Introduction
Abstract
Northeastern Transbaikalia is a region located at the east of Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia. It is one of the largest metallogenic provinces in Russia; it hosts three worldclass deposits of the Udokan (26.7 Mt of Cu resource), Chiney (Fe-Ti-V, 30 Gt of ore), and Katugin (2.7 Mt, Nb, and also Ta).
1.1
General Characteristics of the Area
In Russia, there are many mineral provinces with unique concentration of metals in platinoid-copper-nickel deposits in Noril’sk, iron ore deposits in Kursk, apatite and rare earth deposits in the Kola Peninsula, and gold-silver deposits in the Far East. Among them, the Transbaikalian region occupies a special place, whose mineral diversity and scale of mineralization strike the imagination. The mineral resources of Transbaikalia have been developed since Peter the Great times. It is one of the oldest mining regions in Russia, with first gold extracted from silver ores of the Klichka deposit. In 1724, a first large gold medal was cast for Peter the Great from this gold. Since then, many lead-zinc, molybdenum, and gold-silver deposits were discovered here, and Smirnov (1944) outlined main metallogenic zones. Later, uranium, zeolite, and other deposits were discovered in eastern Transbaikalia.
Deposits of Northeastern Transbaikalia were discovered as a result of systematic geological work organized by the USSR Ministry of Geology, especially after the World War II. The Baikal-Amur-Mainline was built in the 1970–1980s exploiting the discovered deposits of iron ore (Sulumat BIF deposit), coal (Apsat deposit), synnyrite (aluminum and potassium raw material in the synnyrite layered maficultramafic complex), sandstone-hosted copper, gold, titanomagnetite, and platinum-copper-nickel. In our work, we consider only three unique deposits (Udokan, Chiney, and Katugin). In addition, we will briefly describe smaller deposits and occurrences.
Northeastern Transbaikalia is a region located at the northeast of Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Tectonically, it belongs to the western part of the Aldan Shield in the southeast of the Siberian Craton. Its KodarUdokan Basin comprises three world-class deposits (Zadorozhnyi and Bybin 2008, 2012): (i) Udokan, containing more than 26.7 Mt of Cu; (ii) Chiney pluton, containing Fe-Ti-V in 30 Gt of ore; and (iii) Katugin, with 2.7 Mt of Nb and 9 Mt of Zr in ore. In addition, many PGE, Ag, Au, and U deposits and occurrences were discovered in this province. All of them are Paleoproterozoic in age, the most productive time for the concentration of various metals.
1.2 History of Study of Northeastern Transbaikalia
Northeastern Transbaikalia is a remote area. It comprises three major ridges of Kodar and Udokan-Kalar divided by the Chara Basin (Fig. 1.3). The latter is similar in origin to the Baikal Rift, forming its northeastern extension. This area has diverse and very unusual landscapes, such as the world’s northernmost sand desert in the Chara Basin (Fig. 1.4), in neighborhood to the glaciers in the Kodar Ridge at the 3000 m elevation.
Geological information on this area was accumulated very gradually, mostly during the twentieth century. Three stages in this work can be recognized.
1. Regional traversing. In 1928–1935, Pavlovsky, Efremov, and Arsen’ev completed first regional traverses (Pavlovsky 1933 and unpublished). In the 1930s, a special geological prospecting was carried out in this area for the construction of the Baikal-Amur-Mainline. Its construction started in the early 1940s, but the project was abandoned after the beginning of World War II and
3 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
B. Gongalsky, N. Krivolutskaya, World-Class Mineral Deposits of Northeastern Transbaikalia, Siberia, Russia, Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences 17, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03559-4_1
(http://www.myshared.ru/slide/107715/)
Fig. 1.1 Position of the Transbaikal area (rectangle) on map of Russia. (Wall Map of Russia. Atlases of Russia, Atlas Print, 2017)
Fig. 1.2 Simplified geological map of eastern Siberia
Rectangle shows area in Fig. 1.3
was completed only in 1984. In 1938, Mikhail Petrusevich (Fig. 1.5) and Lyudmila Kazik discovered rich titanomagnetite mineralization in the Chiney layered maficultramafic Pluton (Fig. 1.6). Its description was published after the World War II (Petrusevich 1946).
2. Systematic mapping. The new phase of geological surveying in Northeastern Transbaikalia began after 1945. In 1949, Elizaveta Burova (Fig. 1.5) and her colleagues from Lesnaya Expedition discovered the sandstone-hosted Udokan copper deposit (Fig. 1.7), during the geological mapping of this area at a scale of 1:200,000. Most intense exploration works were conducted in the 1960s, when the USSR economy recovered after the war. During this period, the entire country, including Northeastern Transbaikalia, was geologically mapped at a scale of 1:1,000,000 and 1:200,000 by various geological organizations (All-Union Geophysical Trust (VAGT), All-Union Geological Institute (VSEGEI)). These maps laid basis for more detailed works at a scale of 1:50,000, 1:25,000, and 1:10,000. In 1954, the Chita Regional Geological Department established the Udokan Expedition for a systematic study of the geology and mineral deposits in this area. Many geologists (EF Grintal, MI Korol’kov, YA Yakimov, VS Chechetkin, KS Kazanov, VK Golev, NG Goleva, LV Sosnovskikh, Y Sosnovskikh, VG Podgorbunskiy, MN Davie, Y Gudyma) contributed to the understanding of local geology. Since that time, many
geoscientists from different organizations (Moscow State Prospecting Institute (MGRI), All-Union Institute for Raw Materials (VIMS), Institute for Geology of Ore Deposits (IGEM), Transbaikal Research Institute (ZabNII)) studied geology, geochemistry, and mineralogy of the discovered deposits. Bakun et al. (1958), Krendelev (1959), and Bakun et al. (1958, 1964, 1966) published first data on the Udokan deposit, based on their work during several years and compilation of the first detailed geological map at a scale of 1:10,000.
In 1963, NB Yusupov discovered the third unique deposit in this area (Katugin deposit) based on rare metal data by VV Arkhangel’skaya.
Salop (1964, 1967) compiled all data and published a fundamental description of this area in two volumes entitled “Geology of the Baikal Mountainous Area.” The first complete description of rocks from the Chiney layered maficultramafic complex was carried out by Lebedev (1962) after his 1960 field trip with Oleg Bogatikov to the Kalar and Udokan Ridges.
3. Detailed study of deposits. This stage began in 1975, when the USSR government restarted the construction of the Baikal-Amur-Mainline (BAM) and adopted a resolution on exploration and potential exploitation of all mineral deposits within the 100 km corridor near BAM. The
Fig. 1.3 Geographic map of the Kodar-Udokan region (www.google.ru/maps)
Fig. 1.4 Sand desert in the Chara Trough with Kodar Ridge in the background
Photos: (a) Photo A.Savchenko, (b) Photo B. Gongalsky
USSR Ministry of Geology estimated resources of the titanomagnetite and sulfide ores in the Chiney deposits, rare metal ores in the Katugin deposit, and copper in the Udokan copper deposit. The results were approved by the USSR State Commission for Reserves (GKZ). Geologists from many organizations (VIMS, IGEM, MGRI, CHIPR) worked here during 40 years, studying chemical and mineralogical composition of rocks and ores. Gablina (1983, 1997) studied sulfides from the Udokan deposit. The ZabNII geologists (LF Narkelyun, GAYurgenson, AI Trubachev, VS Salikhov, NA Krivolutskaya) studied Udokan oxide ores (Narkelyun et al. 1987). The Katugin deposit was investigated by Bykov, Lysikov, and many others. Arkhangel’skaya et al. (2004) summarized the geological and mineral data on the Katugin and Udokan deposits.
The Chiney pluton attracted many researches due to the well-developed magmatic layering of the rocks, huge vanadium resources, and sulfide mineralization with noble metals (Lebedev 1962; Kulikov et al. 1980; Gongalsky and Krivolutskaya 1993; Tatarinov et al. 1998; Tolstykh et al. 2008). Konnikov (1986) emphasized a great importance to assimilation of carbonate rocks into mafic magma and its role in ore formation. Golev (unpublished) attributed a complicated structure of the pluton to the heterogeneity of the primary magma.
Today, the licenses to exploit the three deposits belong to the Baikal Mining Company (Udokan), Soyuzmetalresurs (Chiney), and Acropolis Group of Companies (Katugin).
1.3 Methods
The formation parameters of the mineralization remain poorly constrained, and further progress in this respect may be helpful for the discovery of new deposits in the KodarUdokan ore-magmatic system, characterized by significant vertical extent and complex relationships. The mineralization, deposited at different depths, is now exposed at the surface and is, therefore, accessible for comprehensive study. In addition to magmatic Fe-Ti-V oxide mineralization in the Chiney and Luktur layered mafic-ultramafic plutons, the post-titanomagnetite copper and noble-metal sulfide mineralization (Rudnoe, Verkhne-Chineyskoe, Skvoznoe, Kontaktovyi, Magnitnyi, and Etyrko deposits) are localized in the endo- and exocontact zones of the plutons. The giant Udokan sandstone-hosted copper deposit is distant from intrusive bodies and hosts sulfide mineralization, also found in the Pravoingamakitskoe, Saku, Unkur, and other deposits. New types of mineralization, e.g., Au-PGE-Cu and REE-U, have been revealed recently in layered plutons and their host rocks (Gongalsky et al. 2009; Makariev et al. 2009, 2010). These manifestations of magmatic activity and ore deposi-
Fig. 1.5 Discoverer of the Chiney Pluto Mikhail Nikolaevich Petrusevich (1908–2003). (Photo B. Gongalsky, 1998) and discoverer of the Udokan deposit Elizaveta Ivanovna Burova (1913–1996). (Photo taken in 1992, from the Burova family archive, copy was made by B. Gongalsky)
Fig. 1.6 General view of the Chiney pluton (a, b)
tion make up a Kodar-Udokan ore-magmatic system. In this publication, we focus on the geology of ore deposits as parts of this system, on new mineralogical and geochemical data, characterizing the individual deposits, and on their genetic models. A special attention is paid to (1) ore-controlling structures, (2) geochemistry of mafic-ultramafic plutons and their typification, (3) a thorough study of the Chiney Pluton and related mineralization as a reference magmatic deposit, and (4) mineralogy and geochemistry of the Udokan and its satellite deposits.
This monograph is based on our 30-year-long study of geology, petrography, mineralogy, and geochemistry of Ni-Cu-PGE and copper deposits in the Kodar-Udokan mineral district. They were carried out at the Chita Institute of Natural Resources, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (CINR SB RAS) in 1982–1994 and at the Institute for Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry (IGEM RAS) since 1995 through 2018.
In the course of field works, the sequences of intrusive rocks have been studied in details in large natural outcrops (5.5 km in extent) and deep (down to 1.5 km) boreholes. More than 50 boreholes have been documented and sampled. We collected 10,000 samples and assay duplicates of gabbro rocks from the Chiney Intrusive Complex and carbonateclastic rocks of the Udokan Supergroup, both from outcrops and drill holes in the Chiney, Udokan, and Pravoingamakitskoe deposits.
The following analytical methods have been used: (1) XRF at CINR SB RAS (analyst NS Baluev) and IGEM RAS (analyst AI Yakushev); (2) ICP-MS at the Institute for Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements (IMGRE; analyst DZ Zhuravlev) and LA-ICP-MS at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany (analyst DV Kuzmin); (3) Cameca SX 50 and SX 100 electron microprobe at the Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry (GEOKHI RAS; analyst NN
Kononkova) and Lomonosov Moscow State University (analyst NE Sergeeva) and Superprobe Geol JXA 8200 at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany (analyst DV Kuzmin) and IGEM RAS (analyst EV Kovalchuk); (4) electron microscopy at the Institute of Experimental Mineralogy (IEM RAS; analyst AN Nekrasov), Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences (analyst EA Zhegallo), IGEM RAS (analysts LO Magazina and NV Trubkin), and Lomonosov Moscow State University (analyst NN Korotaeva); (5) study of stable isotopes (O, S) at the Geological Institute (GIN RAS; analyst BG Pokrovsky) and Central Institute for Geological Exploration of Base and Precious Metals (analyst SG Kryazhev); (6) study of radiogenic isotopes in rocks: Sm-Nd, IGEM RAS (analyst YuV Goltsman) and U-Pb, A.P. Karpinsky Russian Geological Research Institute (VSEGEI)(analyst AN Timashkov); and (7) determination of PGE and Au in rocks and ore, IGEM RAS (analysts VA Sychkova and VG Belousov) and Institute of Ore Formation, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry, National Academy of Sciences, Ukraine (analyst AA Yushin). Crystallization parameters of magma, eventually solidified into the Chiney pluton, were estimated using PETROTYPE and COMAGMAT-3.5 programs with the assistance of AA Ariskin and GS Nikolaev. All photos were taken by Bronislav Gongalsky, unless specifically indicated.
Acknowledgments We are very grateful to VS Chechetkin, KS Kazanov, LV Sosnovskikh, and Yu Sosnovskikh, NG Goleva, VG Podgorbunsky, MN Devi, and MF Dzyubenko, the geologists from Chitageologiya Expedition, for their assistance during the field trips. We thank analysts NS Baluev, LN Skornyakov, AV Sobolev, DV Kuzmin, OB Kuzmina, VA Sychkova, NE Sergeeva, and EV Kovalchuk for their help. AA Ariskin and GS Nikolaev helped in modeling the crystallization of the Chiney magma. Yuri Safonov, Alexander Volkov, Oleg Bogatikov, and Konstantin Lobanov supported this work for a long time. We are very grateful to Elinor Morrisby for her hard work with English correction. In some cases, Victor Popov helped with English translation, which was then corrected by American Journal
Fig. 1.7 A panoramic view of the Udokan deposit from the Chiney pluton (looking north)
Light gray band is a railway spur leading to the Baikal-Amur-Mainline
Experts Company (Part I, Chaps. 3 and 4). We are grateful to TB Shlychkova and IV Karlina for the tremendous work with graphic materials.
This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (projects NN 00-05-64507, 07-05-01007, 10-05-10088, 15-05-09250, 15-05-07031 and partially 17-05-01167, 18-05-70094).
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CharaTrough Patomsky Depression KodarUdokan
Sayany-Baikal Folded area
Archean-Paleoproterozoic: Granite-metamorphic belt
Neoproterozoic passive margins
a-Bodaibo,b- Baikal-Patom
Cambrian: Baikal-Vitim magmatic arc
Vendian-Cambrian: Biramino-Yangu
Bodaibo-Vilyui paleorift system (RF)
Patoms-Dzhuin zone of dislocations
Angaro-Vitimsky Pluton (Pz)
Mesozoic grabens
Cenozoi: a-rift zones, b - Udokan lava plateau
a - faults: b - main faults
Boundary of Siberian platform
(( ( Quaternary deposits
Phaner ozoic formation s volcanic rocks clastic rocks carbonates Paleoproterozoic formations Archean formations
Intrusive r ocks alkaline granite syenite, granosyenite granite, plagiogranite diorite, granodiorite
gabbro, norite
peridotite, pyroxenite , dunite
Formation s L LL plateau basalts
sandstone, shale
sandstone and shales with minor limestone carbonate rocks with minor shale and sandstone limestone and dolomite {{ metamorphic rocks
faults
Fig. 2.3 Regional geological map of the Kodar-Udokan Zone Deposits: 1, Udokan; 2, Chiney pluton; 3, Katugin. Here and in Fig. 2.4, the map is based on А Galyamov,1:100,000 State Geological Maps (Sheets О -49, 50) 2 Regional Geology
rocks are interpreted as protrusions. Formation of greenstone belts was completed after the emplacement of 2.9–3.0 Ga gabbro and plagiogranite (Nutman et al. 1992).
The metamorphic grade in greenstone belts increases from top to bottom and from the center outward. In the central parts of these belts, the grade corresponds to greenschist facies; amphibolite facies rocks are characteristic of the marginal zones, where metamorphism was accompanied by partial melting of the adjacent gray gneiss. The U-Pb isotopic age of zircon from palingenic granite rocks is 2.6–2.7 Ga (Glukhovsky 2009). The granitoids of this age are also widespread beyond the greenstone belts. They make up the Older Stanovoi Complex, which is represented by calc-alkaline granitoids with appreciable amount of K-feldspar. Their formation is frequently accompanied by the growth of granitegneiss domes. Late-stage alaskite, aplite, and pegmatite veins are abundant. The U-Pb zircon age of metavolcanic rocks is 3.0–2.9 Ga (Nutman et al. 1992). The age of anorthosite, controlled by older suture zones, e.g., the 6000 km2 Kalar layered mafic-ultramafic complex, remains unconstrained. The scarce isotopic data correspond either to Neoarchean (Larin et al. 2006) or Paleoproterozoic (Glukhovsky et al. 1993) ages. Anorthosites are known along the Stanovoi suture zone with andesitic rocks at its base and labradorite and anorthosite in the upper part.
Thus, the first signs of amalgamation of continental masses appeared approximately 3.0 Ga ago, when sialic and greenstone rocks were tectonically sandwiched into the apparent sequence. The thickness of the continental crust increased at that time as a result of collision of blocks and formation of nappes in the Olondo greenstone belt. Culmination of 2.6–2.8 Ga metamorphic events probably reflects the final stages of the collision (Sklyarov 2006). The Chara-Olekma geoblock was thrust under the Central Aldan geoblock at 2.3–2.1 Ga. This event marks amalgamation of the Siberian craton at 2.0–1.8 Ga (Rosen 2003). The last stages of tectonic evolution were accompanied by extension in relation to the collapse of orogens, induced by the mantlesourced intrusions of mafic-ultramafic melts. This gave rise to the large intracratonic troughs with the Kodar-Udokan trough (basin) as a striking example (Fig. 2.2), the Akitkan volcanic-plutonic belt, the Chiney layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions (Fig. 2.3), and post-collisional (anorogenic) granitoids of the Kodar and other intrusive complexes (Neymark et al. 1998; Larin et al. 2000; Donskaya et al. 2005).
2.3 Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonate-clastic sequences in the Kodar-Udokan, Ugui, Verkhne-Khani, and other basins represent an older platform cover. The Kodar-Udokan trough, ~300 km long and 60–70 km wide (Fig. 2.3), is filled with Paleoproterozoic
clastic-carbonate rocks of the Udokan Supergroup, reaching 11–14 km in thickness (Fig. 2.4; Krendelev et al. 1983). This supergroup is subdivided into the Kodar, Chiney, and Kemen Groups (macrorhythms) (Salop 1964; Krendelev et al. 1983; Burmistrov 1990; Volodin et al. 1994; Chechetkin et al. 2000), further subdivided into nine formations. In the macrorhythms, the marine sedimentary rocks give way to the continental sediments, interpreted as transgressions and regressions; the intensity of these movements gradually decreased. The style of clastic material regularly changes in succession, with conglomerate and coarse-grained clastic rocks almost always occurring in the lower part of each group. Carbonate rocks (limestone, dolomite) are not abundant and are characteristic of the Butun Formation. The rocks of the Udokan Supergroup are folded, rimming the Chara block. Because of this, the strike of fold axes is variable. The almost west-to-east rather than west-northwestern strike dominates near the Chiney pluton. Three large folds—the Naminga and Katugin brachysynclines and conjugate Chiney anticline—are recognized here (Fig. 2.4).
The Naminga syncline is an 10–12 km-long and 8–10-kmwide asymmetric fold, without parasitic folds. It hosts Udokan sandstone-hosted copper deposit. Its northern limb is steeply dipping and often even overturned as compared to the southern limb, where rocks dip at 35–40°. The Katugin syncline is 12 km wide, striking 85 ESE. Its hinge plunges to the northeast, and the sandstone is mainly contactmetamorphosed by the Kodar granite layered maficultramafic complex. The 10–12 km wide Chiney anticline strikes to 55NE. It is a narrow structural element with numerous second-order folds and faults. Its rocks are intruded by the Chiney Pluton.
The rocks of the Udokan Supergroup are subdivided into three groups, consisting of clastic and carbonate rocks. Copper deposits and occurrences are known within all three groups, mostly in the uppermost Kemen Group (Sakukan and Naminga Formations). The supergiant Udokan copper deposit is hosted in the Sakukan formation, while the Unkur and Burpala deposits are hosted in the lower part of the Sakukan formation. The Pravoingamakitskoe, Krasnoe, and other small deposits occur in the middle part of the Chiney Group (Inyr, Chitkanda, Alexandrov, and Butun Formations). Numerous pyrrhotite- and chalcopyrite-bearing units, containing Ag, Co, and Ni, are localized in the lower formations of the Kodar Group (Bogdanov et al. 1966; Arkhangel’skaya et al. 2004).
The Paleoproterozoic age of the Udokan Supergroup is first of all constrained by the unconformity between the Archean rocks and the overlapping Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks (with conglomerate at the base). The second is the ages of metamorphism and crosscutting intrusive and palingenic metasomatic rocks of the Kodar and Kuyanda Complexes (Fedorovsky 1972).
Quaternary sediments
Neogene–Quaternary volcanic rocks
Jurassic coal-bearing clastic deposits
Paleozoic, Ingamakit Complex, granite
Mesozoic, Khani Complex, syenite
Kemen Group
Chiney Group
Kodar Group
Anorthosite of the Kalar Complex
Weakly metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Subgan complex
Tonalite-trondhjemite orthogneiss
Olekma Complex
2 Regional Geology of the Kodar-Udokan Mineral District
Vendian-Cambrian variegated deposits
Neoproterozoic Doros Complex (PR2), gabbro-dolerite,
Chiney Complex, gabbro
Kodar Complex, granite
Katugin Complex, granite
Chara Complex (plagiogneiss, mafic schists and magnetite quartzite)
Kalar Complex (garnet-biotite plagiogneiss, magnetite quartzite)
Main ore horizon of the Udokan deposit
Main Udokan Dike
Fig. 2.4 Geological map of the Udokan-Chiney district. (Modified after Chitageologia data) Superlarge ore deposits: I-Udokan, II-Chiney, III-Katugin; other deposits: (1) Klyukvennoe, (2) Saku, (3) Pravoingamakitskoe, (4) Mylovskiy, (5) Rudnoe, (6) Verkhne-Chineyskoe, (7) Skvoznoe, (8) Kontaktovyi, (9) Luktur, (10) Unkur, (11) Krasnoe, (12) Burpala, (13) Kilcheris, (14) Chitkanda (U), (15) Nizhnechineyskoe (U-REE)
Pokrovsky and Grigoriev (1995) studied the Rb-Sr system in deposits of upper formations. Bulk samples of poorly metamorphosed clastic rocks are rarely used for isotopic dating. The presence of detrital minerals produces a substantial scattering of points on the isochrons or even a mixing line that is not possible to interpret (Clauer 1984; Faure 1986). For dating, a fine fraction (<4 μm or < 2 μm) is usually used, which possibly reflects the age of sedimentation (Clauer 1984) or (more likely) the early stages of diagenesis (Bonhomme 1987). Numerous examples of distorted age were reported for bulk samples of sedimentary rocks (Clauer 1984; Faure 1986). However, they are mainly applied to the Phanerozoic formations. This technique, in our opinion, cannot be applied to Precambrian rocks which are usually strongly metamorphosed. Based only on petrographic criteria, it is extremely difficult to draw a sharp line between the epigenetic and regional metamorphism, which is characterized by the establishment of complete physical-chemical equilibrium in the rock.
As it was noted by Korikovsky (1979), even plagioclase, fully recrystallized during the low-temperature greenschist facies metamorphism, can almost completely retain the shape of the original clastic grains. The data on the oxygen isotopes show that the rocks of the Naminga Formation have been very deeply modified after sedimentation.
The 87Rb/86Sr and 87Sr/86Sr values in the bulk samples of the Naminga Formation show a direct correlation that can be interpreted as errochron with an age of 1939 ± 101 Ma (Pokrovsky and Grigoriev 1995) and an initial resolution of 0.7092 ± 0.0009 (standard deviation after York 1966). This age practically coincides with the age of metamorphism of the Udokan Supergroup established by other methods. It also coincides (within the error) with Rb-Sr age of metapelites from the Khani Trough (Gorokhov et al. 1989), which is considered to be coeval with the rocks of the Udokan Supergroup (Fedorovsky 1972, 1985). The errochrons (Gorokhov et al. 1989; Pokrovsky and Grigoriev 1995) have close MSWD 16.40 and 17.35, respectively, although the rocks of the Khani Trough, judging from the descriptions, have experienced a stronger metamorphism than the Udokan rocks. It should be noted that the data obtained for the rocks of the Naminga Formation (Pokrovsky and Grigoriev 1995) can be also interpreted for two independent isochrons: (1) with an age of 2102 ± 23 Ma (87Sr/86Sr)0 = 0.70880 ± 0.00014 (for rocks with K2O content of <2 wt%) and –(2) with an age of 1992 ± 143 Ma (87Sr/86Sr)0 = 0.7052 ± 0.0048 (for rocks with K2O content >2 wt%). This illustrates a more or less obvious fact that the rocks were modified many times. The relatively low initial value (87Sr/86Sr)i on the younger isochron, which seems paradoxical at first glance, can be explained by the contamination of strontium from the underlying carbonate rocks of the Kodar Group (Table 2.1). The conclusion that the carbonate material was very intensely dissolved and
redeposited is driven by the similarity of the C isotopes in the carbonate cement of the Naminga Formation and the carbonates of the underlying rocks, as well as by strong fluctuations in the thicknesses of the carbonate rocks of the Butun Formation (Fedorovsky 1972). The age of metamorphism of the uppermost formation in the Udokan Supergroup is constrained by an errochron of 1939 ± 101 Ma (Pokrovsky and Grigoriev 1995). This value is almost identical to the ages obtained for the lower formations of the Udokan Supergroup (Gorokhov et al. 1989). From this, it can be concluded that either the entire 10-km-thick sequence was formed within a very short time interval (2.1–2.25 m.y.) or all available data are indicative of the age of metamorphism.
Rocks of the Udokan Supergroup were metamorphosed to epidote-chlorite or biotite greenschist facies but locally attain amphibolite grade (Bogdanov et al. 1966; Volodin et al. 1994; Abramov 2011). Elsewhere in the region, granulitefacies peak metamorphism was reached at ~1.9–1.8 Ga (Glebovitsky et al. 2008). Furthermore, the Nd isotopic signature of the metasedimentary rocks from the Udokan Supergroup is similar to that of island arc-type metavolcanic sequences in the central Aldan Shield, dated at 2006 ± 3 Ma, implying a possibility of contemporaneous derivation from this source region (Podkovyrov et al. 2006).
The isotopic age of the Udokan sedimentary rocks, constrained using the K-Ar method, is 1832–1980 Ma (Chechetkin and Kharitonov 2002). Perelló et al. (2017) separated titanite crystals from a sample collected in the Medny site of the deposit, where typical high-grade disseminated and veinlet chalcocite-bornite mineralization is well exposed. Titanite crystals from the disseminated and veinlet fractions were separately dated by the ID-TIMS U-Pb method, with the disseminated fraction returning a concordia age of 1895.3 ± 9.7 Ma and the veinlet fraction a concordia age of 1896.7 ± 7.8 Ma. The combination of both titanite fractions produced a concordia age of 1896.2 ± 6.2 Ma, interpreted as synorogenic mineralization.
The stratigraphic unconformity between the Chiney and Kemen Groups (Tombasov and Sinitsa 1990) suggests a younger age of the latter. Indeed, the type of the Udokan biota suggests a Riphean to Vendian age of the Kemen rocks (Vil’mova 1990; Sinitsa 1996; Salikhov 2010). The data on detrital zircons indicate a much older age of the Chitkanda Formation of the Chiney Group (2180 ± 50 Ma) in comparison with the Kemen Group (Berezhnaya et al. 1988).
The aforesaid has substantial implications for the timing of ore formation in this district, because it was assumed that the magma, responsible for the formation of the Chiney pluton and related ore, intruded only rocks of the Chiney Group (Burmistrov 1990) and thus predated the Kemen Group. Meanwhile, new evidence for the age of the Chiney pluton has been obtained recently using different specific isotopic systems, and this is explained not only by analytical uncer-
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Every one was therefore expected to send his contribution before the 1st of Nisan. On the 1st of Adar proclamations were made throughout the country that the half-shekel was due.58 Hence the custom to read the above-named sections on the Sabbath before the 1st of Adar, or on the 1st, if this happens to be on a Sabbath.
2. רוכז תבש “Sabbath Remember” is the Sabbath on which the paragraph concerning the enmity of Amalek is read from the Pentateuch (Deut. xxv. 17–19), and the defeat of Amalek by King Saul from the Prophets (I Sam. xv.). The Agagite Haman, one of the principal figures in the history of Purim, is believed to be a descendant of Agag, king of Amalek (ibid. ver. 8). And as the Law commands us to remember the hostilities of Amalek against Israel, it has been found appropriate to read the above sections on the Sabbath before Purim.
3. הרפ תבש “The Sabbath of the Red Heifer,” i.e., the Sabbath on which the law concerning the sacrifice of the red heifer and the purification with its ashes is read from the Pentateuch (Num. xix.), and “the future purification of Israel” (Ezek. xxxvi. 17–38) from the Prophets. It is the Sabbath after Purim, or, when the 15th or 16th of Adar falls on Saturday, the second Sabbath after Purim. All Israelites had [371]to come to the Temple, and to offer the Passover-lamb on the 14th of Nisan, and this could not be done by any unclean person. By the reading of the above sections, all are, as it were, reminded to take the necessary steps for their purification, and thus prepare themselves for the celebration of Passover.
4. שדחה תבש “The Sabbath of ha-chodesh,” i.e., the Sabbath before the 1st of Nisan, or on the 1st of Nisan if it falls on a Saturday, on which the law that fixes Nisan as the first month59 and the commandment concerning Passover are read from the Pentateuch (Exod. xii. 1–20), and the description of the sacrifices of the 1st of
Nisan, Passover, and other Festivals in the future Temple from the Prophets (Ezek. xlv. 16–xlvi. 18).
In addition to these four Sabbaths, the Sabbath preceding Passover is to be mentioned. It is not distinguished by any special lesson from the Pentateuch, but it has nevertheless received the title “the Great Sabbath,” לודגה תבש60 on account of the importance of [372]the approaching Festival. The last part of Malachi (iii. 4–24) is read as the haphtarah of the day, in which the ultimate triumph of the Godfearing is described by the Prophet.
חספ Passover.
Passover is the first of the Three Feasts, and is kept eight days, from the 15th of Nisan to the 22nd; the four middle days being half-Holydays, called chol ha-moëd (“the week-days of the festival”).
The name Pesach, “Passover,”61 reminds us of the way in which the Israelites enjoyed the Divine protection before they left Egypt. Pharaoh, king of Egypt, kept the Israelites as slaves, and when asked in the name of God to let them go, refused to obey. But the ten plagues which consecutively afflicted his land without causing injury to the Israelites taught [373]him the existence of a higher Power, to whose decrees the will of earthly rulers has to submit. It was especially the tenth plague, the slaying of the first-born, that convinced the king and his people of this truth. When the Lord smote all the first-born in the land of Egypt, “he passed over the houses of the children of Israel” (Exod. xii. 27).
The Feast has a second name, viz., “feast of unleavened bread,” גח תוצמה, a name derived from the commandment to eat הצמ “unleavened bread,” instead of the ordinary ץמח “leavened bread,”
during the Festival. The purpose of this commandment is to commemorate the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt as well as the mode of their actual departure. For when the tenth plague, the slaying of the first-born, had visited the Egyptians, they were overcome with fear, and urged the Israelites at once to leave the country The Israelites therefore left Egypt hurriedly, [374]and had no time for preparing the ordinary “leavened bread,” and baked for themselves unleavened cakes (תוצמ) of the dough which they had made.
Passover thus commemorates two distinct moments in the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery, viz. (1) the special protection which the Almighty granted them in Egypt, and (2) their departure from the house of bondage.
Two distinct observances, therefore, were ordained for the Feast of Passover, viz. (1) the sacrifice of the Passover-lamb, and (2) the eating of “unleavened bread” and the abstaining from “leavened bread.”
1. The Passover-lamb.—A short time before their departure from Egypt the Israelites were commanded by the Almighty that on the tenth of the first month every family should procure a lamb, keep it four days,62 kill it in the afternoon of the fourteenth, sprinkle of its blood on the “lintel and the two door-posts,” and “eat in the evening the meat roast in fire, with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, in haste, their loins girded, their shoes on their feet and their staff in their hand” (Exod. xii. 3–11). Whatever the material benefit was which the Israelites, in the moment of starting for a long and uncertain journey, derived from the meal prepared and partaken of in this manner, there was a higher purpose in the Divine commandment; it was [375]demanded that the lamb should be “a passover sacrifice unto the Lord” (ibid.). The proceedings should be
an expression of faith in God,63 and of gratitude to Him for His protection. Every house should thus form a place holy unto the Lord; an altar, as it were, on which the blood of the sacrifice was sprinkled.
The Passover sacrifice first observed in Egypt was afterwards ordained as a permanent institution (ibid. ver. 24). This difference, however, was observed, that the Passover-lamb, like all sacrifices, had to be brought to the Sanctuary, to “the place which the Lord chose to place his name in” (Deut. xvi. 6). All who were prevented from performing their duty on the 14th of Nisan were allowed to offer the Passover on the 14th of the second month (Iyar). By way of distinction from the sacrifice on the first date, this offering was called “the second passover” (ינש חספ,64 Num. ix. 9–14). Since the destruction of the Temple all sacrificial service has been discontinued, and in accordance with the words, “We will compensate with our lips for the bullocks” (Hos. xiv. 3), prayers and recitals from [376]the Bible have taken the place of sacrifices, whilst psalms and hymns are added such as used to accompany the act of offering sacrifices. The Passover sacrifice has therefore been discontinued; but the law of eating unleavened bread and bitter herbs is still observed.
2. The Unleavened Bread.—“Seven days shall ye eat unleavened bread; even the first day ye shall have put away leaven out of your houses: for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel” (Exod. xii. 15). “Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days; and there shall no leavened bread be seen with thee, neither shall there be leaven seen with thee in all thy quarters” (ibid. xiii. 7). “Seven days shall there no leaven be found in your houses” (ibid. xii. 19). The distinction between leavened and unleavened only applies to bread or any other form of food prepared out of any of the following five kinds of grain: barley, wheat, rye, oats, and spelt. Bread or cake
prepared from any of these five kinds is called unleavened bread, or הצמ, if the dough is baked immediately after it has been prepared, no time being left for fermentation.65 It is not only forbidden during the [377]Festival to eat leavened bread, but it is not permitted to derive any benefit whatsoever from it.66 All leaven and leavened bread must be removed before Passover comes in; and in accordance with the traditional interpretation of the precept, “Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread” (ibid. xxiii. 18), the leaven must be removed before the time in which the Passover was offered.67
The law forbidding ץמח “leavened bread,” to be kept in the house during Passover is frequently and most emphatically repeated in the Torah. Jews have therefore, as a rule, been very conscientious and zealous in the fulfilment of this Divine command. In accordance with this law, the following observances have been ordained:—
(1.) ץמח תקידב “the searching for leavened bread” on the eve of the 14th of Nisan. 68 The head of the family, or his deputy, examines his residence thoroughly, and keeps the chamets, which he has found, in a safe place till the next morning. This searching, like every other performance of a religious duty, is preceded by a blessing, viz., ךורב ץמח
… “Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy [378]commandments, and hast commanded us concerning the removal of the leavened bread.”69
(2.) ץמח רועיב, “the removal or the destruction of chamets.” All the chamets that is left after the first meal on the 14th of Nisan must be removed, i.e., sold or given as a present to a non-Israelite, or destroyed. In addition to the actual removal or destruction of chamets, a solemn declaration is made by the head of the family, that if any chamets should be left in his house without his knowledge, he would not claim it as his. The object of this
declaration is to free the master of the house from all responsibility in case any chamets should be found on his premises, contrary to the Law.70
(3.) Utensils which have been used for chamets are put away, and replaced by new ones, or by such as have exclusively been kept for Passover. Some vessels used during the year may be used for Passover, after having undergone a certain process called kasher;71 i.e., “fitting” them as vessels for use on Passover. [379]
(4.) Although the articles of food that are directly forbidden as chamets are very few, there are a great many things that contain an admixture of chamets, and those “who fear the word of the Lord” use during Passover only those articles of food concerning which there is no doubt whatever that they are perfectly free from chamets. Articles of food for Passover are therefore only bought of persons who can be trusted to hold these observances in respect.
In addition to the commandments of the Passover-offering and the unleavened bread, there is a special duty, mentioned four times in the Pentateuch, for the Israelite to relate to his children the history of the departure from Egypt, and to explain to them the meaning of the several rites connected with the celebration of Passover. This duty is called haggadah, “relating,” and a service has been arranged for the purpose, called Seder, “the Order.” The first two evenings of Passover are therefore called “Seder-evenings,” and the book which contains this Service is generally called Haggadah
The Seder-service contains four elements: (1) the relation of the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt; (2) the festive meal, preceded by Kiddush and the partaking of bitter herbs and unleavened bread, and followed by Grace; (3) Hallel and other hymns; (4) the partaking of four cups of wine (arba kosoth).72 [380]
The head of the family or his substitute who reads the Service has before him on the table: (1) three unleavened cakes (matsoth);73 (2) bitter herbs and [381]other vegetables;74 (3) salt water, in which the vegetables (karpas) are dipped before they are eaten, and charoseth, a mixture of apples, almonds, various spices, especially cinnamon, and wine, in which mixture the bitter herbs are dipped;75 (4) a bone with some meat on it and an egg,76 both roasted.
The order of the Service is indicated in most [382]editions of the Haggadah in rhymed Hebrew as follows:—
The following is the explanation of these lines:—
1. שדק Say Kiddush. See above, page 379.
2. ץחר “Wash,” scil., your hands.—Only the head of the family does so at this part of the Service.77
3. ספרכ “Vegetables.” A piece of parsley or salad or bitter herb is dipped in salt water, and eaten after the recitation of the blessing: המדאה ירפ ארוב … ךורב “Blessed art thou … who hast created the fruit of the ground.”78
4. ץחי “He divides.” Of the three matsoth before him, the head of the family breaks the middle one, part of which is laid aside, to be eaten at the end of the meal.79
5. דיגמ “Relating,”80 scil., the history of the departure [383]from Egypt. The reader, pointing to the broken הצמ before him, exclaims, “Such was the bread of poverty which our forefathers ate in the land of Egypt;” as if to say, “We are all alike descendants of those who ate the bread of poverty in Egypt.” In the same sense, the reader
continues, “We all alike should rejoice in the kindnesses shown by the Almighty to our nation, and all alike should seek and find true comfort in the hope of the Messianic blessing promised by Him for the future.”81 One of the company, usually the youngest, puts to the reader four questions, as formulated in the paragraph beginning המ הנתשנ “Why is different?”82 Additions and alterations may, of course, be made by the inquirer according to his knowledge and intellect. The object of these questions is to obtain an explanation of the rites that distinguish this evening from others. In answer to these questions, the reader refers to the past history of Israel in three different forms,83 viz.:—
(1.) The first answer begins, ונייה םידבע, “We were [384]slaves;” and ends, ךינפל םיחנומ רורמו
שיש העשב “When unleavened bread and bitter herbs lie before thee.” Here the reader restricts himself, without any comment, to the one fact that our forefathers were at first slaves in Egypt, and were then delivered, and illustrates the duty of speaking that night more fully concerning the departure from Egypt, by precedent, by the authority of the Mishnah, and by the Midrashic interpretation of the law commanding us to tell our children this event.
(2.) The second form of the answer begins, ויה הרז הדובע ידבע הלחתמ
וניתבא “Our forefathers were at first worshippers of idols,” and ends, םדימ ונליצמ “delivers us out of their hand.” Here the exodus from Egypt is described as the fulfilment of the promise made by God to Abraham, that his descendants would be delivered out of the hands of their oppressors.
(3.) The passage from Deut. xxvi. 5–8 is recited with its Midrashic interpretations,84 and in conclusion all the benefits received by the Israelites from the [385]departure from Egypt till the building of the Temple are enumerated, and our duty of gratitude is shown.
In all these three forms no notice has been taken of the particular questions. Rabban Gamaliel insists that this should be done, and a section is therefore added, containing the explanation why the Passover-offering, the unleavened bread, and the bitter herbs were to be eaten; this, like the three other sections, concludes with the emphatic declaration that we—after so many generations—are still bound to praise and to thank God for the benefits bestowed upon our nation so long ago. Hereupon follows the Hallel, of which the first two paragraphs, containing special reference to the departure from Egypt, are sung before supper; the first part of the Seder-Service concludes with a blessing, in which we praise God for our past deliverance and pray for the approach of our future redemption.
6. ץחר “Washing.” All those who partake of the meal wash their hands, as is ordinarily done before meals.
7. הצמ איצומ. Two pieces of הצמ are taken; one piece, broken off the whole cake, representing the bread eaten at ordinary meals for איצומ, and the other piece taken from the broken one, representing the הצמ we are commanded to eat on the Seder-night. Before eating the two pieces two blessings are recited ץראה
“Blessed art thou … who bringest forth bread from the earth,” and רשא … ךורב הצמ תליכא
“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by Thy commandments and hast commanded us to eat הצמ.”85 [386]
8. רורמ “Bitter herb.” Bitter herbs dipped in charoseth are eaten, after the following blessing has been recited תליכא
רורמ “Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to eat bitter herbs.”
9. ךרוכ “Combining;” scil., unleavened bread and bitter herbs; these are eaten together, just as formerly, in the time of the Temple, Hillel used to eat together meat of the Passover-offering, unleavened bread, and bitter herbs (Exod. xii. 8; Num. ix. 11).
10. ךרוע ןחלש “Table laid.” The evening meal is taken.
11. ןופצ “Laid aside.” The meal is concluded with a piece of the half matsah that has been laid aside at the beginning of the Service. It is called afikuman, “dessert.”86 [387]
12. ךרב “Say grace.”87
13. ללה “Hallel.”—The rest of Hallel is sung, followed by Ps. cxxxvi., and the whole of תמשנ with the concluding blessing.—The fourth cup of wine is then taken, and the usual prayer after the partaking of wine is recited.
14. הצרנ “Completed.”88—The Seder-Service is [388]completed; it concludes with a prayer for the rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of Israel to Zion. The prayer seems to have been originally the conclusion of a Piyyut or liturgical poem on the Passover Sacrifice.
The Haggadah contains, besides, several hymns and songs, of which the following are found in the ordinary editions of the work:—
1. הלילה יצחב יהיו “And it was in the middle of the night.” The author reflects on the various marvellous events in our history that happened in the night-time.
2. חספ חבז םתרמאו “And ye shall say, It is a sacrifice of Passover.” A song referring to wonderful events which, according to Tradition, took place on Passover.
3. האנ ול יכ “To him praise is seemly.” A praise of God as the only Being worthy to be called King and Ruler.
4. אוה רידא “He is mighty.” A praise of God, and an expression of hope that He will soon rebuild the Temple.
5. עדוי ימ דחא “One, who knows?” A popular song enumerating persons and objects in Jewish History and Tradition, as well as in Nature according to numbers up to thirteen, with the object of emphasising the Unity of God.
6. אידג דח “One kid.” A popular song that illustrates the working of Divine Justice in the history of mankind.
Passover as an agricultural feast was kept “in the season of the month of ripeness” (ביבאה שדח דעומל), [389]when the barley sown in the winter had become ripe. On the second day of Passover an offering was brought of “the beginning of the harvest;” it consisted of an omer89 of barley (Lev. xxiii. 9 sqq.). Before this offering was presented it was not allowed to eat of the new corn (ibid. 14).
From the bringing of the Omer to “the harvest feast” the days are counted, viz., forty-nine days, and the fiftieth day is the feast of harvest (ריצקה גח), or “the day of the first-fruit offering” (םירוכבה םוי).
The counting commences on the second evening. It is done either immediately after Maarib, or later on during the Seder-Service; it is preceded by the following blessing: תריפס לע … ונשדק רשא … ךורב רמועה “Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us … to count the days of the Omer.” The following is the way of counting: רמועל … םוי םויה “This day is the first day since the Omer.” From seven upward the number of weeks is likewise expressed,90 רמועל … תועובש … םהש … םוי םויה “This day completes … that is … weeks … since the offering of the Omer.”
The celebration of Passover serves to inculcate into our hearts the first principle of our faith: the existence of God, the Supreme Being who rules the whole universe, in whose hand are the destinies of kings and peoples, whose power was recognised by the Egyptians when they were punished for their misdeeds, [390]and whose might was seen by the Israelites when He divided the Red Sea for them, and fulfilled the Divine promise made to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
The season of Passover, in which we celebrate our liberation from earthly taskmasters, is called ונתורח ןמז “The season of our freedom.” The deliverance from Egypt, the first step leading to the fulfilment of the promise, “And I will take you unto me for a people,” has been poetically conceived as the betrothal of Israel to God, and in the Piyyut for Passover ample use has been made of this idea. It has further found expression in the custom of reading the Song of Solomon on the first Sabbath after the first two days of Passover, and by some also on the Seder-evening after the conclusion of the ordinary Service.
The Service is, in general outline, the same as on Sabbath. It consists of Maarib, Shacharith, Musaph, and Minchah. The MorningService includes Hallel, the reading of the Law, and Lessons from the Prophets (הרותה תאירק and הרטפה). The following sections, containing description of, or reference to, Passover or to the departure from Egypt, are read consecutively on the eight days: Exod. xii. 21–51, on the Passover celebrated by the Israelites in Egypt; Lev. xxii. 26 to xxiii. 44, on “the seasons of the Lord;” Exod. xiii., xxii. 24 to xxiii. 19, and xxxiv. 1–26: Num. ix. 1–14, on the second Passover; Exod. xiii. 17–xv. 26, the crossing of the Red Sea; Deut. xv. 19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17 contains laws referring to the three Festivals. On Sabbath chol-ha-moëd, Exod. xxxiii. 12 to xxxiv. 26.—In addition to these sections [391]verses from Num.
xxviii.–xxix., referring to the sacrifices prescribed for each day of the Festival, are read from a second sefer.
The Lessons from the Prophets are the following:—Josh. v. (preceded in the German Ritual by iii. 5–7), on the first Passover kept by the Israelites in Palestine; 2 Kings xxiii. 1–9 and 21–25, on the Passover celebrated in the days of King Josiah; 2 Sam. xxii., the song of David after deliverance from his enemies, a parallel to the Song of Moses; Isa. x. 32—xii., on the defeat of Sennacherib, and the blessings of the Messianic days. According to Tradition the defeat of Sennacherib took place on Passover; moreover, the celebration of the deliverance from Egypt suggests the reflection on the final Redemption of Israel. The Lesson from the Prophets chosen for Sabbath chol-ha-moëd is taken from Ez. xxxvi. 1–14. The prophet sees in a vision how the dry bones of the dead are awakened to fresh life by the Will and the Spirit of the Lord: a precious lesson for us, designed to strengthen our hope of a revival of every good and noble idea, though for the present it be dormant within us. Nature around us awakening to fresh life in the spring supplies a parallel to the vision of Hezekiel.
The Machzor (lit. Cycle) or Prayer-book for the Holy-days contains numerous additions to the ordinary prayers. They are called Piyyutim, and vary according to the custom and the taste of the congregation. The Piyyut added in the second paragraph of the Musaph-amidah on the first day of Passover is called tal, “dew,” or prayer for dew; the rain season having come to an end, we [392]pray that the vegetation may, during the hot season, be refreshed by the regular descent of the dew. The praise for “sending down rain” in the same paragraph, viz., םשגה
“Thou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall,” is discontinued after the shacharith prayer of the first day of Passover. In the Portuguese Ritual the
words לטה דירומ, “Thou causest the dew to fall,” are introduced instead.
Similarly, there is an additional prayer for rain (םשג) in the Musaf of Shemini-atsereth. The time chosen for these prayers is in accordance with the meteorological conditions of Palestine. This custom, however, does not exclude the addition of prayers for rain or dew, according to the needs of the country in which we live.
The Days of the Counting of the Omer
, הריפסה
The period from Passover to the Feast of Weeks is full of sad memories of massacres of Jews that took place in the days of the Crusades; also of the miseries that befell the Jews in Palestine in the days of the Emperor Hadrian. During the month of Iyar, the Jews abstain from rejoicings and weddings,91 with the exception of the 18th of the month, which is the 33rd of the Omer, because, according to Tradition, a plague that had raged among the disciples of Rabbi Akiba ceased on that day. The 18th of Iyar, רמועב ג״ל is therefore called “the scholars’ festival.” [393]
The Feast of Weeks
, תועובש
The Feast of Weeks is celebrated on the fiftieth day92 of the Omer (Lev. xxiii. 16); i.e., the 6th of Sivan. It is, in the first place, “the feast of harvest,” ריצקה גח (Exod. xxiii. 16), especially of the wheat, and “the day of the first-fruit offering,” םירוכבה םוי (Num. xxviii. 26). The first sacrifice of the new corn was offered: “the bread of the first-fruit,” which was to serve as an expression of gratitude for the blessing of the harvest. In the absence of sacrifices in our days, the custom widely prevails of adorning the Synagogue and the home with plants and flowers, in order that the sight of these beautiful objects might
awaken and strengthen feelings of gratitude toward the Almighty for His loving-kindness. Each one of the plants and flowers reveals a special form of the Creator’s wisdom, power, and goodness.—The feast is called Feast of Weeks, תועבשה גח (Deut. xvi. 10), on account of the completion of the seven weeks counted from the day of the Omer
The Feast of Weeks, the 6th and the 7th of Sivan, commemorates also an historical event: the Law-giving on Mount Sinai. It is therefore called “the season of the giving of our Law,” ונתרות ןתמ ןמז.
As Passover has been poetically called the day of Israel’s betrothal to God, the Feast of Weeks would [394]correspond to the weddingday, and the counting of the Omer does thus not only connect two harvest-feasts, but represents the longing of the bride for the day of her complete happiness; i.e., the longing of the Israelites for the Divine Revelation, which was to complete the work of their deliverance from Egypt.
The celebration of the Feast of Weeks thus involves the second principle of our faith: םימשה ןמ הרות “The belief in the Divine origin of the Law,” or “Divine Revelation.”
On the first day we read Exod. xix.–xx., the account of the Lawgiving on Mount Sinai, and Ez. i., the first vision of the prophet Ezekiel, in which the glory of God is revealed to him. On the second day Deut. xv. 19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17; and Hab. iii., “the prayer of Habakkuk,” in reference to God’s Revelation as the Ruler of the universe.—There is also the custom to read the Book of Ruth, which contains the account of Ruth’s embracing the true faith, and a description of the harvest and the treatment of the poor in the harvest-season.
There is a custom among some of our brethren to employ the first night of the Feast in preparing themselves for the coming celebration of the giving of the Law. The greater part of the night is spent in reading passages from the Scriptures and from the Talmudical books.93 The custom has its basis in the preparation commanded by God to be made during “the three days of bordering” (ימי תשלש הלבגה) which preceded the Law-giving (Exod. xix. 10–12). [395]
The Feast of Tabernacles, תוכס
“The fifteenth day of this seventh month (Tishri) shall be the Feast of Tabernacles (תוכס) for seven days unto the Lord” (Lev. xxiii. 34). The name has its explanation in the commandment, “Ye shall dwell in booths seven days” (ibid. 42); “that your generations may know that I made the children of Israel to dwell in booths, when I brought them out of the land of Egypt” (ver. 43). We are thus commanded to commemorate the travelling of the Israelites through the wilderness. They dwelt in tents, that gave them shelter to some extent; but without the Divine protection this shelter would have proved insufficient. Of this twofold shelter and protection we are reminded by the tabernacle in which the Law commands us to dwell during the Festival.
In fulfilment of this commandment we make booths (תוכס). The chief difference between a booth and an ordinary house consists in the mode and in the material employed for roofing the two structures. For the succah must not be covered with fixed boards and beams or with canvas, but with detached branches of trees, plants, flowers, and leaves, in such a manner that the covering is not quite impenetrable to wind and rain, or starlight. During the Festival the succah is our dwelling-house, in which we take our meals, study,
receive our friends, and, if possible, enjoy rest and sleep. If, on account of the severity of the climate, the constant dwelling in the succah threatens to prove injurious to our health, we content ourselves with taking our meals in the succah. Before each meal [396]we recite the blessing הכוסב בשיל
“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to dwell in the booth.” The first time we are in the succah we add the blessing, וניחהש (p. 358).
The Festival is, secondly, called “the Feast of Ingathering,” ףיסאה גח. The produce of the fields and gardens have been gathered in, and the people rejoice before the Lord in gratitude for the blessings which He has granted to them. “And ye shall take unto you on the first day the fruit of the goodly tree, branches of palm-trees, and boughs of thick-leaved trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days” (Lev. xxiii. 40). In accordance with the traditional interpretation of this verse, we take four kinds of plants (ןינימ העברא), viz., גורתא “the citron;” בלול, “a branch of the palm-tree;” םיסדה, three “myrtle branches;” and תוברע, two “branches of the willow.” According to a Midrashic interpretation, they represent four different types of plants, that which has a pleasant fragrance and a beautiful form (esrog); the beautiful in form, but without fragrance (lulabh); that which smells pleasantly, but is inferior in form (hadassim); and that which has neither a goodly form nor an agreeable fragrance (arabhoth), as if to say that we are thankful to God for all that He has given us, although to our mind some of these seem imperfect in comparison with others.
In obedience to this commandment we take, every day of Succoth except Saturday,94 the above four kinds [397]into our hands, hold them during the recitation of the Hallel, and make with them a procession round the Synagogue,95 while singing the hymns called
hoshaanoth (so called on account of the repeated occurrence of the word hoshaanah in them).
Before taking the arbaah minim into our hands we say the following blessing: בלול תליטנ לע … ונשדק רשא … ךורב “Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to take the lulabh.”96 On the first day וניחהש is added.
Succoth lasts seven days, the last five days being half Holy-days, לוח דעומה. The seventh day is called Hoshaana-rabba, because on that day many prayers beginning with hoshaana are offered up, during the [398]chanting of which seven processions round the Synagogue are made.97
The Feast of Tabernacles is closely followed by “the feast of the eighth day,” תרצע ינימש,98 which, like all other Festivals, is kept two days. The second day is, in addition, called “Rejoicing of the Law,” הרות תחמש [399]because on this day the reading of the Pentateuch is completed and recommenced.
The nine days of the Festival are called ונתחמש ןמז “The season of our rejoicing,” and it is the third principle of our faith, the belief in Divine Providence, that this Festival impresses on our hearts. On the one hand, we have the rejoicing and the four species of plants as proofs and tokens of Divine blessing; and, on the other hand, the succah is a symbol of human frailties and imperfections. Thus, in all our rejoicings we should remember that our abode on earth is not permanent, and that all earthly happiness is like the plants that easily fade away. In order to impress this idea on our mind, we read the book of Koheleth on Sabbath chol-ha-moëd or on Shemini-atsereth.
The following portions are read from the Pentateuch: Lev. xxii. 26 to xxiii. 4499 (on the first two days); Exod. xxxiii. 12 to xxxiv. 26 (on Sabbath chol-ha-moëd); Deut. xiv. 22 to xvi. 7 (on the eighth day);
Deut. xxxiii. to end of Pentateuch; and Gen. i. 1 to ii. 3 (on Simchath Torah). In addition, the paragraph of the sacrifices of the day (Num. xxix. 12–39) is read [400]from a second sefer. The Lessons for cholha-moëd are taken from the same passage.
The Lessons from the Prophets are the following: Zech. xiv., prophecy on the future of Israel and on the punishment of those who would not come to Jerusalem to celebrate there the Succoth Festival; 1 Kings viii. 2–21, on the opening of the new Temple; on Sabbath chol-ha-moëd, Ez. xxxviii. 18 to xxxix. 16, on the war with Gog; 1 Kings viii. 22–66, prayer of Solomon on the eighth day of the services for the consecration of the Temple; Jos. i., accession of Joshua to the leadership of Israel.
[Contents]
Solemn Days
, םיארונ
By םיארונ םימי “solemn days,” we understand the first ten days of the month Tishri, especially their beginning and their end: הנשה שאר, “New-year,” and רופכ םוי “the Day of Atonement.”100
It is customary to prepare for the “solemn days” during the month of Elul, by additional prayers, called תוחילס “forgiveness,” after or before the Daily Service, and by blowing the shofar at the close of the [401]Daily Service.101 According to the Portuguese Ritual, the Selichoth begin on the 1st of Elul, and are continued [402]morning and evening till the Day of Atonement. The German Ritual has Selichoth only in the Morning Service; they begin on the Sunday before New-year, and if the Festival is on Monday or Tuesday, on the second Sunday before, and end on the Day of Atonement. The blowing of the shofar takes place in the German Synagogues during the month of Elul, in the Portuguese this custom is not practiced.
הנשה שאר New-year
The first and the second days of Tishri are kept as New-year.102 In accordance with the command, “The first of the first-fruits of thy land thou shalt bring unto the house of the Lord thy God” (Exod. xxxiv. 26), we devote the first ten days of the year as an offering to the Lord; they are days of increased devotion, earnest self-examination,
