Elizabeth Yarina
Author/Editor: Elizabeth Yarina Spring 2014 - Harvard Graduate School of Design - GSD 9132 - Term Project Copyright: Scanned texts and source references compiled in this booklet are intended for single-use academic purpose only, according to the Harvard University Fair Use Guidelines & Course Reader Copyright Guidelines. No part of this booklet may be copied, reproduced, republished, uploaded, posted, transmitted or distributed in any way for commercial purposes. All files are copyright to their respective authors and/or publishers. All other content is Š2013-14 Harvard Graduate School of Design, The President & Fellows of Harvard College.
Means + Migrations Mean sea level is a gauge of where and how people live. Variations in sea level instigate various forms and flows of occupation as humans adapt to the ocean’s various topographies. Historically, migration patterns associated with climactic changes were unbounded (or at least less bounded) by hard geopolitical lines. When one atoll in the South Pacific suffered a storm surge or lost its fresh water source, islanders would easily mobilize to another [00]. Increasingly rapid changes in mean sea level, and associated effects on global water cycles, require new means of migration across predefined borders. Flows of population away from climactic risks and towards areas of safety or ice-melt related opportunity establish new poles of migration, defining new territories and questioning existing ones. Mean sea level is studied and established from space. Satellites provide a huge repository of data about the earth, and most global-scale oceanic properties are measured from the outer atmosphere. At this time, that includes surface temperature (SST), topography, salinity (SSS), the height and spectra of waves, surface wind speed and direction, ocean color, continental and sea ice extent, ocean mass, and surface currents [01]. Beginning with Seasat in 1977, satellites have been creating a body of data surrounding the surface conditions of the ocean. While it is difficult for satellites to penetrate the often murky depths of the ocean, these surficial conditions can provide information about what is happening below. For example, satellite photographs of ocean color can provide information on algae blooms, and sea level data can be used in the analysis of ocean floor topography. Sea level, and its variation from Mean Sea Level (MSL) (a global average) is measured through satellite altimetry. The first satellite altimeter was Topex/ Poseidon, a joint collaboration between CNES (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales) and NASA. The data collected in their first cycle in 1992 corresponded with prior data collected at the ocean surface level, with an extreme increase in speed and accuracy. Although Topex/Poseidon was decommissioned in 2005, a series of other satellites, beginning with Jason-1 in 2001, have served to both supplement and replace retired iterations. Topex/Poseidon’s circulation about the earth tracked from 66 degrees north to 66 degrees south, thus covering all but 10% of the ocean’s area. Cycles repeated every 10 days. Jason-1 was introduced midway between Topex/Poseidon’s tracks, such that the resolution of data collection was doubled. There are currently four satellite altimeters in 1
orbit, operated by more than as many national sea and space agencies (including CNES, NASA, and NOAA). Seven new satellite altimetry deployments are planned for the next decade, which will include technology improving the speed and resolution of data collection. AVISO, the representation and data arm of CNES, the French space agency, annually outputs maps showing current sea level and ongoing trends [03]. These maps clearly show that sea level is not, in fact, level. Levels at any given moment, and rates of change over time, vary according to regional and global processes including currents, ice melt, and the gravitational force of the earth and moon. These maps contributes to knowledge on the interconnectedness of long term climactic patterns, global tides, and perhaps most importantly, global sea level rise. Comparison of the 2012 map to prior iterations demonstrates a 2� increase in MSL since 1993. This is due to factors including glacial melt and the thermal expansion of water with rising temperatures [04]. The 2012 map shows the effect of La Nina in the Pacific, raising sea level its western tropics, as well as effects of the Decadal Pacific Oscillation on its opposite edge. This map also shows the highest MSL to date. MSL is an index of a changing climate, but also of patterns of habitation and movement. This redistribution of global waters has specific impacts on local geographies and livelihoods, ultimately resulting in the redistribution of human populations. The atoll nations of the South Pacific are especially attuned to these changes and associated risks. Measurements taken at the island of Tuvalu indicate that sea level is rising there at more than double the rate of the global average, over 5 millimeters per year [05]. A wide range of atmospheric and oceanographic influences contribute to this anomaly, including trade winds that concentrate water towards the equator with the earth’s rotation. The geotectonic location of South Pacific atoll states such as Tuvalu also means that even as the sea is rising, ground level is lowering due to the subsidence of the area’s tectonic plate. While the building of sea walls may hold off the water for some time, a rise of a few meters could eliminate several nations completely, putting their EEZs up for grabs and requiring massive migration strategies. Historically atoll-dwellers lived a mobile life, easily re-locating to another island if resources became scare or land became uninhabitable [07]. Now, the territorialization of the South Pacific creates barriers to mobility, and funnels migrants through particular routes related to political alliances and associations. Atoll states without ties to high-ground nations have already begun to negotiate land purchases and migration agreements with larger and higher nearby islands. The rising of South Pacific seas is inherently linked to the thawing of Arctic polar regions. Previously uninhabitable or undesirable locations in and near the Arctic circle are thawing out, creating new potential zones for development. Resources hidden between ice caps and permafrost are also becoming accessible. Already complex
systems of ownership in this zone will be further problemetized as new shipping routes, oil reserves, and developable land becomes exposed. As areas such as the South Pacific become less habitable with processes associated with sea level rise and climate change, the Arctic region may become a magnet for migrants seeking new ground. Hydrologic and climatic cycles defy geopolitical borders. The rising waters of the South Pacific and thawing out of the Arctic speak to larger global systems of climactic processes that are closely linked with human habitation and movement patterns. Changes to this global system result in the redistribution of water throughout the planet, such that while some regions are drowning, others are drying out. The Sahel region in West Africa is coping with severe drought conflated with ongoing land degradation and local conflict. Lake Chad, a large freshwater lake formerly spanning 4 Sahel nations has been reduced to 10% of its original size in the last decades, and no longer reaches Niger or Nigeria. Farmers formerly supported by its waters are beginning to mobilize, both within the region and internationally. For West and North African refugees attempting to cross into Europe, Malta serves as landing point. Under EU rules however, migrants landing on Maltese soil are not allowed to enter the EU, so over 1 in 50 Maltese residents are African migrants living in limbo [06]. To the west, other refugees attempt to land on Spanish soil by entering the Spanish enclaves of of Ceuta or Melilla, adjacent to Morocco and Algiers respectively. Here, Africans can enter the EU without leaving the African subcontinent. Processes associated with changes in mean sea level question borders and regions established by modern governments. The redistribution of water throughout the planet results in a necessary redistribution of population, requiring a reconsideration of geographically arbitrary boundaries. New climatological territories, established by the migration and hydrologic processes studied here, require a re-framing of the means by which we inhabit places and migrate between them.
00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
John Connell, “Population, Migration, And Problems Of Atoll Development In The South Pacific” Freeman et. al. Surface currents are only measured extensively in coastal areas. Aviso. “Topex/Poseidon Orbits” Aviso is an arm of CNES, France’s air and space agency, which distributes satellite altimitry data. Subsidence/uplift, the depletion of freshwater aquifers, changing salinity levels, and global decadal weather patterns also contribute to changes in MSL. “Sea Change,” The Economist (2013) Colors Magazine #89 “Moving House” John Connell, “Population, Migration, And Problems Of Atoll Development In The South Pacific”
Contents MEANS Sea /Space Satellite Altimetry
10 Topex/Poseidon 11 Topex/Poseidon Tracks 14 DORIS Stations 16 Altimeter Missions 18
Fluid Topographies Ocean Currents 20
Global Gravity Feild/GRACE Satellites Mean Sea Level(s) Projected
24 26
MIGRATIONS Fluid Populations
Human Redistribution 32 Rising Waters: South Pacific 34 Sea Level Logistics Atoll Nations Submerging Economies Higher Ground
Thawing Out: Arctic Coastlines
Exposed Resources New Territories
54
Drying Up: Sahel Region 66 Drought in West Africa Shrinking Lake Chad Migration Routes Refugees in Malta, Ceuta + Melilla
New Poles A History of Mobility 88 Poles of Migration 90 Means of Migration 94
Additional References 96
3
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Satellite Altimeter Positioning System. Drawing by author, based on data from Sandwell et. al. (2014)
Artist’s rendering of the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite NASA (2011)
Topex/Poseidon Tracks Drawing by author, based on data from IMOS (2014)
The Topex/Posidon satellite orbited the earth once every 10 days, capturing oceanic measurements at an inclination of 66 degrees
Topex/Posidon Tracks Drawing by author, based on data from IMOS (2014)
DORIS statations Drawing by author, based on data from ESA (2014)
Timeline, Satellite Altimeter Missions CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (2013)
“Seasat, launched by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1977, was the first dedicated ocean-viewing satellite. Since then, in addition to NASA, the space agencies of Europe, France, Canada, Germany,India, Japan, and China have all launched ocean-viewing sensors or dedicated ocean-viewing satellites. Properties currently measured from space are sea surfacetemperature; topography (height); salinity; significant wave height and wave spectra; surface wind speed and vectors; ocean color; continental and sea ice extent, flow,deformation, thickness; ocean mass; and to a lesser extent, surface currents.” From “Ocean Measurements from Space in 2025 “ in the Journal Oceanography. Freeman et. al (2010)
Still, Perpetual Currents Animation NASA (2012)
Global Ocean Currents Jacques W. Redway, Natural Advanced Geography (1901)
Detail view of ocean currents mapped by “surface drifters� open-ocean.org (2014)
Earth’s gravity field anomalies based on data from the GRACE satellites
GRACE ACOS Satellite Components Dick Stanton/JPL (2001)
Overlay of Topex/Poseidon’s sea level data with historical in-situ data collected over the prior century. Created by Author (2014)
Stills from NASA’s “Eyes on the Earth” interactive software. Difference from Mean Seal Level, January 2014
The rise in the level of the oceans is far from uniform. In fact, while in certain ocean regions the sea level has indeed risen (by up to 20 millimetres a year in places), in others it has fallen an equivalent amount. — AVISO (2014)
Sea Surface Height Trends, 1992-2010 AVISO (2010)
THAWING OUT NORTHERN COASTLINES
DRYING UP SAHEL REGION
RISING WATERS SOUTH PACIFIC
As the longer-term effects of sea level rise and desertification become increasingly apparent and extreme events, such as flooding and droughts, become more frequent and severe, liveable surface area will become restricted. For regions that experience a systematic economic collapse, environmentally induced migration could affect millions and come at a time when points of 'no return' have been crossed for critical ecosystem services. Owing to migrant network connections, environmental degradation may perpetuate existing patterns and drive the movement of people towards traditional destinations. Such migration flows will increasingly originate from resourcestressed environments — areas where large-scale humanitarian assistance or peacekeeping is already required. --Janos Bogardi & Koko Warner “Here Comes the Flood.” The Journal Nature (2008)
MARSHALL ISLANDS
TUVALU
TOKELAU
KIRIBATI
KIRIBATI
KIRIBATI
“Water levels are rising faster around the islands of the South Pacific than anywhere else on Earth” — Gerald Traufetter, Speigal International (2014)
Sea level rise at Tuvalu (Funafati Atoll) 1950 - 2009 Becker (2009)
“Tidal gauges suggest that the world’s oceans have risen by 1.77 millimetres a year since 1950. Satellite evidence points to around double that rate in the western Pacific Ocean over the past two decades. Measurements from Funafuti, the capital of Tuvalu, indicate an increase of 5 millimetres a year over the past 60 years.” — “Sea Change,” The Economist (2013)
Plate Tectonics: Subsidence University of California Geology 303 (2009)
Prevailing Winds and Rainfall Distribution (1901)
Map of the South Pacific, Rand-McNally
South Pacific Atolls. Drawing by Author (2014)
Atoll Formation. Charles Darwin. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs (1842)
“Kiribati's President Anote Tong is in talks to buy 23 sq km (9 sq miles) on Fiji's Vanua Levu island. The land is wanted for crops, to settle some Kiribati farmers and to extract earth for sea defences, reports say. Some of Kiribati's 32 coral atolls, which straddle the equator, are already disappearing beneath the ocean. None of the atolls rises more than a few metres above the sea level.” --BBC News “Kiribati mulls Fiji land purchase in battle against sea”
It is necessary, first, to distinguish between those countries in the South Pacific where a small number of atolls are part of a much larger country (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Palau, Fiji, and New Caledonia), countries having a significant number of atolls but at least one high island (Federated States of Micronesia [FSM], French Polynesia, and Cook Islands), and what are here referred to as the atoll states, consisting entirely of atolls (Tuvalu, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, and Tokelau)... ... In historic times atoll dwellers were extremely mobile and far from insular; men and women moved readily between islands in search of new land, disease-free sites, wives, trade goods, and so on. In this way some islands were populated, depopulated, and later repopulated. Mobility itself was responsible for demographic survival; without mobility, adaptation and change were impossible.� -John Connell, “Population, Migration, And Problems Of Atoll Development In The South Pacific�
South Pacific EEZs at risk from Sea Level Rise. Cleo Pascal, The Huffington Post (2010)
Kiribati is planning for staggered international migration on merit, backed by a government policy to re-train its people to migrate in the future to Fiji, New Zealand and Australia... ... For Tuvalu, migration as a result of climate change is seen as an option of last resort with rights to land and culture the paramount discourse (McNamara and Gibson, 2009). This position is bound up in people’s connection to place and what this means for identity, culture, spirituality and psychosocial wellbeing (Mortreux and Barnett, 2009). Willy Telavi, the Prime Minister of Tuvalu, argues that their concern about migration is the loss of sovereignty. -Roy Smith and Karen E McNamara, “Government discourses of climate change migration in Tuvalu and Kiribati”
“In Tokelau, migration to New Zealand is a right, and migration from the Marshall Islands to the U.S. is possible (and acceptable) under the Compact of Free Association. For Tuvalu and Kiribati only migration to Nauru is possible at the moment “ -John Connell, “Population, Migration, And Problems Of Atoll Development In The South Pacific”
USA
MARSHALL ISLANDS
KIRABATI TUVALU
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Migration Patterns from Atoll States Drawing by Author (2014)
Funafati atoll, Capitol of Tuvalu, Pacific Ocean Gary Braasch (2005)
RUSSIA
NORWAY
ALASKA
ICELAND
GREENLAND
A warming climate could cause landgrabs on a national scale. Today Greenland is a largely self-governing territory of Denmark that the world leaves in peace because no nation covets its shivering expanse. Should the Earth warm, Copenhagen might assert greater jurisdiction over Greenland, or stronger governments might scheme to seize this dwarf continent, which is roughly three times the size of Texas. Today Antarctica is under international administration, and this arrangement is generally accepted because the continent has no value beyond scientific research. If the world warmed for a long time—and it would likely take centuries for the Antarctic ice sheet to melt completely— international jockeying to seize or conquer Antarctica might become intense. Some geologists believe large oil deposits are under the Antarctic crust: In earlier epochs, the austral pole was densely vegetated and had conditions suitable for the formation of fossil fuels. -- Gregg Easterbrook Global Warming: Who Loses--And Who Wins?� (2013)
Lindsay Abrams Salon (2014)
Lindsay Abrams Salon (2014)
Meltwater lake at North Pole North Pole Environmental Observatory (2013)
Eight nations, Smith argues, stand to benefit as the Arctic melts: the United States (thanks to Alaska), Canada, Russia, Denmark (because of close ties to its former colony, Greenland), Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. These northern rim countries, or NORCs, as Smith calls them, will see an influx of investment; their long winters will become more tolerable, their water reserves more valuable; humans, plants, and animals will migrate north, seeking relief from the hot, crowded, water-stressed lower latitudes. Climate change won’t be the only factor driving the transformation. Smith includes three more forces in his short list of worldshapers: population growth, accelerating globalization, and humanity’s insatiable demand for natural resources. -- Tim Folger. Review of “The World in 2050” (2010)
With a warmer climate and the receding of glaciers, the Arctic, Greenland, Iceland and Northern Scandinavia will become an important new European area of development, with important resources in the clean air, water, soil. --Trausti Valsson, The North: The New European Frontier with Global Warming (2006)
The “Circular World” in the Northern Hemisphere with future settlement areas in white. ACIA (2004)
Glacier testing, Arctic Ocean Peter Leopold (2014)
Map of the Northern Hemisphere Covens and Mortier (1741)
Shift from the Ribbon World to the Circular World Traust Valsson(2004)
The high North and the Arctic are very likely to become one of the most important development areas in the world in the future. The areas are very rich in resources, a plus that is already leading to considerable development. The lessened ice on rivers and the opening of the Arctic Sea routes between the Arctic and Pacific Oceans will in due time make more and more of these resources accessible. A substantial increase of ship traffic along the Siberian coast, for instance, has already opened the coastal areas to increases in development. --Trausti Valsson, “How the World Will Change with Global Warming� (2006)
MALTA
MELILLA CEUTA
Sahelian countries are expected to be amongst the regions most affected by impacts of climate change such as hotter and drier climates, oscillations in precipitation patterns and land degrada- tion. The UNDP estimates that a considerable amount of drylands in sub-Saharan Africa could experience severe droughts. Countries like Senegal and Mali could lose up to 50 percent of their agricultural capacity. The Sahel and particularly West Africa has, on the other hand, a long history of population movements and represents a multitude of migration patterns and trajectories. For a few years now, internal and international migrations have increased in both countries. However, causes and motives for migration are manifold, and the relationship between ecosystem changes and population mobility is complex. Hummel et al, MICLE Project, 2012
“To the general indifference of the West, Lake Chad, the fourth-largest body of fresh water in Africa, is disappearingand taking life along with it. Over the past 40 years, it has lost 90% of its area, shrinking from 25,000 square kilometers to just 2,500. Not long ago, the lake was bordered by four countries: Chad, Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Today, it touches no more than two. According to NASA, ‘Lake Chad is now just a shadow of its former self because of climate change and human overuse. If nothing is done, it will be gone in 20 years.’” — Aude Raux, “Low tide in Lake Chad” From the book Climate Refugees
“Low tide in Lake Chad” From the book Climate Refugees
Shrinking Lake Chad. NASA: Images of Change (2012)
The Disappearance of Lake Chad in Africa. 1963 - 2010. NASA (2010)
Lake Chad. Collage by Artist Mehreen Murtaza. Grey Noise Gallery (2012)
West Africa. Google Earth (2014)
MALTA CEUTA
MELILLA
Severe Drought areas in the Sahel and Associated Migration Patterns. Drawing by Author (2014)
Away from the glitz of the tourist resorts, tucked away on the south coast of Malta, are the refugee camps that house migrants from Africa. The men and women who live in the camps are constantly reminded that there is no space for them on the island. — Nicky Gardner and Susanne Kries, Hidden Europe, “Maltese Arrivals” (2010)
Hal Far Refugee Camp, Malta Myriam Thyes (2009)
HAL FAR DECOMISSIONED AIRPORT
Satellite image of Malta NASA (2001)
Ten years ago Spain spent more than 30 million euros building up the barriers around Melilla and Ceuta, its two enclaves surrounded by Morocco on the northern coast of Africa, which offer the only land borders between the promise of Europe and the despair of Africa. And for a while the investment seemed to work. But in the past year, large groups of sub-Saharan immigrants have been charging the rows of seven-yard-high chain-link fences here with increasing frequency, or trying to swim around them, believing with good reason that if they can just get past they will ultimately end up in Europe. They often end up injured, not just from falls and the newly laid concertina wire, but at the hands of the Moroccan and Spanish authorities trying to stop them. — Suzanne Daly. “As Africans Surge to Europe’s Door, Spain Locks Down” The New York Times (2014)
Photo Š J.B. Russell, Calamocarro camp, euta, Spain. Fortress Europe - Immigration (1998)
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Satellite image of Ceuta NASA (2007)
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Satellite image of Mellila Google (2014)
Historic Migration Patterns Carl Sauer (1952)
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TUVALU
TOKELAU
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KIRIBATI
ALASKA
RUSSIA
MALTA
NORWAY
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MELILLA CEUTA
GREENLAND
Poles of Fluid Migrations Drawing by Author (2014)
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MARSHALL ISLANDS
TUVALU
TOKELAU
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KIRIBATI
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Poles of Fluid Migrations. Drawing by Author (2014)
USSIA
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GREENLAND
This mission of the Torreya Guardians, as they are known, represents the first deliberate implementation of a radical conservation idea known as "assisted migration." As the planet warms, many plants and animals are pushing toward the poles, or to higher elevations, in search of comfortable habitat. Similar migrations have unfolded many times before in the planet's long history, but this time there is an obstacle course of human creations - sprawling cities, a skein of highways, and vast swaths of intensive monoculture instead of rich prairie ecosystems. Some species may not be able to find their way over, around, or through all of this to cooler climes, and so some scientists are entertaining the idea of giving them a hand. -- Chris Burdick “Driving Mr. Lynx� The Boston Globe (2008)
“It is one of the ironies of globalisation that while goods, capital, knowledge, entrepreneurship and the media are free to flow across borders, labour, that other crucial factor of production is not. In fact, on the whole people are less free to migrate now than they were 100 years ago.” — King “Theories and Typologies of Migration” (2012)
REFERENCES ORGANIZATIONAL AVISO + Satellite Altimetry Data. CNES, Web. 26 Feb 2014. <http://www. aviso.altimetry.fr/en/data.html>. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. “CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research.” 2013. “http://www.cmar.csiro.au” Estimating the Climate and Circulation of the Ocean. Ecco Group, 2007. Web. 27 Feb 2014. <http://www.ecco-group.org/index.htm>. European Space Agency (ESA). “EuroSat Online.” 2000 - 2014. < https:// earth.esa.int/instruments/doris/descr/charact.html> Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS). “OceanCurrent.” 2011. < http://oceancurrent.imos.org.au> “NASA Oceanography.” NASA Earth Science. National Aeronautics and space administration, Apr 2010. Web. 28 Feb 2014. <http://science.nasa. gov/earth-science/oceanography/>. Ocean Explorer. Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce , Web. 27 Feb 2014. <http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov>. INSTRUMENTAL Freeman, Anthony, Victor Slotnicki, Tim Liu, Benjamin Holt and Ron Kwok. “Ocean Measurements from Space in 2025.” Oceanography. 23.4 (2010): 144-160. Print Paul, Edwards. The Vast Machine. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010. Print. Slaymaker, Olav, Thomas Spencer, Christine Embleton-Hamann. Geomorphology and global environmental change. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2009. Satellite Geodesy at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. University of California San Diego. Web. 27 Feb 2014. <http://topex.ucsd.edu> Sandwell, David & Waltern Smith “Global Bathymetric Prediction for Ocean Modelling and Marine Geophysics” Satellite Geodesy at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. University of California San Diego. 27 Feb 2014.
MATERIAL Bogardi, Janos & Koko Warner “Here Comes the Flood.” The Journal Nature, 2008. “Sea Change.” The Economist. Aug 31 2013. < http://www.economist.com/news/ asia/21584396-gathering-pacific-leaders-worries-about-climate-change-seachange> Zemp, Michael, Jaap van Woerden, Isabelle Roer, [et al.]. Global glacier changes: facts and figures. Zurich, Switzerland: World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS), c2008. SPATIAL Barry, Roger G & Thian Yew Gan. The global cryosphere : past, present, and future. Cambridge, UK ; Cambridge University Press, 2011. Barnett, Jon. “Global warming and the security of atoll-countries” Burdick, Chris “Driving Mr. Lynx” The Boston Globe, 2008. Connell, John. “Population, Migration, And Problems Of Atoll Development In TheSouth Pacific” The Journal of Pacific Studies, Vol. 9 No. 2. 1986. Collectif Argos. Climate Refugees. The MIT Press: Cambridge 2010. Daly, Suzanne. “As Africans Surge to Europe’s Door, Spain Locks Down.” The New York Times, 2014. Easterbrook, Gregg. “Global Warming: Who Loses--And Who Wins?” The Atlantic. April 01, 2007. Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007 Forman, Richard. Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. Gardner, Nicky and Susanne Kries, “Maltese Arrivals.” Hidden Europe, 2010 King, Russell. “Theories and Tyopologies of Migration.” Willy Brandt Series of Working Papers in International Migration and Ethnic Relations. Malmo University: 2012. 5
Smith, Roy & Karen E McNamara. “Government discourses of climate change migration in Tuvalu and Kiribati.” Asia-Pacific Migration and Development Network. 08 July 2013. Traufetter, Gerald. “UN Global Warming Report: The Age of the Climate Refugees?”. Spiegel International, 2014. Valsson, Trausti. How the World Will Change with Global Warming. Iceland University Press: Reykjavik (2006). HISTORICAL Douglas et al. Sea Level Rise: History and Consequences. San Diego: Academic Press, c2001. Sauer, Carl. Agricultural Origins and Dispersals - The Domestication of Animals and Foodstuffs. MIT Press: Cambridge, 1968 Meadows, Donella. The Limits to Growth. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972. Print. REPRESENTATION Blunden, J., and D. S. Arndt, Eds., 2013: State of the Climate in 2012. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. Bjørke, Sven Åke and Megumi Seki. Vital climate change graphics. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP ; Arendal, Norway: GRID-Arendal, 2005. Dow, Kirstin.The atlas of climate change : mapping the world’s greatest challenge. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, c2011. King, Micheal D. [et. al.]. Our changing planet: the view from space. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2007. NASA. “Scientific Visualization Studio.” 2014. < http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov>