GainingImplicitKnowledgefor AcademicAchievement
Everyhumanresourcedecision,whetheritbehiringpeoplewiththenecessary capabilities,offeringtrainingtoadvanceknowledgeandskills,orrewarding excellentwork,ismadewiththegoalofoptimizingperformanceintheworkplace. Understandingtheskillsandknowledgerequiredforefficientperformanceisthe foundationforwisehumanresourcedecisions.
Historically,intelligencehasbeenusedtodescribethecapacityforeffective environmentaladaptationandexperience-basedlearning.However,thereare differingopinionsonthedefinitionofintelligenceandthebestwaytoassessit. Accordingtotheconventionalwisdom, generalintelligence(org) istheprimary determinantofmanyofthetalentsrequiredforsuccess.Gisexaminedasa constructatthetopofahierarchyofabilityconstructionsandoccasionallyasa stand-aloneconstruct.Sincegeneralcognitivecapacity(g)iswidelyrecognizedas
areliableindicatoroflearningandsuccessinawiderangeofoccupations,many peoplebelieveittobethebestsinglecriterionforchoosingcandidates.Itisby farthemostextensivelyresearchedpersonnelchoicepredictor.Furthermore, accordingtosomestudies,gmeasurementmightbethemostusefulselection methodforlocatingpeoplewhocancontinuouslylearninandadjusttouncertain andchangingcircumstances.
AccordingtoSchmidtandHunter (source: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019. 02227/), ofallthepredictors,ghasthemostobviousmeaningandthegreatest theoreticalunderpinning.
However,otheracademicscontendthatthereisalackofconsensusaboutthe psychologicalmeasuresofintelligencetestsandthepsychologicalmeaningofg. Thereareanumberofjustificationsfortakingintoaccountvariablesotherthang thataffectjobperformance.First,gisnottheonlyfactorthatdetermines performance,eventhoughitcouldbesignificantformanyoccupations. Accordingtovalidityestimatesforgeneralmentalability(alsoknownas intelligenceorgeneralcognitiveability),gexplains20%to25%ofperformance variance,leavingbetween75%and80%unexplained(afterattenuationandrange restrictionaretakenintoconsideration).Second,people'severydaydifficulties aredifferentfromthekindsofchallengesforwhichintelligenceisusually measured.Asaresult,intelligencetestsmightnotaccuratelydeterminea person'sjob-relatedskills.Third,ithaslongbeenbelievedthatintelligenceisa verystablecharacteristicthatpredictsperformancequiteconsistentlyacrosstime andacrossdomains.However,thereisgrowingevidencethattalentsare somewhatchangeableandthatperformancechangesdependingonthe circumstance.Lastly,alotofindividuals,bothacademicsandlaypeople,concur thatintelligentperformanceencompassesmorethanjustwhatcanbe determinedbyatypicalIQtest.
Indeed,newertheoriesoffermoreexpansivedefinitionsofintelligencethat encompasselementslikeemotionalintelligence,creativeandpractical intelligence,andinterpersonalintelligence.
Thesemoreexpansivedefinitionsofintelligenceacknowledgethatpeoplediffer intheirstrengths,whichmaynotbediscernibleusingconventionalmethodsof intelligencetesting.Onesuchstrategyispracticalintelligence,whichisthe capacitytoidentifyabetterfitbetweentheneedsoftheenvironmentandthe individualbyadjustingto,altering,orchoosinganewenvironmentinorderto achievepersonallymeaningfulobjectives.Itisasupplementtoacademic intelligenceor"booksmarts"andcanbedescribedas"streetsmarts"or "commonsense."Theskillsnecessarytosucceedindailylife,includingatwork, areincludedinpracticalintelligence.
Therelationshipbetweenpracticalintelligenceandtacitknowledge(TK)isthe firsttopicwecoverinthisarticle.Afterthat,wegointohowtacitknowledgeis conceptualizedandhowpracticalintelligenceandtacitknowledgearemeasured. Wethenpresentresearchontherelationshipbetweentacitknowledgeand performance,generalcognitivecapacity,andexperience.Furtherresultsabout tacitknowledgearealsopresented.Weconcludebydiscussingourfindingson principlesandtacitknowledge.
PRACTICALINTELLIGENCEANDTACIT KNOWLEDGE
Wehaveapproachedthestudyofpracticalintelligencefromaknowledge-based perspective.Peopleuseawiderangeofinformation,somegainedviaformal instructionandsomefrompersonalexperience,tosolvepracticalchallenges. Onemaydescribealargeportionoftheinformationinvolvedineffectiveproblem solvingastacit.Peoplemustlearnthisinformationthroughtheirown experiencesbecauseitisdifficultandfrequentlynotpubliclyarticulated. Furthermore,peoplemaystruggletoexpresswhattheyknow,evenwhentheir actionsmayreflecttheirunderstanding.Thisconceptualizationalignswithexpert knowledgeresearch.
Inordertoaddressissuesintheirfields,expertsrelyonanextensivebodyof information.Thisknowledgetypicallyfunctionsoutsideoffocalawarenessandis procedural,meaningitinvolvesaseriesofprocessesinvolvedincarryingoutan action.Additionally,itmoreaccuratelycapturesthesituation'sstructurethan formal,disciplinaryknowledgedoes.
Thephrase"tacitknowledge"hasbeenusedtodescribeknowledgederivedfrom everydayexperiencethathasanimplicit,hard-to-describeaspect.Itsoriginscan befoundinworksonorganizationalbehavior,ecologicalpsychology,and philosophyofscience.Aspeoplecreditsuccessfulperformancetoprofessional intuitionorinstinctandlearningbydoing,theseideasaboutthetacitqualityof theinformationconnectedwitheverydayproblemsolvingarealsomirroredin thecommonvocabularyoftheworkplace.
Wehaveconsideredtacitknowledgetobeacomponentofpracticalintelligence thatallowspeopletochoose,adjustto,andinfluencetheirreal-world surroundings.Thepracticalabilitytolearnfromexperienceandusethat informationtopursuepersonallymeaningfulgoalsisreflectedinthisknowledge. Accordingtoourresearch,tacitknowledgeisimportantforcomprehendinggood performanceacrossarangeoffields.First,wedescribehowweconceptualizeTK, howwemeasureit,andotherpracticalintelligencemetrics.
CONCEPTUALIZINGTACITKNOWLEDGE
Threekeycharacteristicsareusedtodefinetacitknowledge.These characteristicsalignwiththecircumstancessurroundingtheacquisition,mental representation,andapplicationoftacitknowledge.
First,inmostcases,tacitinformationislearnedwithoutmuchassistancefrom outsidesources,includingdirectinstructionorformaltraining (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit_knowledge). Selectiveencoding(separating pertinentinformationfromirrelevantinformationintheenvironment),selective combination(combininginformationintoameaningfulinterpretation),and selectivecomparison(relatingnewinformationtoexistingknowledge)aresome oftheprocessesthatarefacilitatedwhenknowledgeacquisitionofvariouskinds issupported,accordingtoSternberg.Itismorelikelythatsomepeoplewillnot learnthematerialiftheseprocessesarenotadequatelysupported,whichis frequentlythecasewhenlearningfromreal-worldexperiences.Furthermore, despiteitssignificanceforpracticalsuccess,tacitinformationfrequentlygoes unacknowledged,underemphasized,andinadequatelycommunicatedbecauseits acquisitionistypicallynotsupported.
Second,proceduralknowledgeabouthowtobehaveincertainsituationsor groupsofsituationsisknownastacitknowledge.However,peoplemayfindit challengingtoexpresstheinformationthatdirectstheiractions,asisthecase withalotofproceduralknowledge.Weconsidertacitknowledgetobeasubset ofproceduralknowledge,basedonthedifferentiationbetweendeclarativeand proceduralknowledge (source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220064194_Tacit_Knowledge_Conc eptualizations_and_Operationalizations). Putotherwise,notallprocedural knowledgeistacit,butwedoregardallTKtobeprocedural.
Whenpeople'stacitknowledgeisexposed,usuallybycloselyexamininggeneral actionstatementsorrules,itisfrequentlyexpressedasintricate,multi-condition rules(productionsystems)forachievingobjectives(e.g.,rulesabouthowtojudge peopleaccuratelyforavarietyofpurposesandunderavarietyofcircumstances). Condition-actionpairsallowforthementalrepresentationoftheseintricatelaws.
Toputitanotherway,tacitknowledgeismorethanjustacollectionof impersonalnorms.Itisinformationrelevanttoacertainscenarioorsetof situationsregardingwhattodo.Intherealworld,tacitknowledgecanbeeven morespecificandcontextualizedthaninthiscase.
Thethirdfeatureoftacitknowledgeisthatitisusefulwhenapplied.Knowledge thatisaction-orientedandbasedonexperiencewillprobablybemorehelpfulin reachingone'sobjectivesthanknowledgethatisbasedontheexperienceof othersorthatdoesnotoutlineacourseofaction.Forinstance,leadersmay receivetrainingonthebestleadershipstyle(e.g.,participativeorauthoritarian) foraparticularcircumstance,buttheymaydiscoverthroughpersonalexperience thatanotherstyleworksbetter.
Itshouldbemadeclearwhendiscussingtacitknowledgethatitisnotthesameas jobknowledge.Instead,weseethetwoasnotionsthatoverlap.Declarativeand proceduralknowledgearebothincludedinjobknowledge;onlyasmallportionof proceduralknowledgecanbeclassifiedastacit.Oncemore,TKisapartof proceduralknowledgethatisnoteasilyorpubliclyexpressedbutisutilizedto addressreal-world,practicalissues.
MEASURINGTACITKNOWLEDGE
Ratherthanjustaskingpeopletotelluswhattheirtacitknowledgeis,werelyon observableevidenceofitsexistencebecausepeoplefrequentlystruggleto expressit.Inotherwords,wegaugeTKbasedonhowpeoplereacttoreal-world scenariosorissues,especiallywheretacitknowledgeisanticipatedtobe advantageous. Situationaljudgmenttests(SJTs), asdefinedintheliterature,are measurementtoolsusedtoevaluatetacitknowledgethatusuallycomprisea sequenceofscenariosandrelatedresponsealternatives.Theseassessments,of whichtacit-knowledgetestsareasubset,aretypicallyusedtogaugebehavioral intentionsorinterpersonalandproblem-solvingabilities.Eachquestionina situational-judgmentortacit-knowledgetestposesaproblemthatispertinentto theareaofinterest(forexample,amanagersteppingintoresolveaconflict betweentwosubordinates),andthenitoffersanumberofsolutions(i.e., strategies)forresolvingtheissue,suchasmeetingwitheachsubordinate separatelytoheartheiropinionsontheissueormeetingwithbothsubordinates toheartheircomplaints.OnaLikertscale,respondentsareaskedtorankthe appropriatenessorqualityofanumberofpossibleanswerstothescenario,or theyareaskedtoselectthebestandworstpossibilitiesfromasmalllist. Findingsignificantworkplacesituationsisnecessaryforthecreationoftacitknowledgeassessments.Byaskingpeople,usuallysubject-matterexpertswho havebeennominatedfortheirexceptionallevelofskill,togiveexamplesof effectiveandineffectivebehaviorsonthejob,criticalincidents—situation-specific behaviorsassociatedwitheffectiveorineffectiveperformance—areidentified. Naturally,thereisnoassurancethattheindividualsselectedwillbeperfector evenoutstanding.Theoutcomesofempiricalevaluationswill,ofcourse, contradictourhypothesestotheextentthattheyarepoorlyselected,asthetests arelikelytohavepoorervaliditywhencomparedtojobperformance. Nonetheless,thecritical-incidenttechniquehasbeeneffectivelyappliedinthe developmentofanumberofperformanceassessmentinstruments,suchasSJTs and behaviorallyanchoredratingscales(BARSs).
TheeventsthatwereselectedforTKtestsarethoseinwhichpeoplegained valuableknowledgeabouthowtocarryouttheirworkandforwhichthebest answerwasnotsomethingtheyhadbeeninstructedtodoorhadreadina manual.Toputitanotherway,scenariosselectedforTKtestingarethosein whichunderstandingpreciseproceduralruleshasnotalwaysledtothebest answer.Sinceitisbasedonwhatexpertsthinktrulyworks,theoptimumanswer asdecidedbythemmayevengoagainstformal,explicitknowledge.Naturally, tacit-knowledgeexaminationsassessaperson'sknowledgeratherthantheir actions.Noteveryoneactsonwhattheyknow.Forinstance,aprincipalmaybe awareofdubiousmethodstowinoverasuperintendent,buttheymaydecidenot topursuewhattheyperceivetobedubiousstrategies.
Oneofthreemethodshasbeenusedtoscoreimplicit-knowledgetests:(a) comparingparticipantratingstoagroupmembershipindex(expert,intermediate, ornovice);(b)assessinghowcloselyparticipantresponsesadheretoprofessional standards;or(c)calculatingaprofilematchordifferencescorebetween participantratingsandanexpertprototype.Academicpsychologists,salespeople, collegestudents,civilianmanagers,andmilitaryleadershaveallbeenstudied usingTKtests.
Somereadersmightfinditstrangethatwehavebasedourratingonexpert opinionsratherthan"right"and"wrong"responses.However,bossesatwork assessemployees'performance,andtheymaymakesubjectivejudgments.The "right"and"wrong"repliesarenotusedtomeasureperformance.Therefore, comparedtotraditionalscoring,oursystemismorerepresentativeofworkplace appraisal.
OTHERMEASURESOFPRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE
TKtestsarenottheonlyattemptstogaugepracticalskills.Simulationsandother SJTsareusedinanefforttosimulatereal-worldproblem-solvingskills.In simulations,individualsareobservedinscenariosdesignedtomimicelementsof therealjob.Thesesimulations'answersarethoughttobeanapproximationof therealones.In-basketexams,situationalinterviews,andgrouptalksat assessmentcentersaresomeexamplesofsimulations.Simulationsarealsoused
insituationaljudgmentassessments.Thedistinctionbetweenhigh-fidelityand low-fidelitysimulationswasmadebyMotowidloetal. (source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232551810_An_Alternative_Selecti on_Procedure_The_Low-Fidelity_Simulation). Respondentsaregivenstimuli thatcloselymimictherealscenarioinhigh-fidelitysimulations,givingthemthe chancetoreactasthoughtheywereunderthoseconditions.Low-fidelity simulationsinvolvepresentingthestimuliverballyorinwriting,asking participantstoexplaintheirreactionstothescenarioratherthanperformingthe behavior.
Theassessmentcenter,whichgivessmallgroupsofpeoplearangeofactivities, suchassimulatedinterviews,simulatedgroupdiscussions,andin-baskettests,is ahigh-fidelitytestingmethod.Onebenefitofthesimulationapproachisthatit moreaccuratelysimulatesreal-worldjobperformance.It'snotalwaysevident, though,whethercomponentsofthejobshouldbesimulatedorhowperformance shouldbeassessed.Anytestthataimstomaximizeecologicalvalidityisaffected bythisissue.
Thefidelityofin-baskettestsismoderate.Anin-basketexamaskstheparticipant toreplytoavarietyofitems,suchasletters,financialreports,andmemos.The personhassomeofthelimitationsofareal-worldworkscenariosincetheyhavea limitedamountoftimetoaddresstheissuesraisedinthein-basket.Performance isassessedbasedonhowtheitemsarehandledandprioritized.Forinstance,a participantreceivesapositiveevaluationiftheyswiftlyreplytoaletterfromthe DirectorofFinanceaskingforfinancialrecordsforthefourthquarter.
SJTsareatthelow-fidelityendofthespectrum.Theyprovidewritten descriptionsofproblematiccircumstances,aswaspreviouslyindicated.The criticalincidentanalysis-selecteddescriptionscanbecreatedtodescribeor resemblereal-lifeeventsintherelevantfield(e.g.,asalespersonmakingaphone solicitation).
Oncemore,aseriesofproblem-solvingtechniquesarepresentedaftereach description.Respondentsareaskedtoevaluatetheefficacyofeachoptionorto selectthebestandperhapstheworstofafewtactics.SJTshavehistoricallybeen
gradedaccordingtothepercentageofexpertswhosupporttheoptionorby assigningpointsforcorrectlyselectingthebestandworstoptions.
ESSENTIALFINDINGS
Bydefinition,experiencesolvingreal-world,everydayproblemsisthemain sourceoftacitknowledge.Theadage"experienceisthebestteacher"captures theideathatexperienceofferschancestoacquirecriticalperformance-related knowledgeandabilities.
Tacticknowledgeoftenincreaseswithexperience,accordingtoresearch (source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1041608009000491).
Wediscoveredastrongrelationshipbetweenamanager'spositionwithinthe organizationandtacitknowledge.Also,businessmanagers,businessgraduate students,andordinaryundergraduatesallhaddifferenttacit-knowledgescores, withmanagersshowingthehighestresults.
Westudiedundergraduatepsychologystudents,psychologygraduatestudents, andpsychologyprofessorsandfoundsimilarresultsforaTKtestforacademic psychologists.
Tacitknowledgeispositivelyconnectedwiththenumberoffirmsamanagerhad workedfor,butadverselycorrelatedwiththenumberofyearsamanagement hadbeenwiththecurrentorganization.Themoresuccessfulmanagersleftfor othercompanies,whichcouldbeonereason.Wediscoveredasubstantial correlationbetweensalespeople'sTKtestscoresandthenumberofyearsthey hadbeeninsales.Thiscouldbebecauseeffectiveleaderswerepromotedmore quicklythanlesssuccessfulleaders.
Accordingtolaterstudies,leadersathigherlevelsofcommanddemonstrated moretacitknowledgethanthoseatlowerrankssinceTKscoreswereconnected withleadershipposition.
Therefore,theassociationbetweenexperienceandtacitknowledgeistypically supportedbytheresearchthathasbeendonethusfar.Althoughtacit informationhassomefoundationinexperience,thecorrelationsareoften
moderate,indicatingthatexperienceandtacitknowledgearenotentirely associated.
TACITKNOWLEDGEANDGENERALCOGNITIVEABILITY
Oncemore,manybelievethatthebestpredictorofworkperformanceisgeneral cognitiveability(source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374760793_The_validity_of_genera l_cognitive_ability_predicting_jobspecific_performance_is_stable_across_different_levels_of_job_experience). Thedirectimpactofgonlearningjob-relatedinformationismostlyresponsible forthecorrelationbetweengandperformance.However,alotofjob-knowledge assessmentsaredevelopedtoevaluatedeclarativeknowledgeoffactsand regulations.Theyfrequentlyincludewell-defined,abstractquestionsthatare comparabletothoseonconventionalintelligencetests.Thishelpstoexplain,at leastinpart,thecorrelationsthathavebeenobservedbetweencognitiveability testsandjobknowledgemeasures.However,theissueswithimplicit-knowledge assessmentsarecontext-specificandpoorlycharacterized.Webelievethat practicalintelligence,notgeneralintelligence,determinesperformanceonthese examinations.
TKtestsshowednegligibletomoderateassociationswithmeasuresofginthe studiescoveredhere.Inundergraduatesamples,theresultsofTKexamsfor managersandacademicpsychologistsshowedanonsignificantcorrelationwitha verbalthinkingtest.AnIQtestforasampleofbusinessleadersshowedno significantlinkwiththeresultsofaTKtestformanagers.Atestoftacit knowledgeforsalesinsamplesofsalespeopleandundergraduatesproduced similarresults.Accordingtoonestudy (source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160289601000654), TKscoresactuallyhadanegativecorrelationwithgtestscores,indicatingthatin somesettings,academictalentsmaybeneglectedinfavorofpracticalskills. Artists,musicians,sportsmen,andcraftspeoplemaydeterminethatabilitiesother thanthosetaughtinschoolaremorevaluabletothem.
VerbalthinkingabilityandTKscoresshowedminorandnonsignificantto moderateandsignificantassociations.TheargumentthatTKtestsmeasureskills differentfromthoseevaluatedbyconventionalintelligencetestsissupportedby theevidencediscussedabove.TKtestsassesssomethingdistinctfromg, accordingtoanotherresearch,whichweaddressbelow.
TACITKNOWLEDGEAND PERFORMANCE
Jobknowledgeassessmentshavebeenfoundtolinktoperformancepretty regularly,thoughnotflawlessly.Aspreviouslymentioned,alargeportionofthis predictionisexplainedbytheconnectionbetweengeneralcognitiveaptitude testsandoccupationalknowledge.Toputitanotherway,thosewithhighgare supposedtolearnmoreandperformbetterasaresult.Performanceisalso anticipatedtobepredictedbyimplicitknowledgeassessments.Inotherwords, peoplewhotakethevaluablelessonsfromexperiencearemorelikelytosucceed. However,astacitknowledgeisatypeofpracticalintelligence,itshouldbeableto explainperformanceelementsthatgtestsareunabletoaccountfor.
Testsofimplicitknowledgehavebeenlinkedtoperformanceinavarietyofareas. Thesecriteriaincludethenumberofpublications,gradesinschool,salary, performance-appraisalratings,theratedprestigeofthebusinessorinstitution, andtheadjustmenttocollege.Wenowgooverafewoftheseresultsingreater depth.
ThereisevidencethatTKexplainsperformanceinotherdomains,despitethefact thatbusinessmanagershavebeenthefocusofalargeportionofthisresearch.It wasdiscoveredthatcollegestudents'scoresonaTKtestcorrelatedwith measuresoftheiracademicachievementandcollegeadjustment.
TheincreasingvalidityofTKtestsoverconventionalintelligencetestsin predictingperformancewasdemonstratedintwoadditionalstudiesinvolving militaryandcorporateexecutives.Inotherwords,thestudiestackledtheissueof whetherTKassessmentsaremorevaluablethanconventionalintelligencetests. Beyondresultsontestsofgeneralverbalintelligenceandtacitknowledgefor managers,TKscoresmoresignificantlyexplainedtheminorvariationinleadership
effectiveness.Thesestudiesdemonstratethatperformancevariancethatisnot explainedbyconventionalassessmentsofacademic,abstractintelligencecanbe explainedbytacitknowledge.
Thelinkbetweenpracticalintelligenceandperformancehasalsobeensupported byotherresearcherswhohaveusedTKtestsorcomparablemetrics (source: https://www1.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003dissecting.pdf).
Whereasverbalreasoningandpsychometricscoresdidnotsignificantlypredictan indicationofmanagerialskill,scoresontheTKIMdid.Duringamockinterview, undergraduatestudentsweregivenaSituationalJudgementTest.Inanumberof work-relatedscenarios,thestudentswereaskedtochoosetheanswerthey wouldmostlikelyorleastlikelyprovide.Employers'assessmentsofthe interviewee'squalificationswerefoundtobesignificantlypredictedbypractical intelligence.Additionally,theydiscoveredamoderatelysignificantassociation betweenthepractical-intelligencetestscoresandageneralintelligencemeasure. Lastbutnotleast,wediscoveredthatpracticalintelligencepredictedbothpeer andsupervisoryjudgmentsofperformanceusinganSJTcreatedespeciallyfor entry-levelprofessionalsinafederalinvestigativeagency.Moreover,gfailedto accountfortheimpactofpracticalintelligence.Therefore,thereismounting evidencethatTKandrelatedtestsevaluateacomponentofperformance, practicalintelligence,thatisnotcapturedbymeasuresofgeneralintelligence,in additiontoexplainingindividualdisparitiesinperformance.Ourknowledgeof practicalintelligenceisfurtherimprovedbyafewmorediscoveriesabouttacit knowledge.
ADDITIONALFINDINGSREGARDINGTACITKNOWLEDGE
First,welookedathowTKandpersonalityarerelated.Personalitytestsare thoughttobedifferentfromimplicitknowledge.TKscoresgenerallyshowed nonsignificantcorrelationswithanumberofpersonality-typetestsadministered toasampleofbusinessexecutives(source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2440923_Measuring_Formalising_a nd_Modelling_Tacit_Knowledge). TKscoresconsistentlyexplaineda
considerableincreaseinvarianceoverpersonalitytraitsinhierarchicalregression analyses.
Second,testsofwhatiscommonlyreferredtoasgeneralabilitydonotexhibitthe generalfactorthattacit-knowledgemeasuresdo,whichtendstointercorrelate andexhibitageneralfactoramongthemselves.
Third,ithasbeendiscoveredthat,inatleastonecase,measuresoftacit knowledgeproducecomparableoutcomesacrossculturalboundaries.
Fourth,whilegroupdifferencesinscoresasafunctionofgenderandraceare frequentlyobservedintraditionalintelligencetests (source: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09515089.2019.1697803), TK testsmaybelessvulnerabletothesedifferencesbecausetheydonotonly measureskillslearnedinschool.Nonsignificantcorrelationsbetweentacit knowledgeandbothraceandgendershowedthatmajorityandminoritygroup members,aswellasmenandfemales,performedsimilarlyontheTKtest.
Lastly,tacitknowledgeacquisitioncanbequantified,butnotdirectly.Instead, researchersandpractitionersuseperformancemetrics,behavioralproxies, elicitationtechniques,andmodelingframeworkstotranslateinvisible, experientialknow-howintomeasurableoutcomes.Quantificationisalwayspartial andcontextual,butitallowsorganizationsandresearcherstoevaluatelearning, improvetraining,andmakebetteruseofhiddenexpertise.
Theseresultsimplythatencouragingpeopletoselectivelyencodeandselectively combineinformationcanimprovetacitknowledgeacquisition.Tolearnmore aboutthemechanismsbehindtheformationandacquisitionoftacitknowledge, moreinvestigationisrequired.Byinstructingandreceivingfeedback,students gainknowledgeaboutteaching.Onelineofinquirymightfocusonwaystomake iteasierforpeopletolearntacitinformationwhenpreparingforajob.
Overall,researchtodatehasshownthattacitknowledgetendstogrowwith experience,thatitisdifferentfrompersonalitytraitsandgeneralintelligence, thatTKtestspredictperformanceacrossmultipledomainsandbeyondgeneral intelligencetests,thatTKtestscoresseemtobesimilaracrossracialandgender
groups,thatpracticalintelligencemayhaveasignificantdegreeofgenerality differentfrompsychometricg,andthatTKacquisitioncanbedetermined.The significanceoftakingpracticalintelligenceintoaccountwhiletryingto comprehendtheskillsrequiredforsuccessintheactualworldisfurther supportedbythesefindings.Topredictworkperformance,traditionalability testscan—andperhapsshould—besupplementedbytestsofimplicitknowledge.
TACITKNOWLEDGEINEDUCATION
Educationisamultifacetedprocessthatgoesbeyondthemeretransmissionof factualknowledge.Whileexplicitknowledge—knowledgethatcanbecodified, written,andsystematicallytaught—isessential,itrepresentsonlypartofthe learningexperience.Equallycrucial,yetoftenoverlooked,istacitknowledge,a formofknowledgethatispersonal,context-specific,anddifficulttoformalize. Tacitknowledgeencompassesinsights,intuitions,experiences,andskillsthat individualsaccumulateovertimebutcannoteasilyexpressinwords.Inthe contextofeducation,understandingandleveragingtacitknowledgeis fundamentaltocreatingeffectivelearningenvironments,enhancingteaching practices,andfosteringlifelonglearning.
TheconceptoftacitknowledgewaspopularizedbyMichaelPolanyi,aHungarianBritishscientistandphilosopher,inhisseminalwork TheTacitDimension. Polanyifamouslystated, “Weknowmorethanwecantell.” Thisphrasecaptures theessenceoftacitknowledge:itisknowledgethatresidesinthemindsof individuals,oftenrevealedthroughaction,intuition,orskill,ratherthanthrough formalarticulation.
Ineducation,tacitknowledgemanifestsinbothteachingandlearningprocesses. Recognizingitsroleisessentialforfosteringholisticeducationalexperiences. Teacherspossessavastreservoiroftacitknowledge,oftenreferredtoas professionalcraftknowledge.Thisknowledgeshapesclassroompractices, instructionalstrategies,andinteractionswithstudents.
Studentsalsodeveloptacitknowledgethatcomplementsexplicitknowledge. Thistypeofknowledgeinfluenceshowtheyapproachproblem-solving,interact withpeers,andinternalizeconcepts.
Understandingthedistinctionbetweentacitandexplicitknowledgeisvitalfor educatorsaimingtoenhanceteachingandlearning.Whileexplicitknowledgeis formal,structured,andeasilycommunicated—suchas textbooksandmanuals —tacitknowledgeisinformal,experiential,andoftenunconscious.
Bothformsofknowledgeareinterdependent.Forinstance,explicitknowledge canprovidefoundationalunderstanding,whiletacitknowledgeenablesstudents andteacherstoapplythisunderstandingeffectivelyinreal-worldcontexts.
Despiteitsintangiblenature,tacitknowledgecanbeidentified,nurtured,and sharedthroughspecificstrategies.Observingexperiencedteachersinaction allowsnovicestointernalizetacitskillssuchasclassroommanagement, instructionalpacing,andstudentengagementtechniques.Shadowingprovides contextuallearningthattextbookscannotoffer.
Mentorshipprogramsfacilitatethetransferoftacitknowledgebypairing experiencededucatorswithnewcomers.Throughmodeling,feedback,and collaborativereflection,menteesgaininsightsthatareotherwisedifficultto codify.Encouragingteachersandstudentstoreflectontheirexperienceshelps maketacitknowledgemoreexplicit.Journals,portfolios,andself-assessment toolscancaptureinsightsthatmayotherwiseremainsubconscious.Group discussions,peerreview,andcooperativeprojectsallowlearnerstoexchange tacitknowledge.Sharingexperiences,strategies,andintuitionsfosterscollective learningthatenrichesindividualunderstanding.Narrativesaboutclassroom experiences,problem-solvingincidents,andinstructionalchallengesconveytacit knowledgeeffectively.Storytellingcontextualizesabstractprinciples,making themaccessibleandmemorable.
Recognizingtacitknowledgeineducationhassignificantimplicationsfor curriculumdesignandpedagogicalpractices.Curriculathatincorporatehandson,practicalexperiences,suchaslabs,workshops,simulations,andinternships,
provideopportunitiesforstudentstodeveloptacitknowledge.Experiential learningemphasizes“learningbydoing” (source:https://www.wgu.edu/blog/experiential-learning-theory2006.html) whichbridgesthegapbetweentheoryandpractice.Professionaldevelopment programsshouldnotfocussolelyonexplicitknowledgebutalsooncultivating tacitskills.Trainingworkshops,peerobservations,reflectiveexercises,and mentoringprogramscanenhanceteachers’tacitcompetencies.
Tacitknowledgeiscontinuouslyrefinedthroughexperience.Educationalsystems thatencouragereflection,adaptability,andself-directedlearninghelpstudents andteachersdeveloplifelonglearningskills,ensuringtheycannavigatecomplex andevolvingcontexts.Traditionalassessmentsoftenprioritizeexplicit knowledge,suchasfactualrecallandstandardizedtests.Incorporating assessmentsthatcapturetacitknowledge—suchasportfolios,performancetasks, andpeerevaluations—providesamorecomprehensiveevaluationoflearning outcomes.
CONCLUSION
Wethinkthatworkpsychologyresearchersmightbe,onsomelevel,keeping tryingtoanswer—againandoveragain—aquestionthathasalreadybeen addressed.Asignificantcomponentofintelligence,generalcognitiveability accuratelypredictsperformanceinalmosteverycareer.Wedon'tthinkanyone disagreeswiththisopinion,andit'sunclearwhatmorecanbeachievedbymore research.
Today'sproblemishowpsychologistsmightenhancethegeneralability prediction.
Accordingtoresearch,severalmeasuresofferbothextratheoreticalinsightsand alargeincrementalvalidityabovethemeasurementsofg.Thereisnoneedfora strongdefenseofgbecauseworkintheinvestigationandvalidationofsuch measurementsdoesnotthreatengtheorists.Thedefinitionofgisstillupfor debate,althoughitisagoodpredictorofperformance.It'stimetotakeonnew challengesandaddmorepracticaltacticstoourarsenal.
Tacitknowledgeisavital,thoughoftenunderappreciated,componentof education.Itencompassestheintuition,experience,andpracticalknow-howthat bothteachersandstudentsbringtothelearningprocess.Whileexplicit knowledgeprovidesthefoundationforlearning,tacitknowledgeenables effectiveapplication,problem-solving,andadaptationtocomplexsituations.
Recognizing,nurturing,andsharingtacitknowledgethroughmentorship, reflectivepractice,experientiallearning,andcollaborativestrategiesenhances teachingeffectiveness,enrichesstudentlearning,andfosterslifelonglearning skills.Byintegratingtacitknowledgeintoeducationalpractices,institutionscan createdynamic,context-sensitive,andholisticlearningenvironmentsthat preparelearnersforthecomplexitiesoftherealworld.
Ultimately,educationthatvaluesbothexplicitandtacitknowledgeequips individualsnotjustwithfacts,butwiththewisdom,skills,andjudgment necessarytothriveinanever-changingsociety.AsPolanyiobserved,the knowledgewecannoteasilyexpressisoftentheknowledgethatmakesthe greatestdifference.
MeganWilson isateacher,lifestrategist,successfulentrepreneur,inspirational keynotespeakerandfounderof https://EbookACE.com.Meganchampionsa radicalrethinkofourschoolsystems;shecallsoneducatorstoteachboth intuitionandlogictocultivatecreativityandcreateboldthinkers.
Source: https://ebookace.com/gaining-implicit-knowledge-for-academicachievement/