The Socio-Spatial Impact of Neo-Traditional Religious Architecture: A Case Study of the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum in Singapore
Gan Haoyi
A0297174R
Department of Architectural Conservation,
National University of Singapore
AC 5007: Dissertation
Supervisor:Dr. Chen Yu
April 2025
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Chen Yu. Thank her for her consistent support, patience and valuable suggestions. Throughout the entire writing process, her guidance was of vital importance to me. It not only helped me clarify my thoughts but also enabled me to gradually refine a clearer and more rigorous structure of my thesis. Her professionalism and unique insights have deeply influenced me.
I would also like to express my special gratitude to Professor Ho Puay Peng. His suggestions not only made me rethink the research direction of my thesis but also helped me understand the local culture of Singapore more deeply. His guidance and encouragement enabled me to view problems from different perspectives and greatly broadened my academic horizons.
I sincerely thank the National University of Singapore for providing me with abundant academic resources, especially the comprehensive services of the library and the multiangle guidance and support given by the teachers throughout the research process. Their help has benefited me a lot and made my research path smoother. At the same time, I would like to express my special gratitude to my classmates. Thank you for your continuous encouragement and sincere feedback, which have constantly motivated me to improve and enhance.
I also want to thank all the survey participants in the interview. Thank you for taking the time to share your experiences and ideas. It is precisely because of your sincere communication and participation that my research has become more genuine and profound.
Introduction
Research Background
The Buddha Tooth Temple Museum (BTRTM) was built in 2007, situated in Singapore's Chinatown (Figure 1 & Figure 2) The building exemplifies a neo-traditional Buddhist architecture that combines religious functions with tourist attractions. As a reconstructed site, it demonstrates the challenge of maintaining cultural authenticity while adapting to the demands of modern cities. Unlike traditional temples that focus mainly on worship activities, BTRTM is defined by a combined layout of prayer halls, museum exhibitions, and a rooftop garden. This design enables the temple to accommodate both religious practitioners and tourists. Chinatown in Singapore faces pressures from globalization and tourism commercialization. BTRTM’s emergence has intensified debates about the “staged authenticity” of constructed heritage, particularly its role in reshaping local identity. For instance, some residents perceive a decline in Hokkien cultural distinctiveness, yet the temple attracts over 500,000 annual visitors, driving commercial growth (BTRTM Annual Report, 2023). This paradox underscores the need to explore how neotraditional religious architecture navigates its dual mandate: sustaining spiritual traditions while stimulating socioeconomic regeneration.

Objectives and Research Questions
The primary research question is: How does the spatial and functional design of the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum contribute to the sustainable development of Chinatown and the propagation of Buddhist cultural values?
Three sub-questions guide the inquiry:
1) To what extent do the temple’s architectural adaptations (e.g. neotraditional design, modern amenities, vertical zoning) enhance the experiences of religious devotees and tourists?
2) How has the temple influenced the commercial landscape and spatial dynamics of the surrounding Chinatown district?
3) How does the temple navigate the tension between cultural conservation and economic development?
Theoretical foundations draw from Cohen’s (1988) “staged authenticity” concept, which critiques the commodification of cultural symbols, and Zukin’s (2010) gentrification theory, which links tourism influx to urban spatial restructuring.

Literature Review: Theoretical Lenses for Evaluating BTRTM’s Urban Role
Existing works such as Goh (2016) and Chia & Lim (2024) predominantly approach BTRTM as part of broader investigations into Buddhist museums or religious diplomacy. Goh’s (2016) historical ethnography explores BTRTM alongside other Buddhist museums, framing it within Singapore’s museological trends and internal sectarian dynamics. However, his work does not extensively assess the temple’s architectural-spatial logic or its socio-economic impacts within Chinatown’s urban ecosystem. Similarly, Chia and Lim (2024) situate BTRTM within the larger narrative of SinoSingapore Buddhist diplomacy, treating the museum function as a cultural soft power tool. While insightful, this perspective largely omits urban morphological analysis or stakeholder experiences at the local level. Only Yuen (2020) briefly discusses BTRTM’s
architectural symbolism and religious positioning, but even this account overlooks empirical evaluations of user perceptions, spatial circulation, and gentrification dynamics. Moreover, the focus on BTRTM’s Tang-style aesthetics in existing literature often bypasses how its vertical spatial zoning mediates between competing functions such as worship, tourism, and commerce. This oversight limits our understanding of how BTRTM operationalizes its hybrid identity in practice. Furthermore, this paper draws significantly on primary planning documents issued by URA, including Master Plans and site-specific Written Permission Decisions from 2003 to 2021. These planning records provide institutional evidence of how BTRTM was conceptualized and regulated as a tourism-oriented development. For instance, the 2007 and 2008 decisions (URA) explicitly designated the temple complex as a mixeduse facility combining “community, culture & secondary religious uses,” thereby legitimizing the co-location of sacred spaces, commercial outlets, and exhibition zones. These planning documents serve two key functions in this study. First, they substantiate the temple’s hybrid functional mandate as a product of state-sanctioned urban design rather than a purely religious initiative. Second, they offer chronological benchmarks that allow for comparative spatial and economic analysis before and after the temple’s development. This paper addresses these research gaps by offering an integrated socio-spatial analysis of BTRTM. Through a mixed-methods approach, this study advances beyond descriptive framed narratives. It investigates how BTRTM’s design, zoning, and
Staged Authenticity and Cultural Commodification
Cohen’s (1988) concept of “staged authenticity” critiques the repackaging of cultural practices for tourist consumption, often diluting their original meaning. While foundational in tourism studies, its applicability to religious sites remains debated. For instance, Zhang et al. (2011) demonstrate that Buddhist temples in China successfully balance ritual integrity with visitor engagement, challenging Cohen’s assumption of inevitable commodification.
Cohen’s theory will be beneficial to assess whether the temple’s hybrid design, which integrates prayer halls with a museum and commercial zone, compromises spiritual authenticity. Surveys measuring tourist satisfaction (e.g., ratings of “cultural experience”) and interviews with devotees will test if BTRTM’s practices align with Cohen’s “staged” paradigm or Zhang et al.’s (2011) model of functional coexistence.
While Cohen's (1988) framework of staged authenticity has remained a key critique of cultural commodification, later studies have developed more detailed perspectives on authenticity. Wang (1999) highlighted a key difference between 'objective authenticity' and 'existential authenticity'. The latter mainly focuses on individual experiences and emotional attachments. When applied to BTRTM, this approach suggests that visitors may view the temple as 'authentic' less for its factual accuracy and more for its ability to evoke spiritual feelings and visual appeal. This shift moves discussions of authenticity from a simple focus on preservation to an emphasis on visitor experience.
It helps to assess whether BTRTM's blended design creates valuable engagement precisely through its managed presentation elements.
The concept of 'constructive authenticity' also applies to design approaches that intentionally adapt historical styles to arouse specific cultural impression. BTRTM uses architectural elements from the Tang Dynasty, which are not originate from Singapore. This choice reflects a unconscious effort to reframe cultural significance through creative adaptation. While such design may be interpreted as an accident of cultural reinterpretation, it also risks marginalizing local architectural practices and spatial impressions. The selective use of general Chinese symbolism prioritizes visual impact and spiritual spectacle over continuity with Singapore's indigenous Buddhist architectural heritage.
This approach challenges the binary model of authenticity proposed by Cohen (1988), which frames cultural expressions as either “authentic” or “staged.” Wang’s (1999)
“existential authenticity” and the notion of “constructive authenticity” allow for a more flexible interpretation In such context, heritage value can be derived from emotional resonance or symbolic meaning, rather than strict historical accuracy.
Cultural Economics and Policy Design
Throsby’s (2010) cultural economics framework advocates staged heritage as both an economic asset and a social good. This theory is empirically supported by Henderson’s
(2002) comparative study of Hong Kong and Singapore, which highlights policy-driven success in preserving temple precincts amid urbanization.
Throsby (2010) highlights how cultural heritage’s significance goes beyond financial aspect to include non-economic values such as spirituality, community bonds, symbolism, and cultural identity. For BTRTM, spiritual value emerges from its status as a pilgrimage destination attracting regional worshippers. Community value stems from its role as a hub for neighborhood activities and volunteer networks. Symbolic value is conveyed through its striking Tang-style architecture, which strengthens Chinatown’s image as a culturally vibrant area. To analyze these aspects, user perspectives are gathered through interviews and on-site observations, while visitor statistics and tourism income offer insights into economic impact.
Vertical Spatial Design in Religious Architecture
Qian and Kong (2018) show how vertical layering improves access to religious spaces in dense cities. Their study of Po-Lin Monastery revealed increased visitor participation while preserving ritual activities, evidenced by spatial behavior analysis Their thoughts on vertical zoning and ritual-tourism coexistence offer useful tools for analyzing BTRTM, which similarly merges prayer areas, cultural exhibits, and shops.
The temple’s vertical design will undergo visitor flow analysis using circulation diagrams. This spatial configuration evaluation aims to apply Qian and Kong’s (2018) theory of vertical zoning efficacy in this paper. Specifically, examining whether the
commercial infrastructure successfully attracts tourists while maintaining the sanctity required for spiritual observances.
Theoretical frameworks such as “staged authenticity” (Cohen, 1988) and vertical spatial zoning (Qian & Kong, 2018) have significantly influenced understandings of heritage-temple interactions. The empirical research specifically examines contemporary Buddhist temples in Singapore remains limited. Existing literature focuses mainly on historic temples such as Lian Shan Shuang Lin Monastery and Thian Hock Keng Temple. These studies prioritize three aspects: architectural conservation, historical documentation, and cultural continuity during urban transformations (Henderson, 2002). In comparison, research on BTRTM shows notable limitations. As a modern temple specifically created to advance urban sustainability and tourism goals, BTRTM has received fragmented scholarly attention with narrowly defined research scopes.
For instance, previous studies on BTRTM have explored isolated themes. Goh (2016) examines the temple's museological role and its implications for Buddhist heritage presentation. Chia and Lim (2024) focus on the temple’s exhibition practices as instruments for cultural diplomacy and soft power Wang (2023) assesses the ambivalent responses of tourists and practitioners to the modernized religious tourism experience at the temple. However, these analyses generally neglect the spatial, socioeconomic, and broader community impacts associated with BTRTM’s hybridized architectural design and operational strategies. Crucially, they do not provide an
Construction commenced in March 2005 on a 2,000 square meter plot at the intersection of South Bridge Road and Sago Lane (Figure 1). The temple was officially completed and consecrated on May 30, 2007, after just over two years of construction involving more than 300 workers, including craftsmen from China and local contractors. The Singapore Tourism Board (STB)'s support facilitated the temple's integration into the urban fabric, promoting it as a centerpiece for cultural tourism within Chinatown. The project's funding, amounting to approximately SGD 75 million, was predominantly sourced from public donations, underscoring the community's commitment to the temple's realization (Buddha Tooth Relic Temple, n.d.).
According to the planning decisions from URA, BTRTM was initially designated explicitly as a tourism-oriented development. In the approval granted on February 9, 2007, the URA described the project explicitly as a "tourism development comprising of a 4-storey building for community, culture & secondary religious uses with a mezzanine floor and three basement car parks" (URA, 2007). This clearly indicates the intention to integrate cultural, religious, and communal activities within a framework designed to attract tourists.
Further planning permissions and subsequent amendments in 2008 and 2021 reaffirmed and strengthened this designation. The 2008 amendment introduced the gross floor area (GFA) regulations to strengthen tourism infrastructure development (URA, 2008). Subsequent changes between 2012 and 2021 prioritized the expansion of commercial and exhibition spaces. Temple ancillary spaces were converted into
restaurant complexes, curated exhibition halls, and themed retail outlets (URA, 2012, 2013, 2021). These progressive regulatory adjustments reveal how planners and temple administrators strategically reconfigured the spatial organization of the BTRTM to balance ritual functions with the demands of destination tourism.
From its inception, BTRTM was planned as a hybrid structure, which is an ambitious convergence of religious, cultural, and commercial functions. Inspired by Tang Dynasty aesthetics, the temple embodies a form of "constructed heritage" that blends historicist style with modern infrastructure. This strategic spatial arrangement allows BTRTM to operate efficiently as a site of worship, museological functions, and tourist attractions.
BTRTM has achieved notable success by attracting more than 500,000 annual visitors and stimulating economic growth in its surrounding areas. However, this achievement coexists with ongoing debates regarding the site's cultural authenticity. While the Tangstyle elements employed in the complex creates visually striking structures, its design principles differ from the local Hokkien architectural traditions. This architectural approach raises fundamental questions about whether the temple complex undermines local cultural identities.
In this context, BTRTM serves as a compelling case study for examining the intersections of religious architecture, heritage conservation, and urban tourism. Its development outlines the complexities of preserving cultural authenticity while accommodating contemporary urban dynamics. This study will use BTRTM as a focal
point to explore the challenges and strategies inherent in integrating sacred spaces into the modern urban landscape. It will contribute to the discourse on sustainable heritage management in rapidly developing cities.
Methodology
This study is guided by a methodological framework shaped by theories from urban sociology, tourism studies, cultural economics, and architectural analysis. These theories are not used solely for background context. They serve as tools that actively guide how data is gathered and analyzed. Zukin’s (2010) work on tourism-driven gentrification offers a lens to explore how changing visitor patterns reshape urban spaces. Cohen’s (1988) idea of staged authenticity helps examine how religious spaces are adapted for public consumption. Throsby’s (2010) model provides a way to consider the cultural value embedded in planning decisions. Qian and Kong’s (2018) theory on vertical spatial design supports the analysis of layered architectural functions. These perspectives help explain how neo-traditional religious buildings such as BTRTM influence urban change while navigating the balance between heritage protection and economic growth. These theoretical perspectives shape both the development of research questions, and the design of the methods used. Based on this foundation, the study adopts a mixedmethods strategy, using triangulation to explore the spatial, social, and economic dimensions of BTRTM’s influence within the historic setting of Singapore’s Chinatown.
the institutional context of heritage management, the study also adopts Throsby's (2010) framework of cultural economics and policy analysis. This approach supports a close examination of planning instruments related to BTRTM. These elements are analyzed within the broader scholarly discussion of how cultural heritage is understood and valued, both as an economic resource and as a symbol of collective identity.
Qian and Kong’s (2018) model of vertical spatial design in dense urban environments offers a spatial-behavioral framework for understanding the layered configuration of BTRTM. This perspective informs the use of movement-tracking methods and ethnographic observation to study how vertical zoning influences the interaction between sacred functions and commercial activities. Through this lens, the research explores whether spatial separation alleviates or exacerbates the competing demands within the temple complex. The theoretical approaches outlined in this study contribute to an interdisciplinary methodology that reveals the complex socio-spatial dynamics of religious architecture within a multicultural urban context.
Methods
This paper addresses a critical empirical gap by comprehensively investigating BTRTM’s role as both a religious institution and a catalyst for urban regeneration. Through an integrative methodological approach, this study employs spatial analysis, structured visitor and stakeholder surveys, semi-structured interviews with local merchants, religious practitioners, and long-term residents, and a critical evaluation of relevant policy documents.
This mixed-method strategy enables a holistic assessment of the socio-spatial impacts stemming from BTRTM’s neo-traditional architectural design and its hybrid operational model. Additionally, recognizing the limitations of existing thematic and narrowly focused analyses (Chia & Lim, 2024; Goh, 2016; Wang, 2023), this paper systematically documents local stakeholders’ lived experiences, highlighting community perceptions often overlooked in broader heritage narratives. Such methodological rigor provides nuanced empirical data necessary for evaluating theoretical frameworks concerning staged authenticity (Cohen, 1988) and urban gentrification (Zukin, 2010), thus ensuring a robust foundation for subsequent policy recommendations.
This paper adopts a theory-driven mixed-methods approach to explore the spatial, socio-cultural, and economic dimensions of BTRTM. On the quantitative side, the research includes structured questionnaires. These were administered to both local worshippers and international tourists. The survey collected data on visit duration, spending behavior, perceived authenticity, and overall satisfaction. Based on Cohen’s (1988) typologies of authenticity, this comparison would be analyzed to determine whether visitors perceive BTRTM as an “authentic” or a “staged” religious site. In addition, the study uses longitudinal data on rental prices, business turnover, and retail types. This data was obtained from URA databases and on-site field surveys. Together, they offer an empirical basis for evaluating gentrification trends.
and environmentally sensitive methods for managing multi-functional religious sites such as BTRTM.
Scope of the study
This paper focuses on the BTRTM and its immediate urban context in Singapore's Chinatown, specifically bounded by South Bridge Road and Pagoda Street. This zone (Figure 4) was chosen for its dual role as a heritage conservation area and a site of intense tourism and commercial activity. It is therefore an ideal microcosm for investigating the intersection of religious architecture, cultural identity, and urban redevelopment. Within this spatial boundary, the research investigates how the spatial organization, architectural symbolism, and functional hybridity of the BTRTM contribute to broader processes of urban regeneration and cultural production in a multicultural environment.

The scope of inquiry is structured around the temple’s role as both a religious sanctuary and a tourism-oriented infrastructure, with particular emphasis on its vertical zoning
strategy, its influence on the surrounding commercial ecosystem, and its capacity to convey and transform Buddhist cultural values. Rather than adopting a comparative framework, this research privileges in-depth, site-specific analysis to highlight the nuances of a single case study. The study incorporates multiple perspectives, including those of devotees, tourists, merchants, and planners, to provide a comprehensive understanding of how a contemporary religious monument functions within the layered urban fabric of a historic ethnic district.
Surveys
Between March 2 and March 24, 2025, a series of structured in-person interviews were conducted across four weekends at BTRTM. A total of 80 visitors were randomly selected and surveyed, alongside 3 experts in architecture and urban planning. The primary objective was to gauge visitor perceptions of authenticity, spatial functionality, and cultural resonance, while also integrating expert commentary to contextualize these public sentiments within broader architectural and heritage discourses. The survey enquiry and result are shown as Table 1, and Table 2 represents the collected data of the survey.
Another survey (Table 3) incorporates a small-scale survey targeting long-term residents and local stakeholders with the vicinity of BTRTM. The survey sampled 30 individuals living or operating within a 300-meter radius of the temple, with the aim of capturing community-level perceptions of cultural transformation. Questions focused on changes in local identity, business turnover, and attitudes toward the commercial
Architectural Features and Spatial Function Arrangement
The architectural composition of BTRTM represents a neo-traditional architectural strategy that recreates the impression of Tang Dynasty. This intentional historicism manifests through three primary design elements First, in its multi-tiered pagoda form that references the Tang Dnasty architectural features. Second, the extensive deployment of traditional joinery techniques evident in the complex bracketing systems and interlocking wooden carvings adorning structural elements (Figure 5). Third, through its chromatic program employing vermilion lacquer work with gilt accents (Figure 6), which is a color scheme historically reserved for imperial palatial complexes and Buddhist temple compounds during the Tang Dynasty.


These architectural elements, such as the ornate facades and richly decorated interiors, capture the attention of visitors and provide an immersive experience into Buddhist art and architecture. By presenting façades that resonate with the public interception of Chinese Buddhist, BTRTM effectively attracts a diverse audience, including those interested in cultural heritage and architectural splendor.
The spatial circulation lines (Figure 7) are stratified and organized to provide independent entry and exit routes for religious practitioners and tourists. Believers mainly enter the temple through the main entrance on the South Bridge Road and go directly to the ground-floor Main Prayer Hall. From there, the elevator provides a vertical connection to the upper floor. The elevator can reach all floors except the rooftop garden. This path is functionally consistent with the concept of spiritual elevation, strengthening the sacred movement axis and minimizing interference with religious ceremonies.

Tourists usually enter through the entrance. The entrance guides them into the cultural relics room on the first floor and the exhibition hall on the middle floor. They can also
strategically guide tourists away from sacred Spaces through wayfinding signs, multilingual maps and physical barriers (Figure 8). This intentional diversion of the flow of people emphasizes the principle of "functional zoning", aiming to reduce the friction between secular and sacred uses in multi-functional religious buildings (Zhang et al., 2011). However, personal observations over the weekend indicated that this separation would occasionally be interrupted. There is overlapping flow in transitional Spaces such as stairwells and tourist elevator halls. These encounters often lead to spatial congestion and sound interference, undermining the seriousness of the ceremony.

The circulation strategy divides the tourist experience into stages through sequential narrative. Before arriving the observation gallery on the upper floor, visitors will encounter elaborately curated exhibits, where they can catch a glimpse of sacred Spaces such as the Museum Room. The purpose of this spatial sequencing is to cultivate awe and context understanding before approaching the sacred area, which can be interpreted as a form of "construction pilgrimage" (Cohen, 1988). Although it enhances
the interpretive experience of non-devotees, it also raises questions about the instrumentalization of sacred architecture to promote spectacular participation (Cohen, 1988). The circulation system within BTRTM embodies spatial originality and operational compromise. It attempts to reconcile the dual requirements of religious sacredness and visitor accessibility through hierarchical vertical zoning, fork paths and timed access control. Although the system is largely effective, it is still vulnerable to congestion and user conflicts, specifically during peak access periods. Future architectural interventions can benefit from integrated intelligent building technologies, such as sensor-based crowd management and dynamic route modulation, to enhance spatial efficiency and experience harmony.
The vertical space organization of BTRTM deliberately seeks a balance between religious sanctity and tourism accessibility. This move reflects the trend of religious architectural design that maximizes limited urban space through vertical integration. This method has been reflected in the different functional areas of the temple. For example, the retail space on the first floor serves tourists, the prayer hall on the upper floor serves believers, and the rooftop garden (Figure 9) providing a peaceful meditation environment. The central Buddha niche on the fourth floor houses the sacred Buddha's tooth, which is particularly important as it symbolizes spiritual elevation and effectively separates the sacred area from the commercial activities below.


Without affecting spiritual and cultural authenticity, this hierarchical structure vertically integrates space, enhances functions, and optimizes the utilization of limited urban land. However, this design choice is not without controversy. The practice of placing sacred Spaces above commercial facilities has drawn criticism. At this point, concerns about "stage authenticity" are of great significance. Cohen believes that commercialization may transform religious sites into tourism commodities, thereby undermining the symbolic meaning of religion (Cohen, 1988). Tourist surveys also confirm this tension and reveal a divided view. Although many tourists appreciate the convenience and overall experience provided by the integrated space, some devotees express unease about the commercialization of the spiritual environment, believing that it undermines the sanctity of worship (Table 2).
The layout of the temple, while promoting the flow of tourists and increasing accessibility, also creates conditions for potential conflicts. For example, the noise from tourists and the disturbance to meditation caused by congestion during peak hours. Qualitative interviews (Table 2) emphasized these interferences. 32.5% of the
historical accuracy, but can arise from an individual's sense of connection, representation and immersion, which is called "existential authenticity". Within BTRTM, many visitors report a sense of spiritual elevation and aesthetic awe, suggesting that the temple’s symbolic reconstruction achieves affective resonance even if its architectural lineage is reinterpreted.
In this sense, BTRTM’s Tang-style design, though not representative of Singaporean Chinese heritage, may serve as a medium for what could be termed "architectural mythmaking": a process of narrativizing heritage to align with imagined cultural grandeur. Whether such mythmaking compromises or enhances cultural identity is a matter of perspective; however, it reinforces the notion that authenticity is not static, but socially constructed and context-dependent
Survey (Table 2) conducted among visitors to BTRTM indicate a predominant prioritization of practical amenities, such as air-conditioned spaces, multilingual guides, and accessibility, over strict historical accuracy or traditional architectural authenticity. This phenomenon shows that reconstructed religious sites tend to thrive when user experiences are given precedence over historical precision. Visitors' satisfaction with these conveniences underscores a shift towards a more pragmatic interpretation of authenticity, which emphasizes personal engagement and experiential quality rather than adherence to original cultural forms.
district should coordinate the demands of modern functions with the moral obligation to maintain cultural authenticity and community identity in the rapid urbanization
Vertical Zoning and Spatial Mediation in BTRTM’s Architectural Design
Although the style choice of BTRTM has no historical connection with the shophouses in Chinatown, it still has a strong symbolic meaning and functional purpose. The visual symmetry on the front of the temple creates a sense of monumentality. This, to a certain extent, takes advantage of people's inherent impression of Chinese architecture to attract the attention of passers-by. This feature also plays a role of visual anchoring in the dense urban structure. For tourists, the embellished buildings offer an immersive cultural landscape, promoting the entrance to Buddhist images through spatial narratives. Meanwhile, the cultural journey from the public museum area to the elevated sacred space enhances the experience of believers and ultimately achieves a sense of spiritual sublimation (Table 2).
BTRTM has enhanced the experience of both visitors and practitioners by improving modern facilities and infrastructure. The air-conditioned prayer hall on the fourth floor and other features not only provide a comfortable worship environment but also attract a wider range of people. This can attract elderly believers and tourists who are sensitive to Singapore's tropical climate. Functions such as multilingual audio tour guides effectively meet the needs of international tourists. Audio guides not only deepen their understanding of the temple heritage and Buddhist doctrines but also bridge the language barrier. The addition of wheelchair accessible elevators highlights the
Furthermore, the temple's role extends beyond religious outreach to encompass elements of cultural diplomacy and soft power. By emphasizing curated heritage and visual spectacle, the temple aligns itself with broader national strategies that seek to promote cultural visibility and tourism growth. This dual positioning contributes to its institutional legitimacy but simultaneously complicates the experience of authenticity for certain religious users. The architecture and interpretive infrastructure of temples can enhance the inclusiveness and educational nature of religious Spaces. However, it can also be regarded as the instrumentalization of Buddhist space to achieve broader socio-economic and diplomatic goals (Chia & Lim, 2024).
Vertical Religious Spaces in Urban Contexts
BTRTM applied vertical space organization to vertically stack sacred Spaces. This highlights effective architectural solutions tailored for dense urban environments. According to Qian and Kong (2018), this type of vertical partitioning is beneficial. Because it strategically isolates the sacred and secular functions, optimizes the use of space, and simultaneously enhances accessibility. Specifically, positioning the cultural relics room on the upper floor symbolizes the elevation of the spirit. The religious space is spatially separated from the bustling commercial area on the ground floor, which contributes to the sacredness of religious activities.
A typical feature of the BTRTM vertical zoning is the rooftop garden, deliberately designed as a peaceful place for meditation and quiet reflection. It is located above commercial activities, isolated from the typical distractions related to urban tourism,
Within the vertically divided religious sites, the potential cultural impact of commercial integration deserves careful study. Although the commercial space of BTRTM has successfully attracted a large amount of tourism interest and economic activities, this success has brought the risk of cultural homogenization. Continuous business practices may gradually change tourists' concepts and reduce genuine religious experiences (Cohe, 1988). Therefore, vertical space strategies must strike a balance between economic demands and cultural sensitivity, which may require environmentally sensitive policies and space regulations.
BTRTM is a meaningful case study that demonstrates the potential and complexity of vertical religious Spaces in a dense urban context. By addressing the identified functional conflicts through improved architectural interventions and robust urban policy frameworks, future developments can enhance the sustainable integration of cultural heritage within rapidly urbanizing cities.
Shaping the Neighborhood
BTRTM’s influence extends beyond its physical confines, significantly reshaping Chinatown’s commercial and cultural landscape. Zukin’s (2010) theory of tourism gentrification becomes increasingly evident when analyzing the rapid transformation of the commercial ecosystem surrounding the temple:

Figure 8 Price Trends of South Bridge Road
1) Commercial Shifts (Figure 10):
In recent years, South Bridge Road and the adjacent streets (Figure 11) have experienced notable transformations in their commercial landscape. Data obtained from recent planning permissions by URA highlights an increasing conversion of conservation buildings from traditional commercial uses, such as herbal medicine shops and offices, into tourism-centric establishments like restaurants, souvenir shops, and retail stores. For instance, the properties at 274 and 272 South Bridge Road, previously functioning as offices and a
takeaway food shop, have now been transformed into restaurants and cafes, clearly catering to tourist preferences (URA, 2016, 2020). Similarly, traditional shop units along Smith Street have transitioned to accommodate theatres, retail shops, and restaurants between 2023 and 2025 (URA, 2023, 2025). This proliferation of tourist-oriented businesses has effectively reshaped the area into a "religion-consumption corridor," mirroring gentrification patterns observed in other historic tourism-centric districts such as New Orleans’ French Quarter (Gotham, 2005).

The price trend data retrieved from EdgeProp.sg (2024) provides insights into the potential economic impact of BTRTM on its surrounding commercial area along South Bridge Road. Analyzing the period from 1995 to 2024, the dataset offers a temporal comparison, enabling an assessment of property value changes before and after the establishment of BTRTM in 2007.
Prior to the temple’s completion in 2007, property prices, including shops, shophouses, and offices, remained stable and low, with most transactions recorded below S$5,000 per square foot (psf). Sparse data points in this initial phase suggest limited commercial activity and low transaction volumes. However, following the temple’s inauguration in 2007, a pronounced upward trend emerges, particularly evident in the shophouse category. Between 2010 and 2024, shophouse prices rose significantly, frequently exceeding S$10,000 psf, with some transactions nearing S$20,000 psf. Office and shop categories also displayed moderate price increases, reinforcing an overall appreciation trend, which is highlighted by a sharply rising polynomial trendline.
The marked appreciation of commercial property prices post-2007 aligns with Zukin’s (2010) theory that cultural landmarks can function as catalysts for commercial and urban revitalization. The significant influx of visitors to BTRTM, approximately 500,000 annually (BTRTM Annual Report, 2023), increased demand for commercial services, drove up rental and property prices and contributing positively to the local economic environment. Furthermore, the commercial activities that emerge due to a large number of tourists are more tourism-oriented businesses, such as restaurants, souvenir shops and cultural studios. This phenomenon reflects a dynamic economic ecosystem in response to the increasing interest of tourists.
However, these economic benefits are accompanied by potential risks and drawbacks. The sharp increase in real estate prices may lead to market inflation and raise the entry threshold for traditional personal businesses. The exclusion of the individual economy proposed by Gotham (2005) and Zukin (2010) may exacerbate the socio-economic gap. Furthermore, the increase in business pressure may lead to traditional business replacing part of the community cultural structure (Cohen, 1988).
2) Cultural Trade-offs: Although local businesspeople generally support the economic opportunities brought about by the growth of the tourism industry, the data from the Urban Renewal Authority's planning decisions indicate that certain business transformations face resistance (URA, 2023). For instance, the transformation of the traditional Chinese medicine clinic at 272 South Bridge Road into a massage parlor was rejected. Such a decision reflects the hesitation of the community and regulatory agencies in fully commercializing local heritage. They recognized the potential cultural losses and economic gains. Interviews with long-term residents show (Table 3) that there is growing concern about the inheritance of intangible cultural heritage and the erosion of community public Spaces. These contradictions highlight that the unregulated priorities of economic interests may undermine the intangible heritage value of cultural landscapes.
Meanwhile, in combination with the community participation mechanism and through tourism revenue funding (Throsby, 2010), it may help mitigate the negative impacts of gentrification and commercialization.
Policy Recommendations
The policy environment surrounding BTRTM reflects Singapore's unique approach to cultural heritage management, characterized by a strategic integration of economic pragmatism and cultural symbolism. Henderson's (2002) analysis of Singapore's heritage development reveals its historical embeddedness within the broader framework of urban growth and tourism, emphasizing three operational priorities: maximizing visibility, enhancing accessibility, and optimizing revenue. The development trajectory of BTRTM confirms this policy orientation. In the master plan of the Urban Renewal Authority in 2007, it was initially defined as "tourism development". After the subsequent revision (URA 2007, 2012), its expanded exhibition space, retail stores and hotel facilities were incorporated. This action systematically constructed the temple as a sacred monument and an economic catalyst.
However, such tools and methods of heritage management coexist with the creation of cultural value. Throsby (2010) 's paradigm of cultural economics holds that heritage sites must go beyond their role as economic assets and play the role of a repository of cultural capital. In the case study of BTRTM, policies such as zoning, adaptive reuse incentives and strategic land allocation have promoted the development of multifunctional cultural infrastructure. This innovative spatial structure seamlessly
traditional historical buildings around BTRTM, thereby protecting the ceremony from being disturbed by tourists (Zukin, 2010).
2) Buffer zone for sustainable development: Surrounding the core, buffer zones should permit controlled mixed-use developments, such as traditional tea houses, dialect storytelling cafes, and cultural workshops, that maintain cultural continuity while catering to tourism demand. This spatial tier allows for the commodification of culture in ways that remain authentic and community-informed, rather than externally imposed. It works with “staged authenticity” framework, wherein cultural adaptation can serve as a tool for engagement without eroding ritual essence (Cohen, 1988). Furthermore, these developments can act as transitional spaces that absorb tourist flows, reducing pressure on core religious zones and supporting localized micro-economies.
3) Cultural dividend mechanism: To institutionalize inclusive growth, a Cultural Dividend Mechanism is proposed. This involves allocating a fixed percentage of tourism-generated revenue, such as ticket sales from exhibitions, donations, and retail proceeds, into a community trust fund managed by local stakeholders. Inspired by Throsby’s (2010) cultural economics paradigm, this approach treats heritage not merely as a static asset but as a renewable cultural capital. Funds can be channeled into grassroots initiatives including: (1) Hokkien dialect revival classes for local
Conclusion
Catalyzing Tourism through Neo-Traditional Architecture
BTRTM serves as a compelling example of how neo-traditional religious architecture can serve as a catalyst for both cultural preservation and economic revitalization in historic urban districts. By blending modern functional amenities with symbolic Tang Dynasty aesthetics, the temple successfully attracts devotees and tourists alike, fulfilling its dual role as a spiritual sanctuary and tourism hub. However, this hybrid design also highlights the inherent tension between authenticity and commodification. This is a recurring challenge in the discourse on built heritage.
This research explored BTRTM in Singapore as a representative model of religious neotraditional architecture in historic urban contexts. It is a critical catalyst for tourismdriven economic revitalization. The vertically organized spatial structure effectively segregates religious sanctity from tourism and commercial activities, optimizing space utilization in dense urban areas. The introduction of modern amenities has significantly enhanced visitor experiences, catering simultaneously to both devotees' spiritual needs and tourists' recreational interests.
However, the temple's role as a constructed heritage site raises critical issues regarding authenticity and cultural commodification. The growing influx of tourists has transformed the local commercial landscape into tourism-oriented businesses. This has gradually diluted the cultural identity of the area. By privileging a generalized Chinese imperial style over locally grounded religious aesthetics, BTRTM contributes to the
gradual homogenization of Singapore’s religious landscape. This trend may obscure the diversity of Southeast Asian Chinese temple architecture, erasing distinctions that are crucial for cultural specificity and community identity. Beyond reflecting broader forces of tourism branding and cultural spectacle, BTRTM's architecture subtly reshapes how local religious heritage is visualized, consumed, and remembered. This underscores the dual-edge impact of tourism-oriented architectural projects, emphasizing the balance between cultural sustainability and economic development.
The findings suggest several critical implications for architectural conservation and urban planning. Primarily, adaptive authenticity emerges as a practical concept, demonstrating the value of flexible heritage practices responsive to contemporary urban demands (Wang, 1999).
Policymakers must recognize the socio-cultural trade-offs inherent in heritage-led tourism initiatives. The risks of cultural erosion and gentrification could be mitigated through a more nuanced, participatory approach that includes community engagement in decision-making processes. This calls for innovative governance models that integrate cultural economics principles, ensuring that heritage preservation and economic growth mutually reinforce each other.
This paper enriches academic discourse on contemporary Buddhist architecture within high-density urban context by bridging theoretical perspectives with empirical analysis. It provides a deeper understanding of how modern Buddhist temples navigate tensions
Comparative studies of similar religious heritage typologies in other multicultural urban contexts could have enriched the analysis and revealed broader patterns of urban religious redevelopment.
The study's reliance on self-reported survey data and semi-structured interviews introduces potential biases related to personal perception, memory, and social desirability. Efforts were made to triangulate these qualitative findings with spatial analysis and commercial data. However, the inherently subjective nature of cultural valuation, particularly in relation to authenticity and spiritual experience, remains a challenge in heritage research. In addition, access to certain stakeholder groups, such as private developers, was limited. It potentially limits the diversity of viewpoints included.
The time frame of this study spans from 2008, the year following the completion of the BTRTM, to 2023. While this timeframe captures major post-construction changes in land use, property values, and visitor patterns, it does not adequately reflect longerterm cultural shifts or generational changes in community identity.
This study employs a robust theoretical framework that integrates concepts such as staged authenticity (Cohen, 1988), tourism gentrification (Zukin, 2010), and cultural economics (Throsby, 2010). However, the application of these models to a Southeast Asian urban Buddhist context is not without limitations. These theories were predominantly developed in European and American contexts. Their application to
Singapore's planning regime and religious landscape may require further critical adaptation. Despite these limitations, this study provides an adaptive lens through which to scrutinize the complex role of neo-traditional religious architecture in highdensity urban context.
Throsby, D. (2010). The economics of cultural policy. Cambridge University Press.
Studies of/referred BTRTM
Goh, A. S. (2016). Enlightenment on display: The rise and fall of Singapore Buddhist museums (Master’s thesis, National University of Singapore). https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/136508
Chia, J. M.-T., & Lim, D. K. (2024). Curating Buddhism, fostering diplomacy: The “Secrets of the Fallen Pagoda” exhibition in Singapore. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 22(1), 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2023.2261713
Wang, H. (2023). Ambivalent modern Buddhist tourism to Buddha Tooth Relic Temple in Singapore. Southeast Asian Studies, 12(2), 243–264. https://englishkyotoseas.org/2023/08/vol-12-no-2-of-southeast-asian-studies/
URA Planning Decisions:
Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA). (1980). Master plan 1980, central area map sheet 4/9. Singapore: Urban Redevelopment Authority.
Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA). (2003). Master plan 2003. Singapore: Urban Redevelopment Authority.
Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA). (2007). Written permission decision notice for proposed tourism development at South Bridge Road, Sago Street, Sago Lane, Banda Street (Decision No: P051104-27B4-Z000). Singapore: Urban Redevelopment Authority.
Table 1 Survey Enquiry

Table 2 Summary of Visitor Survey Results at the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum (March 2025) (Edited by the author)
Category
Demographics
Survey Result
47 international tourists (58.75%)
33 local visitors (41.25%)
First-Time Visitors
Temple Amenities
Duration of Stay
Perception of Authenticity
Aesthetic Appreciation
Spatial Navigation
Tourism-Spirituality Tensions
60% of international visitors
90% Highly satisfied with the modern amenity
82.5% stayed between 30 minutes to 1.5 hours
62.5%: “Authentic in feeling”
25%: “Spiritual rather than historical”
12.5%: skeptical, citing tourist amenities
Comments include:
“Peaceful ambiance”, “Rich storytelling”, “Impressive Tang style façade”
88.75%: circulation intuitive
77.5%: rooftop praised
22.5%: museum layout confusing
32.5%: noted tourist-worshipper conflict
42.5%: support time-based zoning
Visitor Comments
“I feel like I’m intruding on someone’s sacred moment.”
“Basement canteen was hard to find.”
3) Only 12.5% indicated skepticism about its heritage value, citing the temple’s “touristic design” and “over-modern amenities.”
Many visitors remarked on the temple’s “peaceful ambiance” and “rich storytelling” provided by multilingual audio guides.
Functionality and Visitor Navigation
The survey data revealed high satisfaction with spatial organization and amenities:
1) 88.75% found the vertical circulation intuitive, especially with clear signage separating sacred and secular zones.
2) 77.5% appreciated the rooftop garden as a contemplative space “away from crowds,” confirming Qian and Kong’s (2018) argument that vertical zoning enhances user experience in dense urban contexts.
3) However, 21.25% of visitors reported difficulty understanding the museum layout in the basement, suggesting a need for clearer spatial narrative or thematic sequencing.
Tensions Between Tourism and Spirituality
Approximately 32.5% of visitors noticed overlapping flows between tourists and religious practitioners, especially around the prayer halls. Some comments included:
“It’s hard to focus on prayer when large groups pass through with cameras.”
“I feel like I’m intruding on someone’s sacred moment.”
Expert Insights
Three architectural and conservation professionals one from a local university, one URA-affiliated planner, and one independent heritage consultant provided semistructured interviews. They highlighted three key insights:
1) Architectural Compromise: While the Tang-style features are not vernacular to Singapore, they serve a symbolic function in anchoring a pan-Asian Buddhist identity. One expert described it as “an act of constructive myth-making” (see also Wang & Huang, 2021).
2) Spatial Flexibility: All experts praised the “clever vertical allocation” that preserves sanctity without sacrificing accessibility. However, they also cautioned that long-term sustainability depends on improved acoustic control and visitor education to reduce ritual disruptions.
3) Policy Framing: Experts concurred that BTRTM’s designation as a tourism development has created both opportunities and tensions. One noted that “heritage zoning is only effective if backed by community-based feedback mechanisms” (cf. Throsby, 2010).
Table 3 Surveyed among Long-term Residents and Business Owners within 300m Radius of
Q1. "The area around BTRTM has lost some of its traditional cultural identity in recent years."
Q2. "Traditional businesses (e.g., Chinese medicine shops, dialect eateries) are being replaced by tourismdriven enterprises."
Q3. "The commercial success of the temple and its surroundings has benefited the long-term community."
Q4. "New tourismoriented shops around BTRTM reflect the cultural heritage of the area."
Survey results among 30 long-term residents and local merchants indicate a prevalent sense of cultural dilution in the neighborhood surrounding BTRTM. Approximately 77% of respondents either “agreed” or “strongly agreed” that the area has lost elements of its traditional identity, with over half (53.3%) affirming that tourism-driven commercial transformation has led to the replacement of long-standing businesses. Meanwhile, fewer than half perceived the economic benefits of this transformation as positively impacting the resident community. These sentiments reflect broader
concerns that while BTRTM functions effectively as a tourism anchor, the associated commercialization may unintentionally erode the intangible cultural heritage it is meant to reinforce.