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Resistance and Colonialism: Insurgent Peoples in World History Nuno Domingos
A Conceptual Exploration of World Regions & the Issues Critical to Geography Today
The Important Issues & People Shaping World Regions
1.
“As the region’s population grows and the regional economy demands more water for the manufacturing sector as well as for the production of food, the scarcity of water resources will
“Many women, children, and men have been victims of torture, rape, or other sorts of violence. Others have seen their family members killed.”
NEW! Faces of the Region features explore the experience of different people within each world region, asking what is it like to be a young person in one place or what is it like to grow older in another place. It looks at the everyday, real-life experience of migration and asks how and in what ways changing demographics in each world region may be impacting how people come to know and understand their place in the world.
4.4 Faces of the Region
Current & Compelling Stories from the Regions
1 .3 Faces of the Region
UPDATED! Geographies of Indulgence, Desire, and Addiction features link people in one world region to people throughout the world through a discussion of the local production and global consumption of regional commodities, helping students appreciate the links between producers and consumers around the world as well as between people and the natural world. New topics include luxury cars, beer and wine, and trekking.
Demographic Change and the Experience of Place
phers are very interested in the everyday experiences of place and aging. How is growing old in China different today from a generation ago? How have youth in Mexico become politically engaged or disengaged depending on their access to electronic media and spaces for public protests? As you read this book, in each chapter you will meet other “Faces of the Region”—individuals whose daily lives reflect the profound economic, political, and cultural effects of demographic change.
China’s Elders: A Change in Social Position In the People’s Republic of China, where older populations have long been cared for in the homes of their children, a new generation of ageing parents and grandparents are finding themselves in nursing homes. These homes didn’t exist on a large scale 20 or 30 years ago, but because of China’s one child policy and the changing nature of the economy, many aging people are now finding themselves having to live in nursing facilities in their older age (FIGURE1.3.1).
“Everyone gets older, but how they get older and what it means for them is really different depending on where they are.”
Mexico’s Youth: Growing Political Engagement In Mexico, youth are playing a growing role in the political life of many countries. The Yo Soy 132 (I Am 132) campaign in Mexico was initiated by college-age students so disillusioned with the political race for president and the alleged media bias that they supported one candidate over the other. The 132 protest became an internationally supported social movement that brought youth together from around the world (FIGURE1.3.2).
The Changing Life Course It is important that we understand the different ways that people experience the twin processes of globalization and regionalization across different
▼ FIGURE1.3.1 Nursing Home, Beijing With more than 160 million people over the age of 60 and the ageing rate gaining pace, China is the world’s only developing country facing a rather curious problem: it is greying before it gets rich. The speed at which the number of elderly in China is increasing has alarmed both the government and demographers about the future, with a health care system already straining and many older people without pensions. Nursing homes have emerged to manage China’s ageing population, whose one-child policy means that there are far fewer children to care for the elderly.
points in their life course, from their youngest years to their most advanced. Everyone gets older but how they get older and what it means for them is really different depending on where they are.
1. How have the lives of China’s older citizens recently changed? What explains these changes?
2. In 2014, Mexican youth protested the disappearance and murder of 43 high school students, a crime that involved corrupt public officials. Research the 2014 protests on the Internet. What were the larger political issues motivating the 2014 protests?
https://goo.gl/QFWyhU Mexican Youth Protests
▼ FIGURE1.3.2 Youth Demonstrate as Part of the Yo Soy 132 March in Mexico City, Mexico Popular protests by 131 Mexican youth was augmented by a larger social movement, Yo So 132 “I am 132,” which developed as a protest movement against presidential candidate, Enrique Peña Nieto, and the press, which the protesters suggested were not covering the election fairly.
NEW!
regions. Updates include: the European response to the Syrian refugee crisis; the Syrian civil war and the rise of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS); the recent Russian annexation of Crimea; natural disasters in Southeast Asia and the threat of rising sea-levels due to climate change in Oceania; and the growing connections between China and Africa.
▲ C06 Marchers in 2014 in Washington, DC protest the choking death of Eric Garner by an NYC police officer.
A Changing World Geography
“The geopolitical contest for the control of this area has already begun.”
FutureGeographies
The world is in transition, and the distribution of people, money, resources, opportunities, and crises is necessarily changing as a result. Each of the chapters in this book contains a “Future Geographies” section that speculates about the future of different regions, while “Emerging Regions” sections introduce new regions that are forming now.
Population Boom or Bust?
Many forces are lowering birthrates around the world, leading to leveling off or declining regional populations. In some places, populations may continue to rise, however. FIGURE1.49 shows projected population changes according to the UN Estimates up to and 2050.
Emerging Resource Regions
The expansion of the global economy and the globalization of industry will boost the overall demand for raw materials of every kind, and this will spur the development of some previously less exploited but resource-rich regions in Africa and Asia ( FIGURE1.50 ). The emergence of these new resource regions has enormous implications, as in Africa, where new geopolitical, cultural, and economic relationships are forming to rising powers like China and India.
UPDATED! Emerging Regions features emphasize global and local change, and explore how world regional geography changes over time and how regions might look different in the future.
Future Geographies
sections conclude each chapter with a brief discussion of some of the key issues facing each world region, projecting how they are likely to develop in the coming
and
Dynamic Data Visualization & Critical Analysis
UPDATED!
Visualizing
Geography features use cutting-edge cartography and data visualization techniques to introduce readers to a current geographic issue. Visual data provide a powerful way to convey information and analyze geographic processes in action, encouraging students to ask, “What types of geographic data can I use to answer the pressing questions of the day?”
DATA Analysis
As discussed in this chapter, human activities in the environment directly influence climate change, which affects each region in different ways. Rising sea levels due to climate change directly impact Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Yet SIDS have contributed to less than 1% of the global emissions that cause temperatures and sea levels to rise. Tulun Atoll is one such Pacific island where the population is currently facing forced relocation. Take a deeper look at climate change and SIDS by first reading the 2014 Guardian article, “Island nations shouldn’t be left to drown from climate change” at http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree and respond to these following questions:
1. What are the factors causing sea levels to rise? In addition to sea-level rise, how will climate change affect Pacific islands and the surrounding ocean?
2. What is the “call to action” expressed by Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi, the prime minister of Samoa to other world leaders?
3. How have New Zealand and Australia responded to climate migration of Pacific Islanders?
Going deeper, search Vimeo.com for “Chief Bernard Tunim in Copenhagen / COP15 (2009)” to see this address delivered by Chief Bernard Tunim, a leader and fisherman from Tulun Atoll at the UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, 2009.
4. What does Chief Tunim say about what his people and island are experiencing with regard to food security, changing water levels, and the island’s shoreline?
5. In Chief Tunim’s view, what and who is destroying Tulun Atoll?
6. How does Chief Tunim rate the relative usefulness of the policies of international organizations in comparison with the everyday experience of his own people? Explain your answer.
7. What does Chief Tunim say about the government’s relocation program for his people? Are his criticisms justified? Explain why or why not.
8. Do you agree with Chief Tunim that Europeans and North Americans should curb their consumption of fossil fuels to combat climate change? Explain your answer.
9. Reflecting on both the Guardian article and Chief Tunim’s address, how much responsibility do you think the high-polluting nations have to the smaller nations who bear the greatest impacts? What percentage of this responsibility should be response, and what part should constitute preventative measures?
NEW! Data Analysis Activities at the end of each chapter have students answer critical thinking questions based on data related to regional, economic, social, and political developments from governments, nongovernmental organizations, and other important sources.
cHAPteR 1 World Regions in Global context 47
Continuous Learning Before, During, and After Class
BEFORE CLASS
Mobile Media and Reading Assignments Ensure Students Come to Class Prepared.
NEW! Dynamic Study Modules personalize each student’s learning experience. Created to allow students to acquire knowledge on their own and be better prepared for class discussions and assessments, this mobile app is available for iOS and Android devices.
Pre-Lecture Reading Quizzes are easy to customize & assign
NEW! Reading Questions ensure that students complete the assigned reading before class and stay on track with reading assignments. Reading Questions are 100% mobile ready and can be completed by students on mobile devices.
Pearson eText in MasteringGeography
gives students access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the internet. eText features include:
• Now available on smartphones and tablets.
• Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media.
• Fully accessible (screen-reader ready).
• Configurable reading settings, including resizable type and night reading mode.
• Instructor and student note-taking, highlighting, bookmarking, and search.
with MasteringGeography
DURING CLASS
Learning
CatalyticsTM and Engaging Media
What has Professors and Students excited?
Learning Cataltyics, a ‘bring your own device’ student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system, allows students to use their smartphone, tablet, or laptop to respond to questions in class. With Learning Cataltyics, you can:
• Assess students in real-time using open ended question formats to uncover student misconceptions and adjust lecture accordingly.
• Automatically create groups for peer instruction based on student response patterns, to optimize discussion productivity.
“My students are so busy and engaged answering Learning Catalytics questions during lecture that they don’t have time for Facebook.”
Declan De Paor, Old Dominion University
Enrich Lecture with Dynamic Media
Teachers can incorporate dynamic media into lecture, such as Videos, MapMaster Interactive Maps and Geoscience Animations.
MasteringGeographyTM
MasteringGeography delivers engaging, dynamic learning opportunities—focusing on course objectives and responsive to each student’s progress—that are proven to help students absorb world regional geography course material and understand challenging geography processes and concepts.
AFTER CLASS
Easy to Assign, Customizable, Media-Rich, and Automatically Graded Assignments
MapMaster Interactive Map Activities are inspired by GIS, allowing students to layer various thematic maps to analyze spatial patterns and data at regional and global scales. This tool includes zoom and annotation functionality, with hundreds of map layers leveraging recent data from sources such as NOAA, NASA, USGS, United Nations, and the CIA.
NEW! Geography Videos from such sources as the BBC and The Financial Times are now included in addition to the videos from Television for the Environment’s Life and Earth Report series in MasteringGeography. Approximately 200 video clips for over 25 hours of video are available to students and teachers and MasteringGeography.
GeoScience Animations visualize complex physical geoscience concepts, and include audio narration.
UPDATED! Encounter (Google Earth) activities provide rich, interactive explorations of world regional geography concepts, allowing students to visualize spatial data and tour distant places on the virtual globe.
NEW! GeoTutors. Highly visual coaching items with hints and specific wrong answer feedback help students master the toughest topics in geography.
Map Projections interactive tutorial media helps reinforce and remediate students on the basic yet challenging Chapter 1 map projection concepts.
Sallie A. Marston
University of Arizona Virginia Tech
Paul L. Knox
Diana
M. Liverman
University of Arizona
Vincent
University of Wisconsin, Madison Sixth Edition
J. Del Casino, Jr.
University of Arizona
Paul F. Robbins
Senior Geography Editor: Christian Botting
Project Manager: Sean Hale
Program Manager: Anton Yakovlev
Development Editor: Jonathan Cheney
Media Producer: Ziki Dekel
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Director of Development: Jennifer Hart
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Acknowledgements of third party content appear on page C-1–C-3, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.
Names: Marston, Sallie A., author.
Title: World regions in global context : peoples, places, and environments / Sallie A. Marston, Paul L. Knox, Diana M. Liverman, Vincent J. Del Casino, Paul F. Robbins.
Description: Sixth Edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2019] | Earlier editions cataloged under title. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015035836| ISBN 9780134183640 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0134183649 (alk. paper)
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015035836
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ISBN 10: 0-134-18364-9; ISBN 13: 978-0-134-18364-0 (Student edition)
ISBN 10: 0-134-26301-4; ISBN 13: 978-0-13426301-4 (Instructor’s Review Copy)
BOOk & MasteringGeographyTM WALkThROUGh
PREFACE xiv
ABOUT ThE AUThORS xvii
DIGITAL & PRINT RESOURCES xviii
1 World Regions in Global Context
2
Thinking Like a Geographer 4
Place and the Making of Regions 4
Maps and Mapping 5
Globalization and Regionalization 6
A World of Regions 7
Organizing and Exploring the World’s Regions 7
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 8
Climate and Climate Change 8
Regional Climate 8
Climate Change and a Warming World 10
Visualizing geography: The Causes and Consequences of Climate Change 12
Geological Resources, Risks, and Water 14
Resources and Risks 14
River Formation and Water Management 15
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 16
Ecosystems and Biodiversity Decline 16
Human-Influenced Ecologies 17
sustainability in the anthropocene: Welcome to the Anthropocene 18
Sustainability and the Future 20
history, Economy, and Territory 21
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 21
European Colonialism, Capitalism, and the Industrial Revolution 21
The Process of Decolonization 23
Communism and the Cold War 23
Future World Regional Systems 25
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 25
Economic Sectors and Regional Economies 25
Measuring Economic Development 27
Patterns of Social Well-Being 28
Explaining and Practicing “Development” 29
Territory and Politics 31
States and Nations 31
Political Globalization 32
Culture and Populations 33
Culture, Religion, and Language 33
Geographies of Religion 33
Geographies of Language 34
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 36
Culture and Identity 36
Demography and Urbanization 38
Modeling Demographic Change 39
The Demographic Transition 39
Faces of the Region: Demographic Change and the Experience of Place 40
Future Geographies 42
Population Boom or Bust? 42
Emerging Resource Regions 42
Economic Globalization and Challenges to Regional Governance 43
New Regions of Insecurity and Crime 43
Future Environmental Threats and Global Sustainability 44
Learning Outcomes Revisited 45
key Terms 46
Thinking Geographically 46
Data Analysis 47
2 Europe 48
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 50
Climate and Climate Change 51
Europe and Climate Change 51
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 53
Northwestern Uplands 53
Alpine Europe 54
Central Plateaus 55
North European Lowlands 56
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 56
Roman Land Improvement 57
Medieval Settlement 57
Emergence of the Modern Landscape 57
history, Economy, and Territory 57
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Beer and Wine 58
sustainability in the anthropocene: Planning for Green Cities 60
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 62
Trade and the Age of Discovery 63
Colonialism 63
Industrialization 63
Imperialism and War 65
Eastern Europe’s Interlude of State Socialism 67
The Reintegration of Eastern Europe 67
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 68
The European Union: Coping with Uneven Development 68
Regional Development: Europe’s Core Regions 70
High-Speed Rail 70
Territory and Politics 72
Regionalism and Boundary Disputes 73
Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans 73
Culture and Populations 75
Culture, Religion, and Language 75
Language Families 76
Religious Diversity 76
Islam in Europe 76
Regional Cultures 77
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 77
The Concept of Modernity 77
Social Critique and the European Dream 78
A “European” Identity? 78
Women in European Society 78
Demography and Urbanization 79
Demographic Change 79
Visualizing geography: Europe’s Muslims 80
Faces of the Region 82
The European Diaspora 82
Migration within Europe 82
Recent Migration Streams 83
Europe’s Towns and Cities 84
Future Geographies 86
Coping with Aging Populations 86
Coping with Immigration 86
The EU: Costs of Expansion 86
The EU: Problems of Indebtedness 87
Learning Outcomes Revisited 88 key Terms 88
Thinking Geographically 89
Data Analysis 89
3 The Russian Federation, Central Asia, and the Transcaucasus 90
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 92
Climate and Climate Change 92
Adapting to a Warming Continent and Melting Sea Ice 93
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 95
Mountains and Plains 95
Emerging Regions: The Arctic 96
Rivers and Seas 98
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 98
The Tundra 99
The Taiga 100
Mixed Forest 100
The Steppe 101
Semidesert and Desert 102
Challenges to Sustainability in the Region 101
history, Economy, and Territory 102
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 102
sustainability in the anthropocene: Environmental Social Movements in the Russian Federation 103
The Rise of the Russian Empire 104
Revolution and the Rise of the Soviet Union 105
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Furs, Fashion, and Animal Rights 106
Soviet Industrialization and Its Environmental Legacy 107
Economic Growth and the Cold War 108
Economic Stagnation and the Decline of the Soviet Union 110
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 110
Building a Market Economy 110
Regional Development and Inequalities 112
Territory and Politics 113
Chechen Independence 114
Ethnonationalism in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia 115
Geopolitical Shifts and Ongoing Regional Tensions 116
Russia on the World Stage 116
Culture and Populations 117
Religion and Language 117
Religion 117
Language 117
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 117
High Culture 117
Popular Culture 118
Social Stratification and Conspicuous Consumption 119
Faces of the Region: Changing Fortunes for Central Asian
Migrants to Russia 120
Gender and Inequality 121
Demography and Urbanization 121
Demographic Change 121
Global and Regional Migration Streams 123
Visualizing geography: The Russian Diaspora and
Democracy or Plutocracy? 127
Will Russia’s Pacific Rim Be an Economic Boom? 127
Demographic Challenge—Implosion and Decline? 127
Learning Outcomes Revisited 128
key Terms 129
Thinking Geographically 129
Data Analysis 129
4 Middle East and North Africa 130
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 132
Climate and Climate Change 132
Arid Lands and Mountain Landscapes 132
Adaptation to Aridity 133
Climate Change 134
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 135
Mountain Environments and Tectonic Activity 135
Water Resources and River Systems 136
Water Resources and Sustainable Environments 137
sustainability in the anthropocene: Water Scarcity and Quality 138
Nonrenewable Resources: Petroleum and Natural Gas 139
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Luxury Cars 141
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 142
Flora and Fauna 142
Environmental Challenges 142
history, Economy, and Territory 143
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 143
Plant and Animal Domestication 144
Birthplace of World Religions 144
Urbanization 145
The Ottoman Empire 146
The Mandate System 146
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 148
Independence and Economic Challenges 148
The Oil States 149
The Eastern Mediterranean Crescent 149
The Maghreb 150
Social Inequalities Across the Region 150
Territory and Politics 150
Intra-Regional Conflict and Tension 151
Visualizing geography: Political Protest, Change, and Repression 152
The Israeli–Palestinian and Israeli–Lebanese
Conflicts 154
Israel and Lebanon 156
The U.S. War in Iraq 157
The Rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)
Nuclear Tensions 159
Regional Alliances 159
Culture and Populations 159
Religion and Language 159
Islam 160
Christianity, Judaism, and Other Middle Eastern and North
African Religions 162
Regional Languages 162
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 163
Cultural Practices 163
Kinship, Family, and Social Order 164
Gender 164
Sexuality 165
Demography and Urbanization 167
Demographic Change 167
Pull Factors 167
Faces of the Region: Refugees Flee the Violence of the Syrian Civil War 169
Push Factors 170
Cities and Human Settlement 170
Future Geographies 172
Oil 172
Water 172
Peace and Stability 172
Learning Outcomes Revisited 173
key Terms 174
Thinking Geographically 174
Data Analysis 175
5 Sub-Saharan Africa 176
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 178
Climate and Climate Change 179
Adaptation to Climate 180
Climate Change 180
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 181
Plate Tectonics 182
Water Resources and Dams 183
Soils, Minerals, and Mining 183
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 184
Major Ecosystems 184
Diseases and Pests 185
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Diamonds 188
Land Use and Agriculture 189
Conservation and Africa’s Wildlife 190
Sustainability 190
The Colonial Era in Africa 194
Slavery and the Slave Trade 194
European Settlement in Southern Africa 194
European Exploration and the Scramble for Africa 194
The Legacy of Colonialism 195
Independence 197
Economy, Debt, and the Production of Inequality 197
Dependency, Debt, and African Economies 197
Contemporary African Agriculture 198
Agricultural Challenges and Opportunities 198
Manufacturing and Services 199
China, and the African Economy 200
Social and Economic Inequality 200
Regional Organizations 201
Territory and Politics 202
South Africa and Apartheid 202
The Cold War and Africa 203
Civil Wars and Internal Conflicts 203
Visualizing geography: The Millennium
Development Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa 204
Peacekeeping 206
Culture and Populations 207
Ethnicity 207
Religion 207
Language 207
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 208
Kinship 208
Land 208
Reciprocity 209
Music, Art, and Film 209
Sport 210
The Changing Roles of Women 210 Faces of the Region: The Ongoing Struggles of South Africa’s Youth 211
Demography and Urbanization 212
Demographic Change 212
Factors Affecting Fertility 212
Population Impacts of HIV/AIDS and Other Health-Care Concerns 213
African Cities 214
The Sub-Saharan African Diaspora 216
Migration Within Africa 216
Refugees and Internally Displaced Peoples (IDPs) 217
Future Geographies 217
Sustaining Representative and Effective Governments 217
Economic Opportunities 217
Food, Water, Health, and Energy for All 218
Learning Outcomes Revisited 219
key Terms 220
Thinking Geographically 220
Data Analysis 221 6
The United States and Canada
222
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 224
Climate, Adaptation, and Global Change 224
Climate Patterns 225
Climate Change and Other Environmental Issues 225
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 227
Physiographic Regions 227
Geologic and Other Hazards 228
Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources 229
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 229
Indigenous Land Use 230
Colonial Land Use 230
Contemporary Agriculture and Sustainability 230
Environmental Challenges 231
history, Economy, and Territory 231
sustainability in The anthropocene: Alternative Food Movements 232
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Marijuana 234
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 235
Indigenous Histories 235
Colonization and Independence 235
The Legacy of Slavery in the United States 236
European Settlement and Industrialization 236
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 237
The Two Economies 237
Transforming Economies 238
The New Economy 239
Wealth and Inequality 240
Visualizing geography: The Gender Gap in the United States and Canada 242
The United States and Canada and the Global Economic Crisis 243
Territory and Politics 243
States and Government 243
A New Province 244
U.S. Military Influence 244
U.S. War on Terror: Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan 245
War in Iraq 245
Al-Qaeda and Drone Warfare 245
Costs of Iraq and Afghanistan Wars 245
War on Terror Continues 245
Social Movements 246
Culture and Populations 246
Religion and Language 246
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 246
Arts, Music, and Sports 247
U.S. Cultural Imperialism 247
Canadian Cultural Nationalism 248
Sex, Gender, and Sexuality 248
Demography and Urbanization 249
Immigration 249
Assimilation and Anti-Immigrant Prejudice 250
Internal Migration 250
Demographic Change 251
Urbanization, Industrialization, and New Growth 252
Faces of the Region: The Other Baltimore 253
Urban to Suburban Migration 254
Future Geographies 254
U.S. Dominance and Its Challenge 254
Security, Terrorism, and War 255
Environmental Change 255
Learning Outcomes Revisited 256
key Terms 257
Thinking Geographically 257
Data Analysis 257
7 Latin America and the Caribbean
258
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 261
Climate and Climate Change 261
sustainability in the anthropocene: Air Pollution in Mexico City 262
Climatic Hazards 263
Climate Change Impacts 264
Climate Change Causes and Responses 265
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 266 Earthquake and Volcanic Hazards 266
Visualizing geography: Amazon
Deforestation 268
Minerals, Mining, and Oil 270
Water Resources 271
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 271
Plant and Animal Domestication 272
Maya, Incan, and Aztec Adaptations to the Environment 272
The Fate of the Forests and Biodiversity 274
Sustainable Development 274
The Green Revolution and Agriculture 274
Biofuels 276
Ecotourism and Conservation 276
history, Economy, and Territory 276
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 276
The Colonial Experience in Latin America 277
Demographic Collapse 278
Columbian Exchange 278
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Coffee 279
Land and Labor 280
Export Commodities 280
Independence 280
Export Dependence 281
Import Substitution 281
Debt Crisis 281
Free Trade and NAFTA 281
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 281
Contemporary Economic Conditions 282
Economic Structure 283
Inequality 284
Emerging Regions: BRICS 285
Territory and Politics 286
U.S. Influence 286
The Cold War and Revolution 286
Authoritarianism 286
Democracy 288
Social Movements and Indigenous Rights 288
Drug Economy 289
Culture and Populations 289
Religion 289
Language 290
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 291
Food 291
Music, Art, Film, and Sports 291
Gender Relations 292
Demography and Urbanization 293
Demographic Change 293
Migration Within the Region 294
Latin American and Caribbean Migration
Beyond the Region 295
Faces of the Region: Bolivian Youth in Argentina 296
Urbanization 297
Future Geographies 298
Sustainable Development 298
Emerging Economies 298
Representation and Democracy 298
Public Attitudes 298
Learning Outcomes Revisited 299
key Terms 300
Thinking Geographically 301
Data Analysis 301
8 East Asia 302
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 304
Climate and Climate Change 305
Adapting to Semiarid and Subtropical Climates 306
Climate Change 307
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 308
The Tibetan Plateau 309
Plains, Hills, Shelves, and Islands 309
Earthquakes in a Still-Forming Region 309
Flooding, Flood Management, and Hydroengineering 309
sustainability in the anthropocene: The Environmental Price of Industrialization 310
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 311
Tibetan and Himalayan Highlands 311
Steppe and Desert 311
Inner China, Korea, and the Japanese Archipelago 311
Revolutions in Agriculture 312
Conservation Issues 313
Wildlife in the Demilitarized Zone 314
Sustainability in East Asia 314
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Animals, Animal Parts, and Exotic Pets 315
history, Economy, and Territory 316
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 316
Empires of China 316
Japanese Feudalism and Empire 317
Imperial Decline 318
Revolutions, Wars, and Aftermath 318 Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 319
China’s Economy: From Communist Revolutionary to Revolutionary Capitalist 322
Emerging Regions: The Pacific Rim 323
Two Koreas, Two Economies 325
Territory and Politics 325
An Unfinished War in Korea 325
Unresolved Geopolitics in Taiwan 326
The Contested Periphery of Tibet 327
The Geopolitics of Globalized Chinese Investment 327
Culture and Populations 328
Religion and Language 328
Religions 328
Feng Shui 328
Languages 328
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 329
Gender and Inequality 329
Faces of the Region: Emerging Women’s Power Amid Patriarchy and Corruption 330
Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in China 331
Food 332
East Asian Culture and Globalization 332
Demography and Urbanization 333
Demographic Change 334
Population Control in China 334
Migrations 336
Diasporas 336
Great Asian Cities 336
Future Geographies 338
A Nation of Chinese Consumers? 338
Environmental Rebirth or Collapse in China? 338
Emerging Korean Conflict or Reconciliation? 339
Emerging Chinese Hegemony 339
Learning Outcomes Revisited 340
key Terms 341
Thinking Geographically 341
Data Analysis 341
9 South Asia 342
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 344
Climate and Climate Change 345
The Monsoon 345
Rainfall, Drought, and Agricultural Adaptation 346
Implications of Climate Change 347
Geological Resources, Risk, and Water 349
The Hazard of Flooding 351
Energy and Mineral Resources 352
Sustainability: Energy Innovation in South Asia
Arsenic Contamination 352
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management
Land Use Change 353
Agriculture and Resource Stress 354
Environmental Pollution 355
sustainability in the anthropocene: Conserving
Wildlife 356
history, Economy, and Territory 357
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 357
Harappan and Aryan Legacies 357
Early Empires 357
Mughal India 357
The British East India Company 358
Rebellion and the Raj 358
Independence and Partition 359
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality
The New South Asian Economy 361
The Tourism Boom 362
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Trekking 363
Inequality and Poverty 364
Territory and Politics 366
Indo-Pakistani Conflicts and Kashmir 366
Geopolitics of Afghanistan 366
The Afghan–Pakistan Frontier 367
Culture and Populations 368
Religion and Language 368
Religion 368
Religious Identity and Politics 369
Language 370
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 370
Caste, Marginality, and Resistance 370
Faces of the Region: Aziz Royesh 371
Status of Women 372
Popular Culture 372
The Globalization of South Asian Culture 373
Demography and Urbanization 374
Demographic Change 374
Factors Affecting Fertility Rates 374
Male–Female Sex Ratios 374
Urbanization 374
Visualizing geography: Gross National
Happiness 376
Future Geographies 378
A Peaceful Fate for Afghanistan? 378
Zero Population Growth—When? 378
New Food Technologies? 379
Can India’s Economy Catch China’s? 379
The South Asian Diaspora and Counter-Diaspora 375
Data Analysis 381
10 Southeast Asia 382
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 384
Climate and Climate Change 385
Climate Factors of Mainland and Islands 385
Tropical Cyclones and Typhoons 386
Trade Winds and Trade Networks 386
Climate and Agriculture 386
sustainability in the anthropocene: Regional Effects of Climate Change 388
Geological Resources, Risks, and Water Management 389
Energy and Mineral Resources 390
Risks and Benefits of Volcanic Activity 391
River Systems 391
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 392
Southeast Asia’s Biodiversity 392
European Colonial Influences on Regional Ecosystems 393
Sustainability Challenges and Deforestation 394
Responses to Deforestation and Environmental Change 394
history, Economy, and Territory 394
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 394
Emerging Regions: The Greater Mekong 396
European Colonialism in Southeast Asia 398
Colonial Legacies of the 19th Century 399
Visualizing geography: Angkor Wat 400
European Decolonization 402
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 403
Postcolonial Agricultural Development 403
Green Revolution Technologies 403
Postcolonial Manufacturing and Economic Development 403
Singapore and the Asian Economic “Miracle” 404
The Little Tigers 404
Southeast Asia in the Global Economy 404
Social and Economic Inequality 405
Territory and Politics 406
The Indochina Wars 406
Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge 407
Postcolonial Conflict and Ethnic Tension 408
Regional Cooperation 409
Cultures and Populations 410
Religion and Language 410
Religion 410
Language 412
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 413
Sexual Politics 413
HIV/AIDS Politics 414
Minority Politics 414
Demography and Urbanization 415
Population and Demographic Change 415 geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Opium and Methamphetamine 416
Population Distributions 418
Migration Within Southeast Asia 418
International Migration 419
Faces of the Region: The “Maid Trade” Is Not Fair Trade 421
Urbanization 422
Future Geographies 422
Regional Economic Cooperation 422
Intensifying Regional Integration 423
Environmental Issues and Sustainability 423
Social and Health Issues 423
Learning Outcomes Revisited 424
key Terms 424
Thinking Geographically 425
Data Analysis 425
11Oceania
426
Environment, Society, and Sustainability 428
Climate and Climate Change 429
Australian Climate 429
Emerging Regions: Antarctica 430
New Zealand Climate 432
Pacific Island Climate 432
Climate Change and Ozone Depletion 432
Geological Resources, Risks, and Water 433
Australian Physical Landscape 433
The Great Artesian Basin and Outback 433
Visualizing geography: New Zealand’s Physical Landscape 434
Desert Landforms 436
New Zealand Physical Landscape 436
Pacific Island Physical Landscapes 436
Mining 437
Ecology, Land, and Environmental Management 438
Australian Ecosystems 438
New Zealand Ecosystems 438
Pacific Island Ecosystems 438
Introduced Exotic and Feral Species 440 ustainability in the anthropocene: Ocean Plastic 441
Sustainability of Marine Resources and Agricultural
Agricultural Sustainability 442 442
istory, Economy, and Territory 443
Historical Legacies and Landscapes 443
Early European Exploration and Colonization 443 444
New Zealand 445
Pacific Islands 446
Independence, World War II, and Global Reorientations 446
Economy, Accumulation, and the Production of Inequality 447
Agriculture and Economy 447
From Import Substitution to Free Trade in Australia and New Zealand 447
Economic Development in the Pacific Islands 447
Tourism 447
Poverty and Inequality 449
Faces of the Region: The Stolen Generations 450
Territory and Politics 451
Regional Cooperation 451
Independence and Secessionist Movements 451
Multiculturalism and Indigenous Social Movements 451
Culture and Populations 452
Language 452
Religion 454
Cultural Practices, Social Differences, and Identity 454
Gender and Sexual Identity 455
Social Problems 455
Arts and Film 455
geographies of indulgence, Desire, and addiction: Uranium 456
Demography and Urbanization 458
Demographic Change 458
Immigration and Ethnicity 459
Oceanic Migration and Diasporas 460
Urban Areas 460
Future Geographies 462
The Challenges of Climate Change and Ocean Sustainability 462
Connections to the Global Economy 462
Traditional Cultures 462
Learning Outcomes Revisited 463
key Terms 464
Thinking Geographically 464
Data Analysis 465
APPENDIx: MAPS AND GEOSPATIAL TEChNOLOGIES A-1
GLOSSARy G-1
PhOTO AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS P-1
INDEx I-1
Preface
“One
book, one pen, one child, and one teacher can change the world.”
Malala Yousafzai1
We live in a world of global interconnection and dynamic change. This means that if we want to understand the human condition or the changing environment, we have to look at both our local community and the wider world. We have to challenge our assumptions about what we think we know. We have to work together. World Regions in Global Context provides a framework for understanding the global connections that affect relationships within world regions, while also recognizing that the events that take place locally can have an impact on a global scale. Of course, no textbook can provide the answers to all the complex questions about the forces that fuel these global connections and local changes. That’s why we have classes, students, teachers, travel, and other ways of understanding the world! But World Regions in Global Context can shed some light on the dynamic and complex relationships between people and the world they inhabit. This book gives students the basic geographical tools and concepts they need to understand the complexity of today’s global geography and the world regions that make up that geography.
New to the 6th Edition
The 6th edition of World Regions in Global Context has been thoroughly revised by the authors and editorial team based on reviews from teachers and scholars in the field. Every line and graphic in the book has been reviewed and edited for maximum clarity and effectiveness. The text has been significantly edited to provide additional space for infographics, data-driven maps, and images. The new edition includes significant changes as well as a number of new features that make the revised text more accessible and engaging.
■ Global change, especially climate change, is becoming an increasingly pressing issue as is responses to that change. The 6th edition takes up this concern by more overtly incorporating a discussion of environmental change in each chapter through the reorganized subsection titled Environment, Society, and Sustainability. The increasing emphasis on sustainable solutions to climate change and other environmental challenges is marked by the addition of other features in the text as well, including a new box feature.
■ Sustainability in the Anthropocene This feature provides an example of efforts to develop more sustainable lifestyles, cities, or food systems in this era of the “Anthropocene”—a newly proposed geologic era of human influences. In each region we have highlighted a specific project or place where people are
1This is an excerpt from Malala Yousafzai’s speech at the UN General Assembly on July 12, 2013 (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-full-text-malala-yousafzai-deliversdefiant-riposte-to-taliban-militants-with-speech-to-the-un-general-assembly-8706606.html), downloaded September 11, 2015.
implementing solutions that are socially, economically, and ecologically sustainable.
■ Faces of the Region explores the experience of different people within each world region. It takes up the challenge of asking what is it like to be a young person in one place, or what is it like to grow older in another place, or what it’s like to grow up in a place that is experiencing dramatic change. It looks at the everyday, real-life experiences of migration and generational change and asks how and in what ways changing demographics in each world region may be impacting how people come to know and understand their place in the world.
■ Geography is strongly invested in the use of maps and other visual data. The Visualizing Geography feature has been updated with a new emphasis on infographics and maps that encourage data and visual analyses. It builds on and extends that tradition with extensive use of visualizations and maps to focus on issues such as global sea-level rise, the consequences of conflict in the Middle East and North Africa, and the migration of Muslim populations into Europe.
■ Every chapter review includes a new Data Analysis feature in which students apply chapter concepts and answer critical thinking questions based on data accessed via Quick Response (QR) links to Web sites of governments, nongovernmental organizations, and other important sources of data related to regional, economic, social, and political developments.
■ Recognizing the importance of population dynamics as a factor in many regional challenges, the Culture and Populations section of each chapter contains a section, Demographic Change, with updated population statistics and trends as well as new population pyramids helping students to visualize the societal impacts of population change.
■ The maps, images, graphs, and tables that make up the text’s visual program have been revised. Readers will notice that many maps now include images that highlight key features. The photo program for this edition has also been substantially revised with newer and different photos. We have added questions that prompt students to look more carefully at some of the graphics and images.
■ We have updated the histories, stories, and current events in each chapter. As readers know, the world has changed a lot since the previous edition of this book. To respond to these changes, we have included stories on the European response to the Syrian refugee crisis; the Syrian civil war and the rise of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS); the recent Russian annexation of Crimea; natural disasters in Southeast Asia and the threat of rising sea-levels due to climate change in Oceania; and the growing connections between China and Africa, for example. New and updated information has been added to all the special feature material as well, including all the new Geographies of Indulgence, Desire, and Addiction features on luxury cars, beer and wine, and trekking.
■ Chapter 1 now includes a new section on how one can begin “Thinking Like a Geographer.”
Objectives and Approach
World Regions in Global Context has two primary objectives. The first is to provide a body of knowledge about world regions and their distinctive political and economic practices, cultural and environmental landscapes, and sociocultural attributes. The second is to emphasize that although there is diversity among world regions, all world regions are connected through new and changing relationships. This approach informs the book’s thematic structure, which is organized to engage readers in a discussion of environmental, social, historical, economic, and territorial change as well as cultural practices and demographic shifts.
Thematic Structure
This book is built on an opening chapter that describes how one thinks like a geographer. The 10 regional chapters follow, explore, and elaborate on the concepts laid out in Chapter 1. In each chapter, we balance discussions of global interconnections with local realities. To do this systematically, we divide each regional chapter into four major categories, each highlighting a set of themes that are central to understanding world regions.
Environment, Society, and Sustainability
We begin each chapter with a discussion of the physical and environmental context of the region; this includes a discussion of climate and climate change; geological resources, risks, and water; ecology, land, and environmental management; and sustainability. Our aim is to demonstrate how environment is shaped by, and shapes, the region’s inhabitants over time.
History, Economy, and Territory
This section focuses on the historical geographic context for each world region and illustrates how the economies and territories that make up each world region have evolved over time. Included are discussions of historical landscapes and legacies; economy, accumulation, and the production of inequality; and territory and politics.
Culture and Populations
This section explores the cultures and populations of each world region. This section emphasizes the relationships between population change and settlement patterns, while exploring the importance of urbanization in each region. This section is broken down into three subsections focusing on culture, religion, and language; cultural practices, social differences, and identity; and demography and urbanization.
Future Geographies
In keeping with the theme of this textbook, which emphasizes ongoing change, each chapter concludes with a brief discussion of some of the key issues facing each world region, projecting how they are likely to develop in the coming years and decades.
Pedagogy and Content Enrichment
The book includes a number of important pedagogical devices to help readers understand the complex processes that connect our world and make it different.
Learning Outcomes and Learning Outcomes Revisited
On the opening pages of each regional chapter, we provide a list of Learning Outcomes. This list directs students to the key take-away points in the chapter. They are intentionally broad, drawing from a number of different discussions throughout each chapter. At the end of the chapter, we return to these learning outcomes and offer brief comments on them. The Learning Outcomes Revisited section helps readers grapple with some of the larger conceptual material and focuses student review and also includes key questions.
Apply Your Knowledge
Apply Your Knowledge questions ask readers to synthesize the information in the text and respond to applied questions that link back to the chapter’s broad learning outcomes. Readers will find six to eight of these question in each chapter. Many have been updated with QR links to Web sites where students can access current data that deepens their understanding of regional issues.
Special Content Features
New and updated box features provide students with an opportunity for in-depth exploration of key chapter content. In addition to a new emphasis on data analysis, the 6th edition’s box features include critical thinking questions to encourage students to self-assess and reflect on what they have learned.
■ Visualizing Geography In each chapter, we use cutting-edge cartography and data visualization techniques to introduce readers to a current geographic issue. Visual data provide a powerful way to convey information and analyze geographic processes in action, encouraging students to ask, “What types of geographic data can I use to answer the pressing questions of the day?”
■ Emerging Regions This feature emphasizes global and local change and underscores the importance that these new regions have now and may have in the future. Readers are encouraged to explore Emerging Regions with an eye toward asking how world regional geography changes over time and how it might look different in the future.
■ Faces of the Region This section explores the experience of different people within each world region. It takes up the challenge of asking what is it like to be a young person in one place or what is it like to grow older in another place. It looks at the everyday, real-life experience of migration and asks how and in what ways changing demographics in each world region may be impacting how people come to know and understand their place in the world.
■ Geographies of Indulgence, Desire, and Addiction This feature links people in one world region to people throughout the world through a discussion of the local production and global consumption of regional commodities, helping students appreciate the links between producers and consumers around the world as well as between people and the natural world.
■ Sustainability in the Anthropocene This feature provides an example of efforts to develop more sustainable lifestyles, cities, or food systems in each region by highlighting a specific project or place where people are implementing solutions that are socially, economically, and ecologically sustainable.
MasteringGeographyTM
MasteringGeographyTM now features an expansive library of BBC video clips, a new next generation of Geographic Information System (GIS)–inspired MapMaster interactive maps, Dynamic Study Modules for World Regional Geography, a responsive-design eText 2.0 version of the book, and more.
Conclusion
This book is the product of conversations among the authors, colleagues, students, and the editorial team about how best to teach a course on world regional geography. In preparing the text, we have tried to help students make sense of the world by connecting conceptual materials to the most compelling current events. We have also been careful to represent the best ideas the discipline of geography has to offer by mixing cutting-edge and innovative theories and concepts with more classical and proven approaches and tools. Our aim has been to show how important a geographic approach is for understanding the world and its constituent places and regions.
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to many people for their assistance, advice, and constructive criticism in the course of preparing this book. Among those who provided comments on various drafts and editions are the following professors:
Donald Albert, Sam Houston State University; Martin Balinsky, Tallahassee Community College; Brad Baltensperger, Michigan Technological University; Karen Barton, University of North Colorado; Max Beavers, University of Northern Colorado; Richard Benfield, Central Connecticut State University; William H. Berentsen, University of Connecticut; Keshav Bhattarai, Central Missouri State University; Warren R. Bland, California State University, Northridge; Brian W. Blouet, College of William and Mary; Sarah Blue, Northern Illinois University; Pablo Bose, University of Vermont; Jean Ann Bowman, Texas A&M University; John Christopher Brown, University of Kansas; Stanley D. Brunn, University of Kentucky; Joe Bryan, University of Colorado: Boulder; Michelle Calvarese, California State University, Fresno; Craig Campbell, Youngstown State University; Xuwei Chen, Northern Illinois University; Jessie Clark, University of Oregon; David B. Cole, University of Northern Colorado; Joseph Corbin, Southern New Hampshire University; Jose A. da Cruz, Ozarks Technical Community College; Tina Delahunty, Texas Tech University;
Cary W. de Wit, University of Alaska, Fairbanks; Catherine Doenges, University of Connecticut-Stamford; Lorraine Dowler, Pennsylvania State University; Dawn Drake, Missouri Western State University; Brian Farmer, Amarillo College; Caitie Finlayson, Florida State University; Ronald Foresta, University of Tennessee; Gary Gaile, University of Colorado; Roberto Garza, University of Houston; Jay Gatrell, Indiana State University; Mark Giordano, Oregon State University; Dusty Girard, Brookhaven College; Qian Guo, San Francisco State University; Devon A. Hansen, University of North Dakota; Julie E. Harris, Harding University; Russell Ivy, Florida Atlantic University; Rebecca Johns, University of Southern Florida; Kris Jones, Saddleback College; Tim Keirn, California State University, Long Beach; Marti Klein, Mira Costa College; Lawrence M. Knopp, University of Minnesota, Duluth; Debbie Kreitzer, Western Kentucky University; Robert C. Larson, Indiana State University; Alan A. Lew, Northern Arizona University; John Liverman, independent scholar; Max Lu, Kansas State University; Donald Lyons, University of North Texas; Taylor Mack, Mississippi State University; Brian Marks, Louisiana State University; Chris Mayda, Eastern Michigan University; Eugene McCann, Simon Fraser University; Tom L. McKnight, University of California, Los Angeles; M. David Meyer, Central Michigan University; Sherry D. Moorea-Oakes, University of Colorado, Denver; Barry Donald Mowell, Broward Community College; Darla Munroe, The Ohio State University; Tim Oakes, University of Colorado; Nancy Obermeyer, Indiana State University; J. Henry Owusu, University of Northern Iowa; Rosann Poltrone, Arapahoe Community College; Jeffrey E. Popke, East Carolina University; Kevin Raleigh, University of Cincinnati; Henry O. Robertson, Louisiana State University, Alexandria; Robert Rundstrom, University of Oklahoma; Yda Schreuder, University of Delaware; Anna Secor, University of Kentucky; Daniel Selwa, Coastal Carolina University; Sangeeta Singh, Metropolitan State University of Denver; Christa Ann Smith, Clemson University; Richard Smith, Harford Community College; Barry D. Solomon, Michigan Technical University; Joseph Spinelli, Bowling Green State University; Kristin Sziarto, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee; Liem Tran, Florida Atlantic University; Syed (Sammy) Uddin, William Paterson University/St. John’s University; Samuel Wallace, West Chester University; Matthew Waller, Kennesaw State University; Gerald R. Webster, University of Alabama; Julie Weinert, Southern Illinois University; Mark Welford, Georgia Southern University; Clayton Whitesides, Coastal Carolina University; Sharon Wilcow, University of Texas, Austin; Keith Yearman, College of Du Page; and Anibal Yanez-Chavez, California State University, San Marcos. Special thanks go to our editorial team at Pearson Education, Christian Botting, Sean Hale, and Anton Yakovlev; to our fantastic developmental editor, Jonathan Cheney, and our project manager, Lindsay Bethoney at Lumina Datamatics; to Eric Schrader for photo research; to Kevin Lear and International Mapping for their creative work with the art program; and to Rachel Youdelman for her work on permissions for text and line art. We would also like to thank our excellent research assistants, Jennifer McCormack and Fiona Gladstone.
Sallie A. Marston
Paul L. Knox
Diana M. Liverman
Vincent J. Del Casino Jr.
Paul F. Robbins
About the Authors
Sallie A. Marston
Sallie Marston received her PhD in geography from the University of Colorado, Boulder. She is currently a professor in the School of Geography and Development at the University of Arizona. Her research focuses on the political and cultural aspects of social life, with particular emphasis on sociospatial theory. She is the recipient of the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences’ Outstanding Undergraduate Teaching Award as well as the University of Arizona’s Graduate College Graduate and Professional Education Teaching and Mentoring Award. She teaches an undergraduate course on community engagement through school gardens and another on culture and political economy through the HBO television show, The Wire. She is the author of over 85 journal articles, book chapters, and books and serves on the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has coauthored, with Paul Knox, the introductory human geography textbook, Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global Context, also published by Pearson.
Paul L. Knox
Paul Knox received his PhD in geography from the University of Sheffield, England. After teaching in the United Kingdom for several years, he moved to the United States to take a position as professor of urban affairs and planning at Virginia Tech. His teaching centers on urban and regional development, with an emphasis on comparative study. He has written several books on aspects of economic geography, social geography, and urbanization and serves on the editorial board of several scientific journals. In 2008, he received the Association of American Geographers Distinguished Scholarship Award. He is currently a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, where he also serves as Senior Fellow for International Advancement.
Diana M. Liverman
Diana Liverman received her PhD in geography from the University of California, Los Angeles. Born in Accra, Ghana, she is the codirector of the Institute of the Environment and Regents Professor of GeograDevelopment at the University of Arizona. She has taught geography at Oxford University, Pennsylvania State University, and the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Her teaching and research focus on global
environmental issues, environment and development, and Latin America. She has served on several national and international advisory committees dealing with environmental issues and climate change and has written about topics such as natural disasters, climate change, trade and environment, resource management, and environmental policy.
Vincent J. Del Casino Jr.
Vincent J. Del Casino Jr. received his PhD in geography from the University of Kentucky in 2000. He is currently vice provost for digital learning and student engagement, associate vice president for student affairs and enrollment management, and professor in the School of Geography and Development at the University of Arizona. He was previously professor and chair of Geography at California State University, Long Beach. His research interests include social and health geography, with a particular emphasis on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission, the care of people living with HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and homelessness in Southeast Asia as well as the United States. His teaching focuses on social geography, geographic thought, and geographic methodology. He also teaches a number of general education courses in geography, including world regional geography, which he first began teaching as a graduate student in 1995.
Paul F. Robbins
Paul Robbins received his PhD in geography from Clark University in 1996. He is currently the director of the Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Previously, he taught at the University of Arizona, Ohio State University, the University of Iowa, and Eastern Connecticut State University. His teaching and research focus on the relationships between individuals (e.g., homeowners, hunters, professional foresters), environmental actors (e.g., lawns, elk, mesquite trees), and the institutions that connect them. He and his students seek to explain human environmental practices and knowledge, the influence the environment has on human behavior and organization, and the implications this holds for ecosystem health, local community, and social justice. Robbins’s past projects have examined chemical use in the suburban United States, elk management in Montana, forest product collection in New England, and wolf conservation in India.
Digital & Print Resources
For Teachers & Students
This edition provides a complete human geography program for students and teachers.
MasteringGeography™ with Pearson eText
The Mastering platform is the most widely used and effective online homework, tutorial, and assessment system for the sciences. It delivers self-paced coaching activities that provide individualized coaching, focus on the teacher’s course objectives, and are responsive to each student’s progress. The Mastering system helps teachers maximize class time with customizable, easy-to-assign, and automatically graded assessments that motivate students to learn outside of class and arrive prepared for lecture. MasteringGeography™ offers the following:
■ Assignable activities that include GIS-inspired MapMaster™ Interactive Map activities, Encounter World Regional Geography Google Earth™ Explorations, Geography Video activities, Geoscience Animation activities, Map Projection activities, coaching activities on the toughest topics in geography, endof-chapter questions and exercises, reading quizzes, and Test Bank questions.
■ A student Study area with GIS-inspired MapMaster™ Interactive Maps, Geography Videos, Geoscience Animations, “In the News” RSS Feeds, Web links, glossary flashcards, chapter quizzes, an optional Pearson eText that includes versions for iPad and Android devices and more.
Pearson eText gives students access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the printed text and include powerful interactive and customization functions, including links to the multimedia. Features of Pearson eText include the following:
■ Now available on smartphones and tablets
■ Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media
■ Fully accessible (screen-reader ready)
■ Configurable reading settings, including resizable type and night reading mode
■ Instructor and student note-taking, highlighting, bookmarking, and search
Teaching College Geography: A Practical Guide for Graduate
Students and Early Career Faculty by the Association of American Geographers (0136054471) This two-part resource provides a starting point for becoming an effective geography teacher from the very first day of class. Part One addresses “nutsand-bolts” teaching issues. Part Two explores being an effective teacher in the field, supporting critical thinking with GIS and mapping technologies, engaging learners in large geography classes, and promoting awareness of international perspectives and geographic issues.
Aspiring Academics: A Resource Book for Graduate Students and Early Career Faculty by the Association of American Geographers (0136048919) Drawing on several years of research, this set of essays is designed to help graduate students and early career faculty start their careers in geography and related social and environmental sciences. Aspiring Academics stresses the interdependence of teaching, research, and service—and the importance of achieving a healthy balance of professional and personal life—while doing faculty work. Each chapter provides accessible, forward-looking advice on topics that often cause the most stress in the first years of a college or university appointment.
Practicing Geography: Careers for Enhancing Society and the Environment by the Association of American Geographers (0321811151) This book examines career opportunities for geographers and geospatial professionals in business, government, nonprofit, and educational sectors. A diverse group of academic and industry professionals share insights on career planning, networking, transitioning between employment sectors, and balancing work and home life. The book illustrates the value of geographic expertise and technologies through engaging profiles and case studies of geographers at work.
Television for the Environment Earth Report Videos on DVD (0321662989) This three-DVD set helps students visualize how human decisions and behavior have affected the environment, and how individuals are taking steps toward recovery. With topics ranging from the poor land management promoting the devastation of river systems in Central America to the struggles for electricity in China and Africa, these 13 videos from Television for the Environment’s global Earth Report series recognize the efforts of individuals around the world to unite and protect the planet.
Television for the Environment Life World Regional Geography Videos on DVD (013159348X) From the Television for the Environment’s global Life series, this two-DVD set brings globalization and the developing world to the attention of any world regional geography course. These 10 full-length video programs highlight matters such as the growing number of homeless children in Russia, the lives of immigrants living in the United States trying to help family still living in their native countries, and the European conflict between commercial interests and environmental concerns.
Television for the Environment Life Human Geography Videos on DVD (0132416565) This three-DVD set is designed to enhance any human geography course. These DVDs include 14 full-length video programs from Television for the Environment’s global Life series, covering a wide array of issues affecting people and places in the contemporary world, including the serious health risks of pregnant women in Bangladesh, the social inequalities of the “untouchables” in the Hindu caste system, and Ghana’s struggle to compete in a global market.
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begin to appear, and grow rapidly in number subsequently It was found necessary to pass an act forbidding the Lord Admiral, or any of his officers, to exact payments of money or fish from the Newfoundland or Iceland fishermen under pain of a fine of treble the amount levied.[473] It was said to be a practice of ‘within these few years now last past,’ but abuses usually have to be of long existence before they attain the honour of an Act of Parliament for their suppression. A victualling agent, Henry Folk, was committed to the Fleet prison for embezzling money received for navy victualling, ‘which he hath not answered againe to the poore men but converted the money otherways and suffered them to remayne unpayed and in exclamacion,’ The ‘poore men’ here referred to are more likely to have been persons from whom provisions had been purchased than seamen. The decline of the fishing industry was attributed, among other causes, to the action of the crown purveyors in seizing quantities of fish at nominal prices.
Merchant Shipping and Trade.
There is no return of merchant shipping for this period, but the bounty of five shillings a ton on new vessels was paid in several cases. Lord Russell, the Lord Privy Seal, received it on the Anne Russell of 110 tons and there are other similar warrants. There is, however, a paper calendared under the next reign which gives a list of merchantmen of 100 tons and upwards, ‘decayed’ between 1544-5 and 1553. It names seventeen belonging to London of 2530 tons, thirteen of Bristol of 2380 tons, and five owned in other ports.[474] This does not necessarily mean that the merchant navy had decreased to the extent of thirty-five such ships but may refer to those worn out by age and service and possibly replaced. Royal ships were still chartered by merchants for trading purposes; £1000 was paid for the Jesus of Lubeck and another, for a voyage to the Levant in 1552. [475] Later in the reign two of the navy officers, Gonson and Wynter, were indulging in similar speculation, and obtained the Mathew valued at £1208, for which they were required to give sureties.
A commercial treaty with Sweden was on foot in 1550, but as the King of Denmark was urgently complaining of the English pirates who infested the Sound it was not likely to be of much advantage.
The formation of the Russia company in 1553, although it was not incorporated until 1555, marked the inception of the great trading companies which did much, directly and indirectly, to increase both the number of ships and their size. Attention was given to the fishing trade and its growth stimulated by an enactment[476] which made Fridays, Saturdays, and Ember days, fish days, under penalty of ten shillings fine, and ten days’ imprisonment for the first, and double for the second and every following offence.
The circumstances under which the Navy was maintained.
All through the reign regard was paid to naval requirements under financial conditions which, during many other periods, would have ensured their relegation to a future time. On the 4th November 1550, the Officers of the Navy appeared before the Council and brought books with them, one relating to the docking and repair of certain ships, a second ‘concerning things necessary to be done,’ and a third containing an estimate of stores required. The money wanted for these purposes was £2436, and the department was already in debt to the amount of £4800. Two years later the crown owed £132,372 abroad and £108,826 at home, of which only £5000 was due by the Admiralty.[477] The naval expenses from January 1547 to September 1552 are tabulated as:—[478]
11 5
and conduct money, 5070 1 5
These were very large amounts, taken with those of the last years of Henry VIII,[479] for the England of 1552, and we know that the public debt of £241,000 was the result of heavy borrowings at home and abroad. Some progress however was made towards the liquidation
of the debt, since it had sunk to £180,000 at the accession of Mary But as, in this financial situation, the Navy was not allowed to materially retrogress the imputation usually made against the Regency of indifference to its strength is one certainly not justified by facts.
MARY AND PHILIP AND MARY
1553-1558
There is no complete navy list for the reign of Mary therefore the changes that took place in the royal ships can only, in most cases, be ascertained by comparison with earlier and later lists. There is, however, a record of the sale of certain ships in 1555; the Primrose for £1000, the Mary Hambro £20, the Grand Mistress £35, the Hind £8, the Christopher £15, the Unicorn £10, and four of the smallest pinnaces or rowbarges.[480] The prices obtained show that, with the exception of the Primrose, they must have been in very bad condition. The Bark of Bullen was delivered in 1553 to Jeffrey Coke, on condition of his carrying the Lord Deputy and the royal despatches to and from Ireland when necessary.[481] The Henry Grace à Dieu was burnt by accident at Woolwich on 25th August 1553.[482] Comparing the first complete navy list of Elizabeth with the Edwardian of 26th August 1552, we find that, besides the above mentioned vessels, only the Pauncye, Mathew, and Less Bark, are wanting of the larger ships. On the other hand the Sacrett, a French prize of 160 tons, a new Mary Rose of 500 tons in 1555, the Philip and Mary in 1556 of 450 tons, the Lion rebuilt in 1557, a new Bark of Boulogne, and the Brigantine replace these deficiencies. When we read that Henry VIII left a fleet of 53 vessels, and that it rapidly diminished after his death, it must be remembered that thirteen of them were twenty-ton rowbarges immediately cast off as useless, and that only twenty-eight, excluding the galleys, were of 100 tons and upwards. A navy list of February 1559 names twenty-five of this class, serviceable and unserviceable, and the next, of 24th March 1559, twenty. Accepting the last, as affording the most unfavourable comparison, it does not warrant the severe condemnation of the naval administration of Mary’s reign to which we are accustomed. Moreover many of the
The Royal Ships.
men-of-war dated from the years 1544-6, and were now approaching the time when they required rebuilding. The long ‘life’ of wooden as compared with iron ships has become proverbial but did not apply to sixteenth, and hardly to seventeenth century vessels. Doubtless the absence of proper sheathing, and the bad adjustment of weights, which caused excessive straining in a seaway, had much to do with it, but whatever the cause men-of-war are found to need rebuilding within, at the most, every twenty-five years during the Tudor and Stewart reigns.
There is an Elizabethan paper of 1562[483] which, if it can be even partially trusted, shows that the closing months of Mary’s reign were characterised by great dockyard activity. The Hart, Antelope, Swallow, New Bark, Jennett, Greyhound, Phœnix, and Sacar are assigned to 1558 as new ships, that is to say as rebuilt, for in these early documents distinction is seldom drawn between one really new and one merely rebuilt. Mary died on 17th November 1558, and if the year were reckoned by the New Style there would be no question but that they must have been begun during her lifetime and finished at least shortly after her death. But at this time the year ended on 24th March, and the unknown writer of the paper in the Cecil MSS. when he assigns these vessels to 1558 means a period ceasing on 24th March 1559, when Elizabeth had been nearly four-and-a-half months on the throne. It is known that the dockyards were working busily shortly after Elizabeth’s accession, but assuming the 1562 writer to be correct in his dates, and as a whole there is some corroborative evidence of his general accuracy, it seems quite impossible that these eight ships could have been rebuilt between 17th November 1558, and 24th March 1559. That being so Mary’s government must be allowed the credit of recognising the decline in the effective force and of the measures taken for its renewal.
There is another test that can be applied to the question of the activity or inactivity of the government, and that is the number of ships sent to sea during these years. In 1554 twenty-nine men-ofwar, manned by 4034 men, were in commission;[484] during 1555-6 thirty-eight, several of them of course twice or thrice over;[485] in 1557 twenty-four, and in December eight others were in preparation.
[486] Yet, again, if we take the squadrons especially sent out pirate catching, we find that during 1555-6 eight vessels were equipped to search for Cole and Stevenson, two well known adventurers, and there are many other references to men-of-war commissioned with the same object. In another way the naval history of this reign is noteworthy. Although it was not unknown for ships to be at sea in winter it was as yet exceptional, but we now find it occurring more frequently during these few years than through the whole reign of Henry VIII. No fewer than eight were cruising during the first four months of 1556;[487] in October 1557, ten;[488] and ten in February and March of the same year.[489]
Admiralty Officers and Administration.
Lord Clynton was still Lord Admiral at the death of Edward VI. He was then unfortunate enough to be on the wrong side, and his influence with the men seems to have been small, as the crews of six vessels, sent to the Norfolk coast to prevent the flight of Mary, went over to her side. Clynton was replaced by William, Lord Howard of Effingham, from 26th March 1554. The first named, however, regained the Queen’s favour by the efficient aid he gave in Wyatt’s rising and was reappointed on 10th February 1557; thenceforward he retained the office till his death on 16th January 1585. The only other change among the chief officers was the nomination of William Wynter to be Master of the Ordnance of the Navy from 2nd November 1557;[490] he was already Surveyor and now held both offices for the rest of his life. The salary of the conjoined appointments was £100 a year, with the usual 6s 8d a day travelling expenses, 2s 4d a day for clerks, and £8 a year for boat hire. The management of the Admiralty was, if not exactly reformed, subjected to close scrutiny. In 1556 Lord Howard was ordered ‘to repayre himself forthwith on receipte hereof,’ without the knowledge of the other officers, and take ‘a secret muster’ of the men on board the ships, to search the ships for concealed men and victuals, and to arrange for a monthly muster on the cruisers in the narrow seas.[491] Regulations were also established for the supply of stores and provisions and their economical use, and a first attempt was made to check the waste of
ammunition in saluting by an order that it was not to be consumed in ‘vayne shot.’[492]
A year later a further alteration followed, which took the form of allowing a fixed yearly sum for ordinary naval expenses, a rule which remained long in force. There may also have been other reasons for some additional changes made. Clynton may not have been entirely trusted, or some suspicion, perhaps, was taking shape concerning the provident or honest conduct of the Officers. The order ran:—
‘Wheare heretofore the Quenes Maiestie hath ben sundrie tymes troubled with thoften signing of warrantes for money to be defraied about the necessarie chardges of her Highnesses navie and being desierouse to have some other order taken for the easyer conducting of this matter heareaftyr: Dyd this daie upon consultacion had with certayn of my lords of the Counsell for this purpose desyere the Lord Treasurer[493] with thadvise of the Lord Admyrall to take this matter upon hym who agreinge thareunto was content to take the chardge thereof with theis conditions ffollowinge; ffirst, he requyred to have the some of £14,000 by yere to be advaunced half yerely to Benjamyn Gonson Threasarer of Thadmyraltie to be by hym defrayed in such sort as shalbe prescribed by hym the sayed Lord Threasowrer with thadvise of the Lorde Admyrall.’
For which sum the Lord Treasurer will
‘cause such of her Maiesties shippes as may be made servicable with calkeinge and newe trymmynge to be sufficiently renewed and repaired Item to cause such of her Highnes saied shippes as must of necessitie be made of newe to be gone in hand withall and newe made with convenyent speede Item he to see also all her Highnes saied shippes furnysshed with sailles, anchors, cables, and other tackell and apparell sufficientlye Item he to cause the wagis and victuallinge of the shipp keepers and woorkmen in
harborough to be paied and dischardged Item he to cause a masse of victual to be alwayes in redynes to serve for 1000 men for a moneth to be sette to the sea upon eny sodeyne Item he to cause the saied shippes from tyme to tyme to be repaired and renewed as occasion shall requiere Item whenn the saied shippes that ar to be renewed shalbe newe made and sufficientlie repaired and the hole navie furnyshed of saylles, anckers, cables, and other tackell then is the saied Lord Treasowrer content to contynue this servis in fourme aforesaied for the some of £10,000 yerely to be advaunced as is aforesaied Item the saied Benjamyn Gonson and Edward Bashe Surveyor of the Victuells of the shippes shall make theare severall accomptes of the defrayment of the saied money and of theare hole doinges herein once in the yere at the least and as often besydes as shall be thowght convenyent by my Lordes of the Counsell.’
Any surplusage was to be carried forward towards the next year’s expenses; the division of the money was, by estimation, £2000 for stores, £1000 for rigging, £6000 for harbour wages and victualling, and £5000 for the building and repair of ships.[494] By 1558 the allowance was reduced to £12,000 a year, but even the proposed minimum of £10,000 was much above anything allowed by Elizabeth during the greater part of her reign. Moreover, the large scheme of rebuilding outlined in this paper indirectly confirms the statement of the writer in the Cecil MSS.[495] in assigning numerous new, i.e. rebuilt, ships to 1558. Obviously the circumstance of the Queen being overworked was not by itself any reason why the real control should be taken from the Lord Admiral and other Officers and given to the Lord Treasurer. The fact that payment was now to be made in gross to Gonson of so many thousands a year instead of, as formerly, by warrant for each separate matter, will explain the necessity for some new check on the Navy Treasurer, but will not explain the practical supersession of the Lord Admiral. As long as Burleigh was Lord Treasurer he also remained the final authority on naval matters, practically exercising the authority of a First Lord of
the Admiralty of the present day The system of accounts now adopted endured, with some modifications, for nearly a century, and to the order which prescribed the rendering of a full statement once a year we owe the series of Audit, or Pipe Office Accounts, an invaluable source of information for naval history.
Expenditure and Establishments.
The average of wages all round had risen to 9s 4d a month ‘dead shares and rewards included;’ this, judging from the early years of the next reign, meant 6s 8d a month for the seamen. The custom of providing the men with coats and jackets was dying out. There are no references to these articles in the naval papers of the reign, but in a semi-official expedition, that of Willoughby and Chancellor in 1553, the instructions direct that the ‘liveries in apparel’ were only to be worn by the sailors on state occasions. At other times they were to be kept in the care of the supercargoes and ordinary clothes were to be sold to the crews at cost price.[496]
The one return of expenses remaining shows an extremely heavy naval expenditure.[497] Between 1st January 1557 and 31st December 1558 £157,638 was spent, of which victualling took £73,503, Deptford £22,120, Woolwich £4048, Gillingham £408, Portsmouth £7521, and wages of men at sea £43,492. Stores, such as timber, pitch, tar, cordage, etc., absorbed nearly £20,000, included under the dockyard headings. From this account it also appears that Legge when Treasurer, probably therefore in the reign of Henry VIII, had advanced £100 to two Lincolnshire men for seven years in order to assist the creation of another centre of the cordage industry. The experiment was not successful and the item is carried over formally in each successive account until dropped as a bad debt. Victualling storehouses for the government had been built or bought at Ratcliff, Rochester, Gillingham and Portsmouth; ordnance wharves at Woolwich, Portsmouth and Porchester. Portsmouth was momentarily regaining favour, and the Council recommended that ships should be laid up there because the harbour afforded better opportunity for rapid action in the Channel than did the Thames. The chief shipwright was now Peter Pett who was receiving a fee of one
shilling a day from the Exchequer in addition to the ordinary payments made to him by the Admiralty.
Disease on Shipboard.
War was declared with France on 7th June 1557, but the operations of 1558 were nullified by an outbreak of disease in the fleet as severe as that of 1545. In 1557 Howard informed the Council that he could not obtain at Dover ‘in a weke so moche victulls as wold victull ii pynnesses,’ and although the complaint is a year earlier the character of the supplies and the hardships it connotes, are very likely the key to the visitation of the following summer. From the 5th to 17th August Clynton lay at St Helens with the fleet, having returned from the capture and destruction of Conquet. On the 18th he put to sea, and on the 20th was near the Channel Islands, when so sudden an outburst occurred ‘that I thinke the lieke was never syne ffor ther wer many ships that halfe the men wer throwen downe sick at once.’[498] After holding a council with his captains, which the masters of his ships also attended, he returned to Portsmouth.
Privateering and Piracy
Privateering was encouraged by a proclamation of 8th July 1557, permitting any one to fit out vessels against the royal enemies, and allowing possession to be retained of all ships and goods captured ‘withoute making accompte in any courte or place of this realme,’ and without payment of any dues to the Lord Admiral or any other officer. This entire abrogation of control increased the tendency to illegal acts even among the more honest adventurers; while Carews, Killigrews, Tremaines, and the ubiquitous Strangways, and Thomson, industriously working for themselves, the government had always with them. Thomson was off Scilly in 1556, with three ships, and was taken. When tried only he and four others were condemned and the Council loudly complained of the partiality of the jury, a partiality which better explains the prevalence of piracy during these years than the accepted explanation of the inefficiency of the Navy. The two Killigrews, Thomas and Peter, were, if not the worst, the most successful offenders and in 1556 were sufficiently enriched by their plunder to think of retiring to ‘some island’ for the winter. They were frequently chased into French ports, but to keep them there was
beyond the power of the men-of-war, and the French authorities treated them with a neutrality more than benevolent.
When we find a privateer belonging to the Lord Privy Seal attacking neutral vessels, and man-of-war officers boarding and robbing a Flemish merchantman at Tilbury, it seems wonderful, in view of the excesses such incidents suggest among the majority with no sense of legal responsibility, that commerce could have been carried on at all.
ELIZABETH
1558-1603
TheNavalPolicy of Elizabeth.
Her subjects were occupied, during the greater portion of Elizabeth’s reign, in teaching their Queen the use of a navy, instruction that she was the first English sovereign to put into practice on strategic principles. Yet study of the forty-five years of glorious naval history on which her renown is mainly based, leaves the impression that more might and should have been done with the Navy. That she preferred diplomacy to force would have been a merit had the choice been founded on an ethical detestation of the cruelty of war, instead of an ingenuous belief in her own skill and the obtuseness of her antagonists. Under conditions more favourable to ascendancy at sea than have ever existed for England, before or since, the successes of the Navy itself, as distinguished from the expansion of the commercial marine, were, although relatively great, limited by the hesitation with which the naval arm was employed, the way in which the service was pecuniarily starved, and the settled doctrine underlying her maritime essays that an expedition should be of a character to return a profit on the outlay And perhaps the severest comment on her government lies in the fact that she was more liberal in her treatment of the Navy, than of any other department of the State. In February 1559 she possessed twenty-two effective ships of 100 tons and upwards, in March 1603, twenty-nine; practically, therefore, she did little more than replace those worn out by efflux of time, for only two were lost in warfare. If Henry VIII created a navy under the stimulus of a possible necessity it requires little imagination to conceive his course when the time had come, as it nevercameforhim,toputfortheveryeffort inusing itforthepreservationof England.
When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, the possession of a fleet and an organised administration, the French royal navy, only a few years before an apparently serious competitor, had ceased to exist; the rivalry of Holland had not yet begun, and it is hardly an exaggeration to say that a Spanish royal navy had never existed, in the sense of an ocean going service organised on a basis enabling it to act vigorously and effectively in any direction.[499] The opportunity had come therefore to a power with maritime ambition, the only one possessing an efficient fleet and naval control, and incited by religious differences and commercial emulation. The altered situation brought to the front a band of men who, in the preceding century, would have been military adventurers in France, but who now, half traders, half pirates, handled their ships with the same strategic and tactical skill their ancestors exercised on land, and who, if they had been allowed a free hand, would have brought Spain down in ruin instead of merely reducing her to a condition of baffled impotence. They were not allowed a free hand. When acting for themselves they had the knowledge that if it suited the royal policy of the moment repudiation of their deeds might mean, if not loss of life, at least loss of property and reputation. When in command of royal fleets they were kept in touch with the government, hampered by voluminous and contradictory instructions, and, above all, their efforts and successes rendered nugatory by the parsimony which kept thedepotsalwaysonthebrinkofexhaustion.
In naval, as in other matters, Elizabeth tried to make her subjects do the work of the crown and therefore she frequently confined her action to taking a share with several ships in a privateering expedition, prepared by private individuals for their own profit. Such expeditions swell the list of ships employed at sea, and privateering as a source of injury to an enemy has its value, but such enterprises when forming the whole effort of the State for a particular year show an insufficient acquaintance with the character of the operations required. Privateers were equipped not with large objects but to secure profits for owners and crews. It sometimes happened that this purpose was at issue with the wider views of the admiral in command, and the voyage became ineffective where a similar number of men-of-war subject to discipline might have done important service. The enormous increase in the merchant marine which, it will be shown, characterised the reign, was in one way disadvantageous since it induced the government to rely more on a guerre de course than on the sustained and systematised action of the Royal Navy Even when a great fleet was sent out the light in which Elizabeth regarded it is instructively
shown in a letter to Nottingham, after the Cadiz voyage of 1596, when he had asked for money to pay themen’swages:
‘though we have already written you divers letters to prevent the inconvenience which we suspected would follow this journey that it would be rather an action of honour and virtue against the enemy and particular profit by spoil to the army than any way profitable to ourself yet now we do plainly see by the return of our whole fleet that the actions of hope are fully finishedwithoutasmuchassuretyof defrayingthe chargepastorthatwhich istocome.[500]
The blow to Spanish power and prestige, or an ‘action of honour and virtue,’ counted for nothing if a fleetdidnotpayitsexpensesandmakesomeprofit overand above.
It may be asked then in what respect was Elizabeth personally deserving of praise? The answer is that it fell to her to use for the first time an untried weapon—untried in the sense that never before had England relied on it as the right arm of attack or defence. For centuries the defence of the country had depended on the mail-clad horseman and the yeoman archer; from the first days of her accession she recognised that the enemies of England were to be fought at sea, a doctrine which is a commonplace now, but was then being only slowly evolved in minds even yet dazzled by memories of invasions of France. She accepted and proved the truth of the theory on which the policy of Henry VIII was grounded, and, if she failed to carry it out fully, it was perhaps more from ignorance of the might of the weapon in her hand than from want of statesmanship. Notwithstanding her niggardliness, which nearly ruined England in 1588, she expended money—for her lavishly—on the Navy, while the military and other services were remorselessly starved. Sooner or later the naval authorities obtained at least part of their requirements, in striking contrast to the fortune of other officials who thought, and whose contemporaries probably thought, their needs of equal or more importance. If she did not use the fleet as some of the great seamen who served her would have had her use it, she at anyrate extended its fieldofactioninamannerhithertounknown, and sealed thedirection offuture Englishpolicy
The following abstract, compiled from the pay and victualling lists and the State Papers, will show the number of vessels of the Royal Navy in commission each year, that it was used continuously as never before, but also that it was seldom used up to its possible capacity In every case there were hired merchantmen as well if a fleet was engaged in an over-sea expedition, but unless there was a prospect of plunder the brunt of the work always fell on the men-of-war As an arbitrary division, for the purpose of the table, first-rates are taken as those above 600 tons; second-rates from 400 to 600 tons; third-rates from 200 to 400 tons; fourth-rates from 100 to 200 tons; fifth-rates from 50 to 100 tons; and sixth-rates under 50 tons. Owing to technical difficulties connected with the lists used it is probably not exactly correctbutissufficientlysotogiveajustimpression:—
From this it is evident that vessels of from 400 to 600 tons were the favourites; they were handier, better seaboats, and represented the latest improvements in shipbuilding. Of the eleven first-rates on the navy list in 1603, two were Spanish prizes of 1596, four dated from the beginning of the reign, while the remaining five were of 1587 and later years; it was these latter that were used from 1596 onwards. The four earlier ones, built before Hawkyns came into office, were of an old type and seem never to have been commissioned unless the services of the whole Navy were required. The Victory, for instance was only at sea in 1563, 1588, and 1589, although she is not entered in the foregoing table under 1589, because lent to the Earl of Cumberland for a private venture. The stress of the work fell therefore on the smaller vessels. The Bonaventure, for instance, was at sea every year from 1585 to 1590 inclusive. During the greater part of 1591 she was in dock at Woolwich for repairs, but at Portsmouth in October, and then sent to sea. Again in 1592, 5, 6, 7, and 1599. The Dreadnought, launched in 1573, was commissioned during each of the six years 1575-80, and in 1585, 7, 8, and 1590. She was then, for nearly a year, in dry dock, recommencing service in 1594, continuing it in 1595, 6, 7, 9, 1601, 2, and 1603. It must also be noted that many of these years included more than one commission. Excluding the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-rates, which were serviceable for privateering purpose, but could not take a place in any form of attack requiring ships of force, it will be seen by how very few vessels the naval warfare was really carried on, and that a succession of serious descents on the Spanish coasts and transatlantic settlements, such as were urged on Elizabeth, would have necessitated very large additionstotheRoyalNavy
Shortly after the Queen’s accession she possessed, according to one account thirty-five,[503] and according to another thirty-two[504] vessels of all classes and in good and bad condition. Some ships had been under repair before Mary’s death,[505] but the dockyards were working with redoubled vigour since Elizabeth’s succession. At Deptford, in March, 228 men were at work on five ships; at Woolwich 175 men on eight others, and at Portsmouth 154 men on nine more.[506] Some of these were rebuildings, others could have been but trifling repairs, but the list shows with what energy Elizabeth and her Council applied themselves to the maintenance of the fleet. From that time the yards, with the
exception of a few years, were kept fully occupied, and the following is a list of the new ships built at themorotherwiseaddedtotheNavy.Thedatesare NewStyle:—
Built At By Rebuilt Bought Prize
Elizabeth Jonas[507] 1559 Woolwich 1597-8
Hope[508] 1559 1602-3
Victory[509] 1560
Primrose[510] 1560
Minion[511] 1560
Galley Speedwell[512] 1559
Galley Tryright[513] 1559
Triumph[514] 1561 1595-6
Aid[515] 1562
Galley Ellynor[516] 1563
Post[517] 1563
Guide[517] 1563
Makeshift[517] 1563
Search[517] 1563
White Bear[518] 1564 1598-9
Elizabeth Bonaventure[519] 1581 1567
Foresight[520] 1570
Bull[521] 1570
Tiger[522] 1570
Swiftsure[523] 1573 Deptford PeterPett 1592
Dreadnought[524] 1573 do. Math. Baker 1592
Achates[525] 1573 do. PeterPett
Handmaid[526] 1573 do. Math. Baker
Revenge[527] 1577 do.
Scout[528] 1577 do.
Merlin[529] 1579
Antelope[530] 1581
Golden Lion[531] 1582
Brigantine[532] 1583
Nonpareil[533] Deptford 1584
Galley Bonavolia[534] 1584
Greyhound[535] 1585 Wm.Pett
Talbot[536] 1585 R. Chapman
Cygnet[537] 1585 Tho. Bowman
Makeshift[538] 1586 Limehouse Wm.Pett
Spy[539] 1586 do. do.
Advice[540] 1586 Woolwich M.Baker
Trust[541] 1586
Sun[542] 1586 Chatham M.Baker
Seven Stars[543] 1586
Tremontana[544] 1586 Deptford R. Chapman
Moon[545] 1586 do. PeterPett
Charles[546] 1586 Woolwich M.Baker
Vanguard[547] 1586 do. do. 1599
Rainbow[548] 1586 Deptford PeterPett 1602
ArkRoyal[549] 1587 do. R. Chapman
Popinjay[550] 1587
NuestraSeñoradelRosario[551] 1588
MaryRose[552] 1589
Merhonour[553] 1590 M.Baker
Garland[554] 1590 R. Chapman
Defiance[555] 1590 P. &Jos. Pett
Answer[556] 1590 M.Baker
Quittance[557] 1590 do.
Crane[558] 1590 R. Chapman
Advantage[559] 1590 P. &Jos. Pett
Lion’s Whelp[560] 1590
Primrose Hoy[561] 1590
BlackDog[562] 1590
FrenchFrigott[563] 1591
Flighte[564] 1592
Mercury[565] 1592 Deptford M.Baker
Eagle[566] 1592
Adventure[567] 1594 Deptford M.Baker
Mynikin[568] 1595
Warspite[569] 1596 Deptford E. Stevens
Due Repulse[570] 1596
StMathew[571] 1596
StAndrew[571] 1596
Lion’s Whelp[572] 1601
Superlativa[573] 1601 Deptford
Advantagia[573] 1601 Woolwich
George Hoy[574] 1601 Adye
Gallarita[575] 1602 Limehouse
Volatillia[575] 1602 Deptford
In number this is an imposing array but exclusive of galleys, prizes, six pre-existing vessels rebuilt, and the numerous small vessels, only twenty-nine men-of-war of 100 tons and upwards were added to the establishment between 1558 and 1603, notwithstanding the amount of work thrown upon the Navy It has been noticed that the term rebuilding, as used in the official papers, is extremely vague and it is only when the cost per ton can be ascertained that it can be known with certainty whether a ship was renewed or repaired; it is quite possible that, with the exception of the Philip and Mary, the rebuilt vessels were in reality only subjected to more or less complete repair. Again, of these twenty-nine only twenty-one were of 300 tons and upwards and suited for distant expeditions; of the twenty-one the Elizabeth, Hope, Victory, Triumph, and White Bear, were not liked—too big, too expensive, or too unhandy—and were never used unless a fleet of great strength was required. The names of a few ships recur, therefore, year after year as forming the main strength of the squadrons, made up with armed merchantmen, sent out for various purposes. Had Spain been able to offer any real resistance at sea the destructive results of even victorious action would have soon compelled the replacement of these shipsandalargeincreaseinthenavylist.
Various Ships.
The Elizabeth Jonas varies as to tonnage between 855 and 1000 tons in different papers. The Victory oscillates between 694 and 800 tons, the Triumph between 955 and 1200, and a smaller vessel, the Foresight, is given in three lists, within six years, as of 300, 350, then of 260 tons, and in a fourth list of 1592 as of 450 tons. Before 1582 measurement must
have been usually a matter of opinion and comparison; after that year when Baker’s rule had come into use there is more uniformity But such variations entirely vitiate dogmatic comparisons of the strength of opposing ships or squadrons. The Elizabeth was, ‘in new making’ at Woolwich in December 1558,[576] and was therefore commenced before Mary’s death. There is a singular story told of the origin of the name.
‘The shipp called the Elizabeth Jonas was so named by her Grace in remembrance of her owne deliverance from the furye of her enemyes from which in one respect she was no lesse myraculouslypreservedthanwastheprophetJonasfrom thebellyof thewhale.’[577]
This occurs in a commonplace book kept by Robert Commaundre, Rector of Tarporley, Chester, who died in 1613, and among some other naval information wholly incorrect. It is a fact that Elizabeth christened the ship herself but Commaundre’s version is probably country gossip made to explain the name. If, however, it should be true it throws a more vivid light on Elizabeth’s real feeling towards her unhappysisterthanisshedbymanyvolumesof State Papers.
The first occurrence of the famous name of the Victory in an English navy list is of great interest but unfortunately cannot be dated with certainty The earliest mention known is of the victualling accounts of the quarter ending with September 1562.[578] On 14th March 1560, the Great Christopher, of 800 tons, was bought of Ant. Hickman and Ed. Castlyn, two London merchants. The tonnage corresponds with that assigned to the Victory in early papers, and the year corresponds with that assigned to the Victory in the State Paper quoted in the table. The name Great Christopher is only found down to 1562, when it is immediately succeeded by that of Victory; in fact the Christopher is named in October and then ceases, to be replaced by the Victory in November [579] Unless we suppose that a new 800-ton ship, one of the two largest in the Navy, disappeared without leaving a trace of the cause it must be assumed that the name was changed, a not unusual occurrence, and if so, the Victory is its only possible representative. The name was quite new among English men-of-war; it may have been taken from that ofMagellan’scelebratedship.
The Primrose and the Minion had for some years previously been employed among the hired London merchantmen; from 1560 they appear on the navy lists, which points to their purchase. The Minion, in which Hawkyns escaped from San Juan de Ulloa in 1568, was condemned in 1570; the Primrose was sold in 1575, again rejoining the merchant service, to which she still belonged in 1583.[580] The galleys Tryright and Speedwell disappear after 1579; and the Bonavolia from 1599; of the four later galleys the Gallarita and Volatillia were presented by the city of London. The Mercury, another vessel of the galley typewashoweverfurnishedwithmastsand sails,andafterwardsconvertedintoapinnace.
Returning to the large ships, the Aid was condemned in 1599, the Elizabeth Bonaventure, purchased from Walter Jobson for £2230, the Bull was broken up in 1594, and the Revenge captured by a Spanish fleet in 1591. The Tiger, Scout, and Achates, were cut down into lighters and, in 1603, were supporting Upnor chain. The Ark Royal, or Ark Ralegh, seems to have been built originally for Sir Walter Ralegh, [581] although constructed in a royal yard and by a government shipwright, who, later, received a pension for this among other services. Some £1200 was spent in 1598 on the repairs of the St Mathew and StAndrew; they only served under the English flag, however, in the Islands voyage of 1597. Some of the small pinnaces disappear from the lists during these years without assigned cause, but the only two vessels known to have been lost by stress of weather during the reign were the earlier Greyhound ofHenryVIII,wreckedoffRyein1562,and the Lion’sWhelp in 1591.
Rate forward Rate aft Burden Ton and Tonnage Weight of masts and yards
Table ofGeneralDetails.
Weight of rigging tackle
Canvas for sails in bolts, ¾ths of a yd broad Anchors Ca
In consequence of the existence of a formula, to be presently noticed, for calculating tonnage, we have in the preceding table for the first time an attempt at exactness instead of the former round numbers. The keel and other measurements given can only be taken as approximate seeing that they differ in nearly every paper And some of the other particulars, such as the number of anchors and cables, represent only a theoretical equipment; the inventories show that vessels frequently carried more than the seven anchors and seven cables assigned to the large ones here. On the other hand the strength of the crews rarely reached the proportions in the list, it may safely be said never, if a large fleet was prepared.
The great Portuguese carrack, the Madre de Dios, captured in 1592 and regarded as the largest ship afloat, had a keel length of 100 feet, an extreme breath of 46 feet 10 inches, and an extreme length of 165feet.[583] The keel length of the Rainbow being 100 feet, her extreme length was 139 feet 6 inches and she had only 32 feet of beam. Moreover the carrack would be hampered by tiers of cabins built up on her poop and forecastle; a comparison of these proportions will help to explain the better weatherly and sailing qualities of the English ships. If for further illustration we compare the Elizabeth Jonas carrying 55 heavy guns,[584] with a 52 gun ship of 1832 we find that the ordnance of the latter weighed 125 tons 4 cwt.; cables (iron and hempen), 56 tons 1 cwt.; anchors 12 tons 10 cwt. 2 qrs.; masts and yards74tons5cwt.;andfixedandrunningrigging51 tons9 cwt.[585]
This table also explains why galleys, never much in favour, were rapidly falling out of use. In 1588 the Bonavolia served for two months as a guardship in the river at a total cost of £1028,[586] that is to say £514 a month. In 1589 there is an estimate, in the handwriting of Hawkyns, for the same galley but 150 ‘slaves’ are now allowed for, and ‘there may be for every bank[587] a soldier with his piece if the service require it.’ He adds ‘there is no dyett spoken of for the slaves for that we are not yett in the experyence.’[588] We cannot now tell whether Hawkyns had his early merchandise of negroes in his mind or whether ‘slaves’ was the pleasant Elizabethan way of describing criminals and vagrants.[589] The reference however, to ignorance in the matter of diet seems rather to imply that negroes were in question. Doubtless the cost of free oarsmen had been found to be too great. It will be observed that a largecruiserlikethe Dreadnought could be kept at sea throughout the year at a charge of £303 a month while the almost useless galley, only doubtfully available in summer, cost very much more. The galley service was only possible among the Mediterranean states, and then only when, like Venice, they bought surplus human stock by the thousand from the Emperor The four galleys of 1601-2 were never once engaged in active service, and were probably only used for purposes for which steam tugs are now employed; perhaps also in pageants, men from the royal ships or ordinary watermen being put in themfortheparticularservice.
Types ofShips.
The lines of ships had begun to vary according to the purpose for which they were designed There had formerly been no difference between merchantmen and men-of-war except that the latter were perhaps more strongly built. But a paper by William Borough, ComptrolleroftheNavy,nowdescribesthreeorders:—[590]
1.Theshortest,broadest,anddeepest order.
Tohavethe length bythekeel double the breadth amidshipsand thedepthin hold halfthat breadth. Thisorderisused in somemerchant ships formostprofit.
3.Thelargestorderforgalleonsorships for the warsmadeforthemostadvantage ofsailing.
Lengthof keeltwo ortwoand aquarterthat of beam. Depthof holdeleventwentyfourthsthatofbeam.
Lengthof keelthreetimesthe beam.Depth of hold two-fifthsofbeam.
If the figures in the preceding table are trustworthy it will be seen that the keel length is very seldom three times the breadth although the later ships show a drift towards that proportion. The short keel, not sufficiently supported in a head sea must have made the vessel pitch tremendously, and one object of the beakhead and great forward rake was to shatter the seas and prevent them breaking on board. Probably these ships were but little worse sailers than the ordinary merchantmen of the beginning of this century, at least before the wind. They could not sail on the wind within at least eight points; fore and aft sails were not yet known, and the top-hamper of lofty sides and built up poop and forecastle levered the vesselofftoleeward.
Improvementsand Inventions.
Many improvements however were introduced. A method of striking topmasts, ‘a wonderful ease to great ships,’ and a system of sheathing by double planks, having a layer of tar and hair between them, were two of the mostimportant.Both were due to Hawkyns, and the sheathing process remained in use for more than a century after his death. The finest Elizabethan men-of-war, the fastest sailers and best seaboats then afloat were built from his plans; and from the time of his appointment as Treasurer of the Navy dates the change to the relatively low and long type that made the English ships so much more handy than their Spanish antagonists. On Ralegh’s testimony the chain pump, the use of the capstan for weighing the anchor, bonnets and drablers, sprit, studding, top, and top-gallant sails were all new [591] Ralegh is usually accepted as an authority, but some of these statements are surprisingly inaccurate, considering that he was a shipowner, and had himself been to sea. The bonnet, which laced on to the foot of the ordinary sail, was in use at least as early as the fourteenth century: the drabler laced on to the bonnet,
and if the name was new the thing itself was doubtless old. Top, top-gallant, and sprit sails, can be traced back to the close of the preceding century, and there is no reference to studding sails in the inventories. In view also of the ‘main,’ ‘forecastle,’ and ‘lift’ capstans found on a ship like the Sovereign in1496itseemsincrediblethattheyshould nothavebeenearlierapplied toweighingthe anchor
The chain pump was brought into use by Hawkyns; a patent log was invented by Humphrey Cole but it does not appear to have superseded the ordinary log line. The lower ports were now some four feet above the water line, and there was a tendency to decrease the deck superstructures. Ralegh is emphatic in his disapproval of deck cabins: ‘they are but sluttish dens that breed sickness in peace, serving to cover stealths, and in fight are dangerous to tear men with their splinters.’ Nevertheless others thought differently, and in view of the large crew of a man-of-war and crowded narrow quarters some deck accommodation was perhaps absolutely essential. Both poop and forecastle were barricaded and the bulkheads pierced for arrow and musketry fire. In ships ‘built loftie’ there was a second, and perhaps even a third tier over the poop and forecastle of similarly defended cabins. The waist was partly open on the upper deck, while on the lower deck were again loop-holed bulkheads running transversely, so that if a ship were boarded her assailants found themselves exposed to a gallingcross-firefromthedefenders.
Gravel ballast only was used and for such crank vessels a large quantity was necessary. It was seldom changed and becoming soaked with bilgewater, drainings from beer casks, and the general waste of a ship, was a source of injury to the vessel and of danger to the health of the men. The ‘cookroom,’ a solid structure of bricks and mortar, was built in the hold on this ballast, and in that position, besides making the ship hot and spoiling the stores, was a frequent cause of fire. Moreover ballast and cook-room being practically immovable nothing could be known of the condition of the timber and ironwork below Sir William Wynter advocated, in 1578, the use of stone ballast and the removal of the cooking galley to the forecastle, but neither proposal was generally adopted.[592] In the squadron commanded by Hawkyns and Frobisher in 1590 the Mary Rose, however, Hawkyns’ flagship, had her cook-room especially removed from the hold to the forecastle, ‘as well for the better stowinge of her victualles as also for better preserving her whole companie in health during that voyadge beinge bounde to the southwardes.’ We may therefore take it that the opinion of Hawkyns coincided with that of Wynter on this point. But the alteration in the Mary Rose was an isolated occurrence, and even as late as the beginning of the eighteenth century the galley was still sometimes in the hold. The large amount of space occupied by the ballast, cables, ammunition, and other necessaries left but little room for other things, and a ship had only provisions on board for three or four weeks, although theoretically she was expected to carry more. The presence of a fleet of transports was therefore necessary with all naval expeditions.
The attention given to maritime matters bore fruit in other inventions, many of them far in advance of their time. Centre board boats, paddlewheels, a diving dress, and fireships, were all recommended and perhaps used.[593] Gawen Smith proposed to erect a beacon and refuge, capable of holding twenty or thirty persons, on the Goodwin sands such as was actually tried, unsuccessfully, in the first half of this century [594]
CostandConstructionof Ships.
There is no detailed statement of the whole cost of a ship complete. Most were built by contract, and payment to the master shipwright responsible appears to be only for the hull, masts and spars. For an early vessel, probably the Triumph, there is a fuller account[595] and here the total is £3788, of which the timber cost £1200, spars and ironwork £700, and wages £1888; this does not include sails, fittings, etc. Building by contract seems to have commenced with the accession to office of Hawkyns in 1578. The Lion was rebuilt in this manner in 1582 for £1440, the Nonpareil for £1600, the Hope ‘brought into the fourme of a galease’ £250,[596] and the Cygnet, and Greyhound built for £93, 18s 1d and £66, 13s 4d each.[597] The Victory was ‘altered into the forme of a galleon’ for £500, and the Vanguard and Rainbow built for £2600, apiece.[598] The Merhonour, Garland, and Defiance, cost £5, 2s, £5, 19s 5d, and £6, 7s 4d a ton,[599] and the price was based on the net tonnage. These rates do not however correspond with the amounts in the naval accounts which are £3600 for the Merhonour, £3200 for the Garland, and £3000 for the Defiance.
