Racial Discrimination and Anxiety in African American Adolescents Janean Cuffee
Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders affecting American adolescents, with nearly one-fifth of the population experiencing some form of anxiety before adulthood (Hazen et al., 2011). In general, anxiety disorders can include fear and excessive worry about health, social interactions, and everyday circumstances, which may result in feelings of irritability, fatigue, and restlessness, as well as difficulty concentrating and controlling one’s feelings (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2018). Moreover, symptoms of anxiety negatively influence overall well-being, self-esteem, and academic success which specifically impacts adolescents (Derdikman-Eiron et al., 2011). Research shows that not only are adolescents vulnerable to developing anxiety in response to life events, but also they struggle with developing strategies to manage additional stressors (Garnefki et al., 2002). Race-related experiences, such as consistent exposure to racial discrimination, have been linked to the development of anxiety symptoms (Clark et al., 2004; Gaylord-Harden, Elmore et al., 2011). Specifically, African American adolescents are faced with the highest levels of racial discrimination in the United States, resulting in feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, and, ultimately, anxiety disorders (Caughy et al., 2004; SandersPhillips, 2009). Notably, the impact of racial discrimination on African American adolescents differs depending on whether it is overt (i.e., unfair behaviors towards an individual based on their race; Dovidio & Gaertner 1986; Gaylord-Harden & Cunningham, 2009) or perceived (i.e., an individual’s perception and internalization of someone’s negative actions as being racially driven; Sellers & Shelton, 2003). Nonetheless, both perceived and overt racial discrimination negatively affect African American adolescents’ symptoms of anxiety (Assari et al., 2017; Clark et al., 2004). Furthermore, research shows that both the expression and exacerbation of symptoms of anxiety differ by gender (Assari et al., 2017; Brodish et al., 2011; Palapattu et al., 2006). Therefore, the current review explores the following research question: How does racial discrimination impact symptoms of anxiety in African American adolescents, and how might these symptoms differ by gender? Overt Racial Discrimination Racial discrimination is an active and persistent stressor in African American adolescents’ lives; studies show that experiencing racial discrimination correlates to higher levels of anxiety symptoms (Berkel et al., 2008; Gaylord-Harden & Cunningham, 2009; Smith-Bynum et al., 2014). Overt racial discrimination encompasses blatant antipathy, endorsing derogatory stereotypes, and believing one group is inherently
inferior (Cortina, 2008). Exposure to overt racial discrimination at high levels may result in an increasingly sensitive neurological structure related to managing threats, which leads to anxiety symptoms (Gaylord-Harden, Elmore, et al., 2011). Adolescent experiences with overt racial discrimination result in heightened negative psychological stress responses, hypervigilance, an increase in unhealthy behaviors, and increased physiological stress responses (Himmelstein et al., 2015; Sellers et al., 2003). As a result, African American adolescents, as compared to non-African American adolescents, are forced to address these additional stressors resulting from everyday racial discrimination, which worsens their symptoms of anxiety (Sellers et al., 2003). In addition to symptoms of anxiety, overt racial discrimination further taxes African American adolescents’ sense of identity, by decreasing self-worth and sense of control, and increasing mistrust for others (Sanders-Phillips, 2009; Simons et al., 2002). African Americans’ racial discrimination experiences are correlated with heightened levels of anger, nervousness, and assumptions of social interactions as harassment, negatively impacting their mental health (Assari et al., 2017). Additionally, overt racial discrimination is internalized as oppression, which increases anxiety and impacts adolescents’ well-being and academic performance (Wong et al., 2003). Furthermore, discrimination from peers and teachers correlates to a decline in self assessment of academic ability, grades, and the value of academic tasks (Wong et al., 2003). As a result, increased symptoms of anxiety in African American adolescents, caused by the internalization of overt racial discrimination, hinder future success (Berkel et al., 2008; Derdikman‐Eiron et al., 2011). Perceived Racial Discrimination Recent studies show that African American adolescents’ awareness of racism influences the expression of anxiety disorders (Hunter & Schmidt, 2010). Negative group perceptions of African Americans are internalized by African American adolescents, and, thus, increase their anxiety (Tajfel, 1974). Group perceptions, with regard to race, are defined by stereotypes of ethnic groups that create a general perception of an individual’s identity based on their appearance (Duck et al, 2000; Scharrer, 2002). Negative group perception (i.e., race) negatively affects adolescents’ self-perception, resulting in internal blame and an increase in vulnerability to anxiety (Gaylord-Harden & Cunningham, 2009; Taylor et al., 2012). Increased levels of perceived racial discrimination, negative evaluations and criticism by others, and rejection Reviews | 7
