and latitude. Plant height gives a general idea of overall plant size but, again, this can be affected by local variations in climate and soil. The guide includes each �lower’s altitudinal range, categorised into four altitudinal zones: submontane, montane, subalpine, and alpine (see Diagram 13.1, page 140). It also notes the �lowers’ distribution. Some species have a broad geographical range and can be found outside the Alps, for example in the British Isles, the Pyrenees or Scandinavia, so this is intended as a guide rather than an absolute. The habitat section denotes the plants’ preferred environment. Some species are very speci�ic to limestone rocks, for instance, and this may help in differentiating closely related species. Other species may be found across open woodland, meadows and on rocky ground, so an understanding of geology and soil type is of great bene�it in identi�ication.

152

Information is also provided about conservation and protection. Some species may be important locally, even though their wider population may not be under threat. A classic example is the Snowdon lily, which is listed as a protected species in

the vulnerable category of the IUCN Red List despite its abundance in the Alps and the Rockies, because its entire British population is con�ined to a few cliffs in Snowdonia.

Species which are rare or have a threatened global status are protected by various international conservation policies and treaties. This guide acknowledges those which are

Conservation The Habitats Directive

The Habitats Directive was adopted in 1992 and forms an important part of European Union nature legislation. It aims to ensure the conservation of a wide range of rare, threatened or endemic animal and plant species. Along with the Birds Directive it forms the cornerstone of Europe’s nature conservation policy and establishes the EU-wide Natura 2000 ecological network of protected areas, safeguarding them against potentially damaging development. The Bern Convention The Bern Convention is the European treaty for the conservation of nature and has been in force since June 1982. It was the first international treaty to protect both species and habitats, and to bring countries together to decide how to act on nature conservation and how to promote sustainable development. The Convention on International Trade The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

15. Flower Identification Guide included under the EU Habitats Directive, the Bern Convention and CITES.

This section is designed to be easy to use not just for reference, but also as a �ield guide, with descriptions and colour photographs allowing in situ identi�ication of plants. Alpine plants have a dif�icult and challenging existence at the best of times, without adding the threats of global climate

change, disturbance by humans and habitat loss. Their beauty and splendour can only be fully recognised when we see them in their natural environment. As a general rule, picking or collecting alpine plants should be strictly avoided. For diagrams of flower structures, see page 154. For a botanical glossary, see page 284.

Photograph of the flower Flower shape icon, also included in the side bar, indicating whether the flower is zygomorphic, 4-petaled, 5-petaled or many-petaled

Common name of the flower Flower colour, corresponding to coloured tabs in the side bar Scientific name of the flower Flowering times (months when flower is most likely to be seen in bloom) Distribution (the areas of the Alps where the plant is found) How commonly the plant is found

62. Alpine Saw-wort Saussurea alpina

Daisy family (Asteraceae)

Plant height: 5–20cm Flower size: 7–14mm Altitude zones: subalpine – alpine (1600–2800m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: A delicate plant with a brush-like flower head. Leaves lance-shaped, slightly toothed, grey-green and felty beneath. Flower heads purple, 5–10 closely packed in an umbel-like cluster. Habitat: Nutrient and lime-poor soils, rocky and stony places Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Rare Conservation: EU Hab Dir Annex II

Common name and scientific name of the botanical family to which the flower belongs Altitudinal range (height at which the plant grows) The plant’s preferred environment International conservation policies or treaties indicate that the plant is rare or threatened

153

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

Describing Flower Structures Flower Clusters (Inflorescence)

Umbel

Panicle

Spike

Flower head

Raceme

Corymb

Flower Shapes Radial symmetry (actinomorphic)

Petals free

Petals fused

Bell-shaped

Bilateral symmetry (zygomorphic) Standard Upper lip Wing

Lower lip

Keel Legume flower

Lamiaceae flower

Orchid flower

Composite Flower Head Ray florets Disc florets Involucral bract Ray floret

154

Disc floret

15. Flower Identification Guide

Flower Diagram Carpel Ovary Ovule

Stigma Style

Calyx Corolla

Perianth

Stamen

Anther Filament Petal Sepal

Stalk

Receptacle

Leaf Margins

Lobed

Entire

Serrated

Toothed

Leaf Shapes

Linear

Elliptical

Heart-shaped

Kidney-shaped

Lance-shaped

Spoon-shaped

Trifoliate

Palmate

Pinnate

Leaf Arrangements

Opposite

Alternate

Whorled

Basal rosette

155

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

1. Monkshood Aconitum napellus

2. Bulbous Corydalis Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae)

Plant height: 40–150cm Flower size: 20–30mm Altitude zones: submontane – alpine (800–2600m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: A very poisonous, hairless plant with distinctive, hooded flowers. Leaves palmate, divided almost to the middle. Flowers bluish violet to reddish violet in dense, branched, spikelike racemes. Helmet of flower rounded. Habitat: Damp meadows, open woods, riverbanks Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Common

3. Common Butterwort Pinguicula vulgaris

Butterwort family (Lentibulariaceae)

Plant height: 5–15cm Flower size: 15–22mm Altitude zones: submontane – subalpine (800–2500m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: An insectivorous plant. Leaves yellowish green, fleshy, rolled upwards at the edges. Flowers violet with a white throat on the lower lip and a 3–6mm spur. Habitat: Nutrient-poor soils, spring-fed flushes Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Common

156

Corydalis bulbosa

Fumitory family (Fumariaceae)

Plant height: 10–20cm Flower size: 18–30mm Altitude zones: montane – subalpine (1000–2000m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: A plant with large, tuberous roots. Leaves pinnately-lobed on thin stems. Flowers dull purple with a down-curving spur in a short, spike-like raceme. Habitat: Nutrient-rich soils, pastures and cultivated land Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Scattered

4. Tufted Vetch Vicia cracca

Pea family (Fabaceae)

Plant height: 20–120cm Flower size: 10–12mm Altitude zones: submontane – subalpine (300–2300m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: A clambering, slightly hairy plant. Leaves with 12–30 linear leaflets and a terminal tendril. Flowers bluish violet, in stalked clusters of 10–30, forming a one-sided spike. Habitat: Nutrient-poor, loamy soils, meadows and scrub Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Common

15. Flower Identification Guide

5. Alpine Milkwort Polygala alpestris

Milkwort family (Polygalaceae)

Plant height: 5–15cm Flower size: 5–6mm Altitude zones: montane – alpine (1200–2700m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: A low-lying plant with leafy basal rosettes. Stem leaves shorter, alternate. Flowers blue with white, hairy fringes. Habitat: Dry, calcareous meadows, rocky and stony places Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Common

7. Mountain Pansy Viola lutea

Violet family (Violaceae)

Plant height: 5–10cm Flower size: 20–30mm Altitude zones: montane – subalpine (1000–2000m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: A short, hairy or hairless plant with slender creeping stems. Leaves narrow and lance-shaped, toothed. Flowers violet, yellow or bicoloured with a short spur 3–6mm long. Habitat: Dry, nutrient-poor, acidic soils, rocky places Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Rare

6. Bitter Milkwort Polygala amara

Milkwort family (Polygalaceae)

Plant height: 5–20cm Flower size: 5–8mm Altitude zones: submontane – subalpine (500–2200m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: Numerous stems arise from basal leaf rosette. Stem leaves smaller, pointed and alternate. Flowers blue, violet, pink or white in long spikes. Habitat: Calcareous meadows, rocky places, open woods, spring-fed flushes Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Scattered

8. Long-spurred Pansy Viola calcarata

Violet family (Violaceae)

Plant height: 3–12cm Flower size: 20–30mm Altitude zones: subalpine – alpine (1600–2800m) Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Description: Leaves rounded or lance-shaped, blunt-toothed. Flowers solitary or in pairs, violet with a dark, striped, yellow centre. Flowers have a long, arching spur 8–15mm long. Habitat: Meadows and rocky places Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Common

157

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Walks On the path to the Lรถtschental Pass. Photo: Tony Gladstone

SECTION IV

WALKS 234

16. Walks

Photo 16.0 | Crossing from Switzerland into France above Catogne, with views of Aiguille Verte and Aiguille Dru, and Mont Blanc beyond.

16. Walks This chapter outlines 20 walks, ranging from fairly easy half-day strolls to potentially more demanding multi-day trips, which are scattered throughout the Alps. Of course, this selection barely scratches the surface of the fabulous walking in the Alps, but the walks featured here do take in some of the very best Alpine scenery, and will allow the walker to enjoy the spectacular geology and �lowers of the area.

The walks are broadly grouped by area from east to west and can be seen in the overview map on page 239. Walks are given a dif�iculty grade as follows: Easy – a short walk with no dif�iculties. Moderate – a longer walk with some dif�iculties. Strenuous – a long walk involving a lot of ascent or distance; a signi�icant undertaking.

235

The Alps, A Natural Companion ||Walks Map page showing parking area and route of walk

The Alps, A Natural Companion ||Walks

e se

Isetwald

Furggenhoren Roteflue Sägistalsee 2169

PARKING

2295

2069

al s t Gotthard 3

Fa n

Faulhorn

a lp

b a ch

Gassenhorn

5 2681

Berghaus Männdlenen

g is

Grossenegg

2616 Bachsee

Simelihorn

2756

2400

Ausserläger

2099 1

2462

Indri Sägissa Bira

2231

Oberberghorn

Tuba

Sä

Loucherhorn

GPS 46.665876, 7.870487 Breitlauenen

This walk, one of the classic Alpine routes, offers magnificent views of the Bernese Oberland in the middle distance, including the Eiger and Jungfrau, as well as dramatic, close-up views of folds on the Faulhorn massif.

Plangau

Bönigen

QR code – scan this with a mobile phone to open the location in Google Maps

Faulhorn Massif Walk 10 | Faulhorn Massif

Furggenhorn

Schynige Platte

First 2184

2005

Lütschental

Burglauenen

Gündlischwand

Schwendi

Mühlebach

Grindelwald

Map scale Scale: 1:100,000 Grid: 1km datum CH1903+ 2km

4km

Time: 6 hours

Distance: 18km

Ascent: 500m

Interlaken area

Access:

Access to the start point is by road or rail from either Interlaken or Grindelwald. The walk starts with a cogwheel train from Wilderswil on the southern edge of Interlaken. At the end of the walk, descend from the First massif to Grindelwald by cable car and take the train from there to Wilderswil.

a ll

Region:

Start:

0km

Grade: Moderate

if ir

Eiger 3970

Information box detailing Grade, Time, Distance, Ascent, Access and Start Point

Ischmeer

Wilderswil station 4107

258

The scenery on this walk is spectacular. The rocks underfoot are mudstones and limestones in the Axen nappe, part of the Helvetic nappe piles. During the mountain-building phase these rocks were subject to severe thrusting and folding. The folds are strikingly visible here, especially as you approach the north-western flank of Sägissa. Allow six hours for the stunning high-level walking between Schynige Platte and First, and additional time for transport up and down from the massif. The initial ascent uses the cogwheel train between Wilderswil (584m) and Schynige Platte (1,967m), and the descent takes the three-stage cable car between First (2,186m) and Grindelwald (1,034m), followed by a valley train back to the start at Wilderswil.

Looking southwards as you leave the station at Schynige Platte 1 , you can see the Eiger, Mönch, Jungfrau, Lauterbrunnen and the Breithorn in the distance. A high level path (Panoramaweg) takes you just below Tuba and Oberberghorn, with magnificent views of the mountain ahead. An intermediate route bypasses the highest points, meeting the high level path just below Oberberghorn. This brings you out on the edge of the plateau directly above Brienzer See, one of the two glacial lakes that flank Interlaken. Alternatively, a more direct route from the Schynige Platte station avoids the other routes’ ascent. The routes converge a short distance west of Loucherhorn 2 . The path then works its way

Mönch

Photo 16.10 | Thrust-folds on the Faulhorn massif (see page 34).

round the south side of the peak. On reaching the south-western ridge of Loucherhorn you are rewarded with impressive close-up views of some of the most dramatic folds in the Alps on the north-western flanks of Sägissa. Some of the rock strata fold to the left and others to the right. Continue towards Gotthard 3 , then turn sharp right and, near Berghaus Männdlenen 4 , sharp left towards Faulhorn. A steady ascent takes you towards and below Faulhorn 5 with views of more folds on the northern flank. There is a path that bypasses the summit, saving about 50 or 60 metres of ascent, but the panoramic views are worth the effort.

From Faulhorn, descend towards Bachsee and then to First and the cable car. If you miss the last cable car, the walk down to Grindelwald will add an extra 1.5 to 2 hours.

259

Jungfrau

Using the Walks Section

Google Maps

There is an information box on the map page for each walk giving key information about the route, including the start location, the level of dif�iculty, the estimated time required for the walk, the distance covered and the amount of ascent.

Latitude and longitude coordinates can be entered directly into Google in the given format. For example, to �ind the parking for Walk 13 – Dents du Midi (page 265), simply enter 46.141591, 6.986378 into Google Maps. Alternatively, scan the QR code on the map with a mobile phone to get a direct link to the Google Maps location.

Times do not include breaks other than brief pauses for photography and are an average time taken in summer conditions. They are given as a guideline, but ascent, distance and terrain should be taken into account. Access

Details of how to access each walk by road and public transport are provided in the information box on the map page for each walk. Suggested parking locations are also included.

236

Maps and Navigation

This book contains clear maps of each suggested walk, with numbered waypoints. The paths in the Alps are well signposted, but it is important to carry a full map of the relevant area for extra detail.

Note that in the Italian Alps, French or Austrian names may be used which differ slightly from the Italian ones. This is the case even on Italian-made maps!

Using the Walks Section Refreshments Many of the walks described in this book pass mountain refuges where refreshments can be purchased, but you should ensure that you take adequate food and water with you for the duration of your walk. Look out for signs indicating eau potable (French), acqua potabile (Italian) or Trinkwasser (German). Weather

Walkers should always check the weather forecast and ensure that they are adequately equipped for cooler temperatures or poor weather conditions at altitude.

Many of these walks can be tackled at any time of year; the limiting factor is snow cover. Snow can appear from early September and patches may linger well into July even at lower altitudes. Where late snow can present problems, alternative routes have been suggested. The �lowers are usually at their best between mid-June and late July. Alpine Huts

Some walks require you to break your journey in huts. You should telephone in advance to book your place. Hut contact details are available online or from the nearest tourist of�ice, but hut wardens will often phone ahead for you for the next day. Huts are payable in cash the night before departure. Discounts for overnight stays are available for members of the European Alpine Clubs (the Austrian Alpine Club has a UK branch – www.aacuk.org.uk) and to BMC members who have purchased a reciprocal rights card (www.thebmc.co.uk)

Emergency Contacts European emergency services 112 Specific mountain rescue services: Valais – OCVS (Organisation Cantonale Valaisanne de Secours) 144 Swiss Air Rescue (REGA) 1414 Chamonix – PGHM (Peloton de Gendarmerie de Haute Montagne) (+33) 04 50 53 16 89. Italy 118 Aosta Valley Mountain Rescue (+39) 01 65 23 82 22 Austria (Bergrettung) 140 Be aware that mountain rescue can be very expensive and it is advisable to have insurance in place to cover any such costs. Safety Walking in the Alps can be dangerous. All those who walk in the mountains should be aware of the risks and take responsibility for their own actions.

The authors and publisher have made every effort to ensure that the information in this book was correct on going to press, but cannot accept responsibility for any loss, injury or inconvenience sustained by any person using this book. International Distress Signal: Six blasts on a whistle (and �lashes with a torch in darkness) at 10–second intervals, followed by a 1-minute pause. Repeat until answered. The response is three signals per minute with the same pause.

237

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Walks

Walkers enjoying the Grand Balcon Sud in the Aiguilles Rouges above Chamonix, with the Aiguille du Midi, Mont Maudit and Mont Blanc in the distance.

238

Walk Locations

Kitzbuhel Basel Dijon

Zurich

RLA ITZE

Lyon

FRA

NCE

Chamonix

Sion

3 Bolzano

Aosta

Villach

Macon 13 15 14

AUSTRIA

Innsbruck

Lucerne

Bern Lausanne 12

Geneva

Salzburg

Trento

Trieste

Como

Chambery 17

Venice

Verona

Milan

ITALY

Grenoble 18 Turin

Pula Genoa

Bologna

Pisa

Nice

Avignon

Adriatic Sea

Marseille

Walk Locations 1

Tre Cime di Lavaredo

page 241

Stechelberg Circuit

page 261

Puez Plateau Trail

page 243

Mont Tendre

page 263

Col Rodella – The King’s Path

page 245

Dents du Midi

page 265

Habicht

page 247

Emosson & the ‘Dinosaur’ Prints page 267

Swiss National Park

page 249

Samoëns & the Haut-Giffre

page 269

Morteratschgletscher

page 251

Gran Collet Pass

page 271

Val Grande Traverse

page 253

Col de la Chavière

page 273

Saastal Höhenweg

page 255

Brèche de Pacave

page 275

Eiger Trail

page 257

Deslioures Nature Reserve

page 277

Faulhorn

page 259

Tour of Mont Blanc

page 279

239

The Alps, A Natural Companion ||Walks 2876

Cima di Sesto PARKING

Rifugio Tre Scarperi

Dreischusterspitze 3151

0 190

0 210 0

1500

250

230

2957

1700

Schusterplatte

F is c a

0 230 2200 2100 2000 1900

1800

1700

li n o

GPS 46.66769, 12.353558

Rifugio Fondo Valle

Torre dei Scarperi Lan

Torre di Toblin

2634

2630

Rie

int

Cima Una 2698

nza 105

6 Langalm

Forcella Lavaredo

2232

2454

Cima Cima Ovest Grande 5 2313

Col di Mezzo

2973

2999

e Tre Cim

P Tre Cime parking

240

te ns

Laghi dei Piani

Rifugio Locatelli alle Tre Cime

ella le d Va l

102

dro

1548 1

Cima Passaporto 3

2697

Croda dei Toni

Lago di Lavaredo 4

Rifugio Lavaredo

3095

101

Scale: 1:50,000 Grid: 1km UTM zone 32N

0km

1km

2km

Rifugio Auronzo

Grade: Strenuous

Time: 11 hours

Distance: 22km

Ascent: 1518m

Region:

Sesto, Dolomites, South Tirol

Access:

By road or train to San Candido (Innichen) in the Val Pusteria (Pustertal). From here continue towards Moso, then along the Val Fiscalina. There is a car park and bus stop at the end of the road.

Start:

Rifugio Piana Fiscalino (FischleinbodenhĂźtte)

Tre Cime di Lavaredo Walk 1 | Tre Cime di Lavaredo This circular trek around the spectacular mountain towers of the Tre Cime di Lavaredo provides a stunning opportunity to experience an astounding geological landscape of grand proportions. Visitors �lock to capture the classic Dolomites view, along with a �loral foreground of poppy, asphodel, pasque�lower and thrift, to name but a few. The Tre Cime or Drei Zinnen (three peaks) are the symbol of the Italian Dolomites and one of the most iconic landscapes in the entire Alps. This trek falls within the Sesto Dolomites Nature Park, which is also part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, an area of dramatic, jagged limestone summits towering over rocky, lunar plateaus and clear glacial lakes. The Dolomites are also renowned for the vivid colours and rich diversity of their �loral displays. A climb from the valley bottom offers a spectacular transition from damp valley meadows and woodlands through the coniferous forest belt before rising above the treeline to a world of calcareous scree �ields and mountain plateaus bedecked with rich, alpine vegetation. A well-de�ined, marked track heads south along the Fischleintal Valley towards the Rifugio Fondo Valle mountain hut 1 . From here the trail heads south-west up the wild Altenstein Valley with the immense north face of Cima Una rising to the south. Continuing up this valley you eventually come to the two lakes (Laghi del Piani), from where you can see the Locatelli alle Tre Cime mountain hut at Toblinger Riedel Pass 2 . When you arrive, absorb the stunning mountain landscapes that surround you and keep a sharp eye out for a golden eagle.

From here a good path circumnavigates the Tre Cime. Follow the narrow path, crossing screes south towards the Forcella Lavaredo

Photo 16.1 | The limestone towers of the Tre Cime di Lavaredo with Rifugio Locatelli alle Tre Cime in the foreground.

pass 3 . Descend towards Lago di Lavaredo and the Lavaredo mountain hut 4 . The path traverses beneath the southern faces of the Tre Cime, bringing you to the Rifugio Auronzo. Beyond this is the Col di Mezzo pass which is reached by following a good trail across grass and scree slopes 5 . The trail continues to descend to the three small lakes and you can get refreshments at Langalm during the summer 6 . Continue across the Langen Alpe to a green, grassy bowl which is full of �lowers. The path then ascends steeply for a few hundred metres to the Locatelli alle Tre Cime hut 2 . From here reverse your initial approach through the Altenstein Valley out to Rifugio Piana Fiscalino.

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The Alps, A Natural Companion

Looking along the Moiry Valley in the Swiss Alps, with the summits of Grand Cornier and Dent Blanche in the distance.

Index A

292

Aar massif 12, 16, 19, 81, 95, 96, 97, 98, 108 African continent 16, 22, 28, 30, 31, 42, 45, 93, 100, 101, 102, 115, 120, 247 Aiguilles Rouges massif 15, 47, 79–85, 97, 279, 282 alkaloids 149–150 alpine meadows 14, 125, 135, 141, 142–143, 243, 245, 247, 261, 265 Alps Central 42, 45, 50, 114, 140 creation 15, 16, 29–31; Eastern 13, 19, 28, 30, 31, 39, 40, 42, 45, 47, 48, 53, 73, 106, 113–118, 247; French 8, 45, 61, 79–94, 263, 269; Helvetic 15, 28, 42, 45, 47, 48, 88, 120; languages 14; Penninic 28, 31, 42, 45, 48, 92, 115, 273; population 14; size 12; Southern 15, 19, 26, 28, 31, 42, 45, 47, 48, 114, 115, 119–122; Swiss 9, 21, 45, 61, 75, 95–112, 261; Western 15, 19, 42, 45, 48, 79, 80, 113, 141 altitude 125, 126, 135, 136, 137, 140, 141, 152 altitudinal zone 141 ancient crystalline rocks 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 24, 28, 33, 39, 40, 44, 46, 80, 82, 86, 93, 94, 97, 98, 102, 108, 110, 114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 271 creation of 18 anticline 33, 89, 90, 111 area of similar summit heights 106, 107, 249 Argentera 79, 80 Argentière 61, 66, 84, 86

Austria. See Eastern Alps avalanche 54, 55, 61, 144

basalt 22, 48, 102 basement 12, 15, 18, 19, 24, 29, 39, 46, 82, 86, 94, 96, 97, 101, 108, 110, 114, 115, 120, 121, 247, 275 Bauges massif 88, 90 bedrock 65, 67, 69, 74, 80, 138 Belladonne massif 79, 80, 81, 86 Berglistüber 108–109 bergschrund 64 Bertrand, Marcel 37 bitters 146, 149 Bündner schist 102

calcicoles 138 calcifuges 138 carbonate platform 26, 121 Carboniferous Period 44, 81, 94 cargneule 24, 25 Central Alps 42, 45, 50, 114, 140 Chamonix 14, 61, 66, 85, 278, 279, 282 chemical weathering 49, 50, 69 cirque glacier 62, 63, 67, 69, 71 climate 75, 86, 126, 127, 130, 135, 136, 140, 141, 152, 153 change 14, 59, 66, 69, 74, 85, 103, 128, 153 clonal reproduction 132–134

Index colonisation (by plants) 72, 74–76, 127 conservation 146, 152 continental collisions 8, 16, 21, 30, 32, 37, 38, 42, 46, 93, 116 continental crust 17, 19, 22, 23 continental plate 17, 18, 23 continental rocks 22, 23, 100, 101 continental seas 15, 28, 30, 45, 88, 101, 116 continental shelf 23, 24, 26 convection currents 17 crevasse 64 cryptogams 131 crystalline rocks. See ancient crystalline rocks cushion plants 130

deep zone 18, 46 detachment layer 35, 93 distribution (of plants) 126, 127, 128, 135 diversity (of plants) 75, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 141 dolomite 20, 26, 93, 94, 106, 107, 115, 121, 122, 249 Dolomites 15, 26, 27, 119, 121, 122, 138, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245 drought 131, 137, 141 dwarf shrubs 129, 133, 143

earth pyramid 73–74 East Alpine realm 28, 30, 31, 39, 42, 45, 101, 114, 115, 116, 120 Eastern Alps 13, 19, 28, 30, 31, 39, 40, 42, 45, 47, 48, 53, 73, 106, 113–118, 247 Écrins massif 86–87, 276, 277 Eiger 64, 65, 95, 96, 98, 256, 257, 259, 261 endemism 127, 152 environment (alpine) 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 136, 140, 143, 144, 152, 153 erosion 16, 18, 20, 23, 24, 27, 38, 39, 41, 42, 49, 49–50, 50, 73, 87, 89, 90, 91, 98, 102, 106, 110, 111, 117, 144, 247, 249 essential oils 146, 147, 148 European continent 8, 16, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30, 31, 42, 48, 93, 97, 100, 110, 115, 116, 120 evaporites 20, 24, 25, 93, 110, 121, 273 extinction 128

Faulhorn massif 21, 34, 97, 98, 257, 259

faulting 32, 34, 50, 114, 119 fenster. See window �lavonoids 146–147 Flims 51–53, 73 �looding 52, 54, 55 �lower structures 154–155 �lysch 27, 36, 37, 38, 40, 44, 57, 58, 108, 117, 277, 280 Rhenodanubian 117 folding 8, 30, 31, 32–33, 34, 35, 39, 44, 45, 47, 48, 89, 91, 92, 98, 110, 111, 120, 259, 269, 273 formation (alpine) 82–83, 86–87, 88–90, 101–102, 107, 108, 110–111, 114–117, 120–121, 122 French Alps 8, 45, 61, 79–94, 263, 269

gabbro 102 geography 11–14, 85 gipfel�lur. See area of similar summit heights glacial features 64–65, 84–85, 87, 90, 98–99, 103–104, 107, 117, 122 glacial lakes 67, 90, 241, 265 glacial melting 14, 49, 50, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73 glacial retreat 14, 66–69, 74, 75, 84, 99, 104, 128 glacial scratches 69 glacier 9, 49, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60–63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 84, 90, 92, 96, 98, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 117, 122, 245, 247, 251, 257, 271, 278, 280, 281 ablation zone 60; accumulation zone 60; Aletsch 60, 61, 98, 257; Gorner 66, 67, 101, 103, 104; Morteratsch 69 Glarus Main Thrust 37, 38 global warming. See climate change glycosides 146, 149 gneiss 15, 19, 47, 81, 82, 83, 87, 96, 97, 102, 103, 108, 138, 257, 280, 282 Gondwana 22, 24, 28, 29 granite 19, 20, 21, 33, 46, 47, 81, 82, 83, 86, 96, 97, 102, 108, 138, 257, 271, 279, 280, 281, 282 Gran Paradiso 12, 80, 270, 271 grasses 76, 130, 133, 136, 139, 143 Grindelwald 14, 95–99, 256, 257, 258, 259 Grossglockner 40, 113, 117, 118 gypsum 20, 25, 35, 93, 94, 273

293

The stunning natural beauty of the Alps makes this range of mountains one of Europe’s most popular tourist destinations. Written in straightforward language for those with little or no prior knowledge, this book helps visitors to appreciate the natural world around them, providing a guide to the geology and the flowers of Europe’s Alpine mountains.

GEOLOGY Learn how rocks were created and thrust upwards to make the massive Alpine mountain range, and how the mountains were shaped into the present-day scenery by ice and other agents of erosion. Scores of stunning photographs, along with clear maps and diagrams, help to convey the exciting story of the Alpine mountains and valleys. FLOWERS Learn about distinctive and beautiful Alpine species, how and where they grow, and how they have been used by mankind for thousands of years. Identify more than 300 Alpine flowers and plants with the easy-to-use, colour-coded flower identification guide. WALKS Explore the fascinating landscape of the Alps with 20 varied walks across France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria.

The Alps, A Natural Companion

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