Architecture and its influence on physical and metaphysical human behaviour: The Yad Vashem Holocaus

NIMIT BATAVIA 490233696

Architecture and its influence on physical and metaphysical human behaviour: The Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum “For the dead and the living, we must bear witness.” ― Elie Wiesel Located in Jerusalem, the Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum (YVHHM) is Israel’s official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust and its purpose is exemplified by the above quote by Wiesel. The museum is a testimony to arguably the darkest phase in the history of humanity. It is a place of remembrance and pays respect to the thousands of lives lost and millions of lives scarred. The museum not only exhibits various galleries but is primarily dedicated to preserving the memory of the dead. It also provides a structured process of being able to add to the historic narrative with the aid of the Hall of Names, which serves as a repository for the Pages of testimony of millions of Holocaust victims, a memorial to those who perished. It honours the Jews that fought against their Nazi oppressors and is dedicated honouring the memory of the catastrophic struggles faced by the entire Jewish race. It also pays respect to the Gentiles who selflessly aided the Jews in need. The museum lays quite dramatically on the western slope of Mount Herzl, which is also known as the Mount of Remembrance. The museum is adjacent to the Jerusalem forest and opens up to it on few instances, which establishes a deep connection to the outside – which is a land that represents the Jewish culture and also interweaves diversity .1 Spatially, the nearly 50 acre memorial can be divided into two distinct sections based on their facilities. On one hand, a part of the museum is dedicated to the scientific study of the Holocaust and genocide, and memorials and museums catering to the needs of the greater audience. It comprises of the research institute with archives, a library, a publishing house, and an educational centre which also houses the International School for Holocaust Studies.2

1

Fangqing Lu, "Museum Architecture As Spatial Storytelling Of Historical Time: Manifesting A Primary Example Of Jewish Space In Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum", in Frontiers Of Architectural Research, 442.

2

Fangqing Lu, "Museum Architecture As Spatial Storytelling Of Historical Time: Manifesting A Primary Example Of Jewish Space In Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum", in Frontiers Of Architectural Research, 444.

The former section, which is the focus of this essay, is more concerned with revoking the memory of the unsung heroes which left a permanent ray of shining hope and a reminder of atrocities caused and millions of lives lost during what many regard as darkest phase of humanity – the Holocaust. Functionally, this space consists of the Holocaust History Museum, memorial sites such as the Children's Memorial and the Hall of Remembrance, the Museum of Holocaust Art, sculptures. An unique aspect of this section is also the outdoor commemorative sites such as the Valley of the Communities, and a synagogue.3

Initial Design Diagram – Safdie

3

"Safdie Architects". 2021. Safdiearchitects.Com. https://www.safdiearchitects.com/projects/yadvashem-holocaust-history-museum.

What adds promise to the architecture of the museum and really sets it apart from the traditional notion of a museum is the how head architect Moshe Safdie has carefully woven spaces that not only relate perfectly well to each other in synchronization, but also the fact that they can have an impact on human emotion. The spaces within the museum make you the ‘subject’ and help you slip into submission by speaking to you. Certain spaces like the Hall of Names whisper the cold truths about an atrocious history that existed whereas some tectonic features like the Prism skylight scream about the hope that manifolded and a testimony to the fact that its ripples still continue to exist and inspire generations. The overarching architectural intent is woven with the emotion of the Jews – the idea is to pay respect to it and acknowledge whatever the Nazi’s inflicted to an entire race in a subtle architectural manner but at the same time not downplay any of the atrocities or the magnitude of the traumatizing spectacle that lead to virtual obliteration of an entire race with mercilessly. 4

4

"Safdie Architects". 2021. Safdiearchitects.Com. https://www.safdiearchitects.com/projects/yadvashem-holocaust-history-museum.

Museum as an overarching Machine “We shape our buildings; thereafter they shape us.”

-Winston Churchill In many ways, parallels can be drawn between the functioning of a traditional machine and the functionality of a museum. Churchill draws out how the impact of architecture on us is often immeasurable. Humans often think they have control over the spaces that they inhabit and can influence how they communicate with us, but Churchill points out that the post-process of an architectural visualization being conceptualized and materialised actually leads to the contrary. The entire psychology, emotion, movement, gestures and subtleties of human behaviour can in fact to a certain degree be influenced by architecture. The architect of YVHHM – the iconic Moshe Safdie takes advantage of this very power of structure and form to inflict very particular emotions for the visitors of the museum. Safdie’s architecture in general exemplifies the quote by Churchill as he focusses on his structures juxtaposing meaningful messages with bold and valorous forms. His architecture often comes out as affable and still dauntless which is an artistic virtue of the architect. Similar to some of his other projects, the YVHHM was also designed to influence how individuals feel within the building, but the added layer of this being a museum acknowledging such a delicate period of history that was fuelled by dreadful Nazi atrocities meant that Safdie had to be scrupulous and prudent in his approach – making sure the glory of the structural forms he designs does not even tenuously overshadow the purpose of the museum which is a site of remembrance and empathy. 5

Hall of names – Safdie 5

Liam Young, Machine Landscapes (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Incorporated, 2019), 29.

The YVHHM acts as a machine to trigger memory and influence human emotion on the psychological level and also as a machine in directing flow and circulation on the physical level through its contrasting thresholds and spaces within the museum.

The physicality and ametaphysicality of the museum functioning as a machine has been divided into three themes which are prominent in different parts of the museum.6 From the physical viewpoint, the themes that have identified and expanded on are Sublime and Gesture, and from a metaphysical viewpoint – Matrix has been identified as a theme which enables emergence.

Each of the three subsequent themes that fall under the overarching theme of the Machine focus on specific aspects and pull out the subtleties of the museum that can seem irrelevant but can have a ripple effect on human behaviour within the museum, from an internal and external synopsis.

Sublime elaborates on the specific thresholds and doorways that have been curated very carefully to provide fulfilling experience that balances out the interwinding between the exterior and interior.

On the other hand, Gesture focusses on the motion, dynamism and duration of individuals within the different zones of the museum. This theme is drawn closely from intensely studying the plans of the museum which are directly proportional to the linear or divergent experience in the different sections of the museum.

Matrix is a distinctly different theme that explores the psychological aspect of the museum and elaborates how the museum works on enabling emergence and what it stands for both politically and patriotically for the Jewish community. It showcases that the only means of solidarity and unison in the community is peace and not war. Architecturally it relies on the openness and welcoming forms to initiate the process of inclusion and togetherness.

Through ‘subjectification’, individuals are forced to be submissive to the forms, folds and structure. This subjectification is both literally on a corporeal level and on a more abstract metaphysical level. 7 To become a subject of something means to be responsive to it, be able to get controlled by it and supress individuality in its presence. This is exactly what the YVHHM aims to do – strip individuals off their personalities and make them feel part of a greater picture which stands for 6

Bill Hillier, Space is the machine (London: UCL, 2007), 47.

Bronwyn Davies, "Subjectification: The Relevance Of Butler’s Analysis For Education,” British Journal Of Sociology Of Education 27 (2006): 426.

7

solidarity, unison and world peace. It prompts you to empathise with those who have faced atrocities and also glorify heroes to make sure their tireless efforts have not gone in vain. In many instances on the path individuals are made to feel scarred and deprived because of the lack of light or claustrophobic thresholds, this is an attempt from an overall curation perspective to be able to instigate awareness and sensitivity to the surroundings and empathize with the victims of the past.8 Although it can be argued that this is a futile attempt to compare the hollowness that the Jews went through and still go through by reminiscing the past, it is at least an architectural endeavour that adds to the degree to which the museum can control how one feels – which certainly does justice to the museum acting as a machine.

Machine

Physical

Gesture

Metaphysical

Sublime

Matrix

Hierarchy of Architectural themes

Andrew Newman. 2006. "The Impact Of Museums Upon Identity ", in International Journal Of Heritage Studies 12, 45-56.

8

Sublime (physical level) Thresholds, openings and doorways are placed in very particular conjectures with keen consideration provided to light, materiality and the transposing of the different types of spaces.9 The new Holocaust History Museum, which is within the YVHHM and is now an integral part was designed by Moshe Safdie and this space influences human movement on a physical level particularly well particularly. It is shaped like a triangular concrete prism that cuts through the landscape, illuminated by a 200 meters long skylight. It carefully directs the eyes to roll over to look up to the sky through the skylight, providing a sign of hope and upliftment. The space very interestingly depicts the past and its progression till present that has the potential to flow into future both gracefully and uninterruptedly. The base of the triangular cone is circumvented with the cards containing the names of the lives lost. As the height rises the layers of cards keep increasing but now they also inch closer to light with every single layer, which is the architects attempt to open it positively to a ray of light. It is however argued that this dampens the solemnity of the millions of lives lost and takes a drift away from the past to highlight the future, which is not necessarily the function of a museum of remembrance.10

Level 1 Plan – Safdie 9

"Safdie Architects". 2021. Safdiearchitects.Com. https://www.safdiearchitects.com/projects/yadvashem-holocaust-history-museum.

10

Fangqing Lu, "Museum Architecture As Spatial Storytelling Of Historical Time: Manifesting A Primary Example Of Jewish Space In Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum", in Frontiers Of Architectural Research, 448.

Visitors follow a pre-set route that takes them through underground galleries that branch off from the main hall. The transition between these spaces is a juxtaposition of interchanging surfaces that add unique thresholds and influence rhythms of movement.11 The overarching plan is quite linear and uniquely tightens from a wide entry and expands again to open unto the beautiful exterior landscape. This makes the central area feel like a squeeze or pinch, which significantly reduces light entering the space and also impacts the ventilation.

Individuals are strategically made to feel uncomfortable in this space before they can experience the tranquillity of the spectrum of natural beauty outside. The beautiful landscape exterior is framed panoramically at the end of the plan and that leaves the visitors with an optimistic ray to help them look beyond the past after acknowledging it. The ideology that was applied to this decision was debated on widely by head curators, the architects and Jewish socio-political representatives. A section of the panel believed the museums sole purpose should be to reminiscent over the past and be as direct and frank about it as possible. On the contrary, a former section argued that the profile of this structure would attract millions of visitors annually and hence for the broader community and from a touristic viewpoint, the potential hope should be exaggerated to allow people to look beyond the past and feel evolved optimistically before they leave the museum. 12

Interplay of light – Safdie Andrew Newman. 2006. "The Impact Of Museums Upon Identity ", in International Journal Of Heritage Studies 12, 45-56.

11

Andrew Newman. 2006. "The Impact Of Museums Upon Identity ", in International Journal Of Heritage Studies 12, 45-56.

12

The main curation rooms which exhibit artefacts and significant elements are broken apart from the long linear cannon shaped plan in order for them to be read differently as separate spaces. These spaces are rectilinear and all in different sizes, which makes them read as one family of spaces but they can still be distinguished from each other based on what they house.

The cannon plan is also cut through with acute angled strips on the floor with natural rocks, The purpose of these are to make people traverse through all the exhibition rooms adjacent to the plan and not just follow a linear path from start to end. It also helps create a threshold at every entry to the different rooms. The thresholds are made to be narrow and then open up into wider rooms that dramatically show off the valued exhibits.13 Gesture (motion, dynamism and duration) The curation of the architecture and exhibits in the museum are a result of an attempt of the assembly of storytelling. The circulation within the museum is influenced by that particular narration of the events that preceded the Holocaust to the actual occurrences of the Holocaust and culminated by the end of the tragic phase which opens up to rays of hope, peace, dreams and aspirations. The solid concrete opens up from the sliced section of the mountain so as to open its arms into the sky – emulating the success of the struggle of the war which humanity is past and has made terms with. This space also acts as a framed view which attracts numerous individuals to gaze out into the open.

The motion inside is regulated to be quite dynamic with shifts in levels, sharp turns, interplay between outside and inside etc. This dynamism and fluidity acts opposing to the nature of a remembrance site which is grave stillness and sheer placidity.

The duration spent in each aspect of the museum is also crafted by the architect with prolonged circulation around corners, narrow paths and framed views.14

13 14

Liam Young, Machine Landscapes (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Incorporated, 2019), 29.

Fangqing Lu, "Museum Architecture As Spatial Storytelling Of Historical Time: Manifesting A Primary Example Of Jewish Space In Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum", in Frontiers Of Architectural Research, 448.

Site Plan – Safdie

Along the cannon plan – which forms the spine of the museum, individuals are forced to spend the maximum time and hence acknowledge all the exhibits in the adjacent curation rooms. The strips that cut off a straightforward path to the end exemplify how the circulation has been prolonged. Visitors are forced to spend more time in spaces where key exhibits like the hanging cycle exist. This is done by making those spaces expand after dark or/and narrow thresholds which individuals would crave to leave behind. This diversity of different types of spaces which prompt varying divisions of average time spent in them adds to the fluidity and dynamism of the museum.15

15

Liam Young, Machine Landscapes (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Incorporated, 2019), 29.

Prolonged pathways – Safdie

Motion, dynamism and duration is hence directly influenced by the architectonics of the museum. The spaces are carefully crafted to highlight focal areas while the transitory areas are consciously made despondent and sombre in nature which in turn also aid in highlighting the exhibits. 16

Matrix (enabling emergence) Being the official museum to represent the darkest phase of humanity, the YVHHM plays an important role politically. It acts as a machine of enabling emergence to the Jewish community. It has grown to become a symbol of what they stand for today and a vivid representation of what their community has gone through. It enables communal solidarity and from a political viewpoint enhances mutual respect for nations involved. The YVHHM in many ways is a stamp on the solidarity that exists and will continue to. Architecture has been used to convey a strong overarching message that unison is the way forward.17 In spite of being a site of Andrew Newman. 2006. "The Impact Of Museums Upon Identity ", in International Journal Of Heritage Studies 12, 45-56.

16

17

Antoine Picon, Ornament (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated., 2013), 23-30.

remembrance and reminiscence of a menacing and displeasing past, the museum has elements that ignite the light of hope and celebrates the peace that exists among the two ethnicities in the current period.

Although the relations between the involved societies might always be strained to a certain degree, the YVHHM is an attempt to solidify the blooming relationship in an optimistic manner and hence from a political standpoint, the museum represents peace, harmony, accordance and endearment. It enables emergence of what could possibly never exist and brings it on the surface level.18

Conclusion In conclusion, the YVHHM is an epitome of the impact that architecture can inflict on an individual both physically and metaphysically. It has the power to enable emotions, direct traffic and control how much time an individual spends in a particular space. Hence, architects have a salient responsibility in the community to shape how it functions and be able to enhance it by focussing on what areas it can flourish.

Opening to the landscape – Safdie

The YVHHM is a beautifully crafted space with very distinct spaces that are intertwined together to create a place. Williams highlights the difference between what a space is contradicting to what a place is. A space that is transformed with careful consideration of human behaviour and emotion in juxtaposition with sound 18

Antoine Picon, Ornament (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated., 2013), 27.

architectural knowledge by professionals is what makes it a place. The YVHHM exemplifies that definition of place as it arguably controls an individual on the entire journey across the museum in a holistic manner with very subtle approaches that layer on to become integral. The impact of the museum is such that even from an exterior view of it, an impression is printed on an individual’s subconscious mind.

19

It can always be argued that it is impossible to predict human behaviour and the influence of architecture on it is minimal. However, research from University College London’s Bartlett School of Architecture showcases how individuals generically behave differently in spaces designed by different architects. This shows that architecture can indeed enable subtle changes to say the least on human psychology and movement as a whole. It is hence deemed necessary in countries like Finland for architects to deeply study psychology before being sanctioned as professional architects. 20 The YVHHM provides a holistic experience and perfectly balances the acknowledgement of the horrific past and the ray of hope for the future. It has grown to become a political symbol and the face of the Jewish community in many ways as it is an exemplary representation of what the community has faced and honours all events in a careful chronological orders. A visit to the museum makes individuals empathise and also feel like they are part of the greater picture of humanity and compassion.

Bronwyn Davies, "Subjectification: The Relevance Of Butler’s Analysis For Education,” British Journal Of Sociology Of Education 27 (2006): 430.

19

20

Antoine Picon, Ornament (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated., 2013), 29.

Annotated Bibliography Source 1 Davies, Bronwyn. 2006. "Subjectification: The Relevance Of Butler’s Analysis For Education". British Journal Of Sociology Of Education 27 (4): 425-438. doi:10.1080/01425690600802907.

In this paper, Bronwyn Davies explores the process of subjectification through which one becomes a subject – which is a concept described in terms of simultaneous mastery and submission, entailing a necessary vulnerability to the other in order to be. Davies examines existing conceptual works and uses the analogy of teacher and student in context of education to propound how humans are submissive to architecture. The building requires and in some instances forces humans to follow patterns and behave in a space and hence it churns out subjects like an apparatus would.21 Through this text, Davies makes the reader question and introspect to what degree humans are actually subject to being channelled by buildings and whether that can be compared to machine. On multiple occasions the author describes this theory and its execution in relation to a museum as the site, which adds weight to the objectivity of the concept and its exploration in the public realm.

Bronwyn Davies, "Subjectification: The Relevance Of Butler’s Analysis For Education,” British Journal Of Sociology Of Education 27 (2006): 430.

21

Source 2 Hashim Almajidi, Basim Hasan. 2019. The Impact Of Political Authority On Building The Architectural Image. Chicago: Policy press.

Authority is one of the key factors influencing the formation of the identity of architecture. Hasan, through this text establishes that particular relationship between the built form of architecture and the abstract, which in this case is the potential politics and authority that can encompass within it.

Architecture has been unfolded to also reveal the hopes, power struggle and the elements culture of the society.22 The research includes a comprehensive conceptual framework which has been constructed by addressing a series of studies, researches and international experiences that have reflected the influence of political authority on building the image of architecture. The text introduces this unique relationship of the architectural image, its identity and political authority in order to present a new realm to the pre-conceived concept of architecture by exemplifying it. Hasan uses case studies of certain Arab countries and how their heads of state play an integral role in emphasizing the influence of the built form.

The extent of the power of the built form is expressed to be constantly multiplying and is predicted to have the potential of shaping and symbolizing an entire era.

22

Hashim Almajidi, The Impact Of Political Authority On Building The Architectural Image (Chicago: Policy press, 2019), 17-28.

Source 3 Hillier, Bill. 2007. Space Is The Machine. London: UCL.

As a result of vigorous research about how space features in the form and functioning of buildings and cities, Bill Hillier and his colleagues at University College London have composed this text which has a centralized theme of the concept of ‘spatial configuration’ and the different relationship between spaces.

The aim of this book is to assemble all new techniques that analyse spatial relationships show how that leads the way to a new type of theory of architecture: an 'analytic' theory in which understanding and design advance together. A key feature of the text was also the extension from architecture and spatial relationships to other areas of human sciences and configuration, which in turn informed architectural relationships in different forms.23 The theories were scientifically presented with a hypothesis and testing style which added immense value to its credibility. The text forces the reader to analyse space with a broadened view and form an integral understanding of how spaces relate to each other, the landscape and the wider community as well.

23

Bill Hillier, Space is the machine (London: UCL, 2007), 45.

Source 4 Lu, Fangqing. 2017. "Museum Architecture As Spatial Storytelling Of Historical Time: Manifesting A Primary Example Of Jewish Space In Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum". Frontiers Of Architectural Research 6 (4): 442-455. doi:10.1016/j.foar.2017.08.002.

Examining the Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum (YVHHM) in Jerusalem as an epitome precedent, Lu draws attention towards museum architecture as a form of spatial storytelling. The study demonstrates the idea that museum architecture itself can be regarded as a medium of spatial storytelling, specifically of historical time, which is manifested spatially and cognitively for museum visitors. The YVHHM is a tool that successfully establishes an architectural dimension and thus displays, reveals, and interprets historical time during the Holocaust.24 The research method of this study is drawn from a case study of YVHHM and consists of a literature review of scholarship in museum studies about artefacts and exhibition techniques of storytelling. Through a deep analysis of spatial layout and circulation, spatial form and symbolization, and spatial qualities of lighting and material with the help of architectural plans and sections, this text helped both visualize and acknowledge the space while introducing the perspective of storytelling and its relationship to museums.

24

Fangqing Lu, "Museum Architecture As Spatial Storytelling Of Historical Time: Manifesting A Primary Example Of Jewish Space In Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum", in Frontiers Of Architectural Research, 448.

Source 5 Newman, Andrew, and Fiona McLean. 2006. "The Impact Of Museums Upon Identity". International Journal Of Heritage Studies 12 (1): 49-68. doi:10.1080/13527250500384514.

(Newman and McLean 2006)

Newman’s aim in this paper was to determine how individuals visiting two particular museum exhibitions and museum-based community development project construct individual and social identities based on their experiences inside them. This case study gave meaning to the contexts based on which the exhibitions and community development projects were constructed and how and why participants made meaning in these contexts.25 Newman triggers readers to visualize the realities created through an analysis - ‘circuit of culture’, the moments of which are representation, production, consumption, regulation and identity. In conclusion, a mechanism of identity formation has been introduced through which the UK government established policies using museums as agents of social inclusion. The idea of ‘exclusion’ is also elaborated on by the author through which in spite of disjuncture with the space or exhibits, individuals have the potential to be highly influenced indirectly the space. The text instigates readers to contemplate on the political influence that governments establish through architecture.

Andrew Newman. 2006. "The Impact Of Museums Upon Identity ", in International Journal Of Heritage Studies 12, 45-56.

25

Source 6 Picon, Antoine. 2013. Ornament. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

An expert and educator in the fields of complementary histories of architecture, science and technology - Antoine Picon is Co-Director of Doctoral Programs at Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD) and Director of Research at Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris. The ornament has made a return in this piece to establish its place in contemporary architecture. The works of well renowned architects such as Herzog & de Meuron, Sauerbruch Hutton, Farshid Moussavi Architecture and OMA is typified in order to support the theories. Drawing expertise from his fields of interest, Picon points out that ornamental tendencies are inseparable from innovations in computer technology. A key aspect of the text is the ‘subjective’ nature that Picon points out - the human interaction that ornament requires in both its production and its reception. He emphasizes the political connection to architecture and the vital information it can provide about the designation of buildings as well as about the rank of their owners. Architecture has been described as an expression of social values, hierarchies and order.26 Leaving it open to the reader, the author makes us question the political issues at stake in today’s ornamental revival from an architectural perspective.

26

Antoine Picon, Ornament (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated., 2013), 23-30.

Source 7 Ricci, Natalie. 2018. The Psychological Impact Of Architectural Design. Claremont: Claremont Education.

Ricci uses this text as a means to draw out a vivid picture about how architectural tectonics are shaped by humans and then how they in turn end up shaping human emotion and have an integral psychological impact on us. She studies political leaders and their relationships to their place of work and residence and how that might influence the decisions they make. She points out that buildings and cities affect mood and well-being with a strong overarching scientific explanation about the specialised cells in the hippocampal region of our brains which attuned to the geometry and arrangement of the spaces we inhabit.27 One theory is that the visual complexity of natural environments acts as a kind of mental balm. Ricci concluded that most people feel better in rooms with curved edges and rounded contours than in sharp-edged rectangular rooms providing striking empirical evidence. The biological supporting theories and the spatial influence of buildings together juxtaposed carefully in this text makes the reader draw parallels with ease.

Formulating conclusions about different precedents based on their spatial qualities was significantly influenced by Ricci’s theories.

27

Natalie Ricci, The Psychological Impact Of Architectural Design (Claremont: Claremont Education, 2018), 5-8.

Source 8 Young, Liam. 2019. Machine Landscapes. Hoboken, USA: John Wiley & Sons Incorporated.

Liam Young, a speculative architect and professor at Architecture Association, UK and Princeton University, USA uses his experience in the realm of architecture to introduce unique modern ideologies. His keen interest in design, fiction and futures is evident and has worked as a key feature to formulate this text. He expounds a documented narrative to establish a relationship between the existing notion of a machine and architecture as it exists today and will continue to develop. Taking aid of documentary and fiction, he explores landscapes and introduces new worlds through a very futuristic ideology. The idea of machine is highlighted to be functional, provocative and self-sufficient. He prompts the reader towards imagining the future by drawing current and plausible parallels between the built form and the pure scientific establishments of a machine.28 The neo modern theories introduced provided a structured framework to help draw conclusions about the transformation of how designers approach curating the built form.

28

Liam Young, Machine Landscapes (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Incorporated, 2019), 28-39.