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PENGUIN WORKSHOP
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.
ISBN 9781524786090 (paperback)
ISBN 9781524786113 (library binding)
ISBN 9781524786106 (ebook)
Version 1
Contents
Title Page
Dedication
Copyright What Is the Constitution? . . . .
A Limping Government Who’s Coming to Philadelphia?
Virginia Has a Plan
Small Versus Big
A Battle Between North and South Decisions, Decisions
“We the People”
The Bill of Rights
The Living Constitution
Photographs
Timelines
Bibliography
A Limping Government
In 1787, the United States of America had a name. And it had a flag. Yet many things were missing to make it a true nation.
There was no president. There was no central court system. Neither was there a US army or navy. There was no Senate or House of Representatives only a weak “Congress.” Congress could pass laws, but it could not enforce them. For instance, Congress could charge taxes to pay off war debts. But it had to rely on the goodwill of the states to pay up.
People’s loyalty to their state made it hard for them to think of themselves as Americans. During the Revolution, George Washington asked soldiers from New Jersey to swear loyalty to America. What an odd request! They said that New Jersey was their country.
Loyalty to one ’ s state was rooted in history. The thirteen colonies had been settled at different times by different groups of people. Each state developed its own way of life, often with its own religion and customs. Strict Puritans had settled New England. Peace-loving Quakers founded Pennsylvania. Although the main language of the colonies was English, tens of thousands spoke German in Pennsylvania. Shopkeepers and fishermen thrived in New England, whereas the South was mainly agricultural.
The Articles of Confederation held the states together well enough to fight the war. But afterward, each state was happy to go its own way again. Soldiers returned home. And each state got busy creating its own constitution and electing its own leaders.
But what about being a country? Some leaders (like George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton) wanted the United States to be a strong nation with a solid central government, one that would oversee all the states. These leaders were called nationalists.
But other leaders wanted power to remain with the states, just as it did with the Articles of Confederation. The Articles promised that the states would remain sovereign. That meant each state was still its own boss. What about the union? The Articles described the union loosely, as a “league of friendship.”
How well did this government work? Not too well. By 1787, America’s troubles could fill a long list.
Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804)
Nobody fought harder for the Constitutional Convention than Alexander Hamilton. Born on an island in the British West Indies, Alexander arrived in America as a teenager. Without strong roots in any state, Hamilton developed a grand vision for the nation as a whole.
Brilliant and fiery, Hamilton had played an important role in the American Revolution as an aide to George Washington. Hamilton attended the Constitutional Convention as a delegate from New York. Afterward, he served on President George Washington’s first cabinet as Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton’s life was cut short in 1804 when Aaron Burr, the vice president, shot him in a duel.
Some states charged fees on goods bought in other states, as if they were foreign countries. Lands west of the original thirteen colonies were being settled, and disagreements broke out over which states controlled them.
Continental money was all but worthless. So, seven states printed their own paper money but it was no good outside of their boundaries.
George Washington, back home in Virginia, grew alarmed at what was happening to his country. Congress is “ a half-starved, limping government,” he complained, “always moving on crutches and tottering at every step.”
Also, in 1786 a crisis broke out in western Massachusetts. Many poor farmers were losing their land because they couldn’t pay their state’s high taxes.
Under Daniel Shays, a former Revolutionary War captain, a mob of two thousand farmers decided to rebel. They marched to Springfield armed with axes, pitchforks, and old muskets.
The weak Congress couldn’t put together an armed force. So, Massachusetts sent in its own troops and stopped the rebellion. In the end, four men lay dead.
Shays’s Rebellion shook the nation. Americans were killing Americans! “I am mortified beyond expression,” said George Washington. (Mortified means very, very embarrassed.)
Alexander Hamilton had this to say: “There is only one remedy— to call a convention of all the states, and the sooner the better.” If the government wasn’t made stronger, it could fall apart.
Even Congress agreed that the Articles of Confederation needed changes. So it asked the states to elect delegates to attend a special meeting in Philadelphia, in May of 1787. Newspapers called it the “Grand Convention.” No one called it a Constitutional Convention, of course, because who knew that a whole new Constitution was about to be written?
CHAPTER 2
Who’s Coming to Philadelphia?
In the spring of 1787, fifty-five delegates from twelve states got ready to travel to the Grand Convention in Philadelphia. Philadelphia prepared a big welcome. It laid out the red carpet or rather, gravel in front of the State House where the Convention would be held. The gravel was supposed to deaden the clack of noisy carriage wheels over cobblestone streets so that the delegates wouldn’t be disturbed.
Philadelphia: A Historic City
In 1787, Philadelphia ranked as the nation’s biggest city by far. The Declaration of Independence had been signed there at the State House—the very same spot where the Convention was being held. Small shops lined the downtown. Ships from around the world came and went from its busy Delaware River port. The city had streetlamps, thanks to its famous citizen Benjamin Franklin. Franklin also started America’s first public library in Philadelphia.
State House
May 14 was the date the Convention was supposed to start. But hardly any of the fifty-five delegates made it there on time. The spring of 1787 was one of the wettest ever. Everywhere, stagecoaches and carriages got stuck in the muddy dirt roads.
Back then, even in good weather, travel was hard, slow, and bumpy. Vast areas of the country had no roads. Many rivers had no bridges. The trip from Georgia to Philadelphia took at least two to three weeks.
New Hampshire’s delegates didn’t arrive until July. But the weather was not entirely to blame. The state had a lot of trouble scraping up the money to send delegates!
One man, however, slipped quietly into town eleven days early. He was James Madison of Virginia. Madison was quiet, shy, and bookish. Today, he might be described as a “nerd.” He stood just five feet three inches and weighed barely a hundred pounds. Someone once described him as “ no bigger than a half piece of soap. ” Yet his giant intellect impressed all who knew him.
Lately, Madison had been poring over books about governments, both modern and ancient ones, in which the citizens governed themselves. Why did some governments fail and others succeed? Madison collected the best ideas, and then wrote out his own bold plan for government. It was tucked inside his bag. That plan would end up becoming the blueprint for the United States! James Madison would play such an important role at the Convention that he became known as the “Father of the Constitution.”
George Washington (6' 2"), James Madison (5' 3")
James Madison (1751–1836)
Like George Washington, James Madison grew up on a large plantation in Virginia. Poor health kept the young Madison from hunting and horseback riding. Instead, he spent hours in his father’s library. By twelve, Madison could read French, Latin, and Greek.
With Thomas Jefferson as his mentor, Madison threw himself into politics. Under President Thomas Jefferson, he served two terms as Secretary of State. In 1809, Madison himself became the fourth president of the United States.
A day before the Convention, the great George Washington arrived! A military guard, dressed in spiffy uniforms and shiny black boots, welcomed him to town with cannon fire and gunfire. Cheering crowds lined the streets.
Since the end of the war, Washington had lived happily at his plantation in Virginia. However, a strong sense of duty now called Washington back to public life. He feared that all the bloodshed of the war would have been for nothing if the government didn’t become stronger. Washington’s presence at the Convention was allimportant. His steady leadership made other delegates willing to listen to differing opinions.
By May 25, men from seven states were present enough to get started. The men gathering in the State House met six days a week, from ten o ’clock to three or four o ’clock.
Who were they? They were all white men, most of whom were well-off and highly educated. Many were young, in their twenties or thirties. Yet every single one already had lots of experience in government. Several had signed the Declaration of Independence. Three-fourths had served in the old Congress. Many were battlefield heroes of the Revolution. They were a fashionable group, too, wearing breeches, silk stockings, and powdered white wigs.
Mount Vernon
Two important leaders were missing: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. They were an ocean away, representing America’s interests in France and England.
The oldest delegate by far was Benjamin Franklin, who lived right in Philadelphia. At eighty-one, Dr. Franklin still had a quick mind, but his body ached from gout. Bumpy carriage rides were too hard on him. So, he was brought into the Convention on a French sedan chair. Four prisoners, released from jail for the day, carried him in.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
Everyone called Benjamin Franklin “Doctor” because he had so many honorary degrees from universities. And yet, he had left school at age ten. In
time, Benjamin Franklin became one of the great men of his age—an inventor, publisher, scientist, writer, and statesman. The first to discover that lightning was electricity, Ben Franklin “tamed the lightning” by inventing the lightning rod. He also invented bifocal glasses.
After the war, Franklin negotiated the United States’ peace treaty with England.
Like George Washington, Ben Franklin brought a sense of calm and dignity to the Convention. In the coming months, as tempers rose, everyone would need that.
CHAPTER 3
Virginia Has a Plan
For the next four months, delegates walked or rode each morning to the State House. Before going inside, they were stopped by prisoners begging at the jail just behind it. The prisoners would push their caps out the windows on long “begging poles” and insult any man who didn’t drop in coins.
The scene inside the grand, two-story brick building was more serene. The delegates met in the East Room. It was forty feet square with a looming ceiling twenty feet high. Tall windows and two marble fireplaces graced the sides. Scattered about the room were tables covered in smooth green felt.
James Madison always seated himself at the front of the room the prime spot to hear everything that was said. He’d decided to write down everything discussed in the debates. For the rest of the Convention, he furiously scribbled notes, dipping his quill pen in and out of ink all day long. At night in his room at an inn, he carefully rewrote them. His important record of events became a treasure to historians. It’s a special inside look into the framers’ minds and what happened day by day.
The Convention’s first order of business was to elect a chairman. Every single delegate voted for George Washington. Washington stepped to the front of the room and took his seat on a low platform facing everybody else. For the rest of the Convention, he would say little. His job was to keep the meetings on course.
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PLATE CCLXXXIII.
POGONIA GLABRA.
Smooth-leaved Pogonia.
CLASS V. ORDER I.
PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Two Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
C monopetala; tubus ad faucem pilosus. Stamina supra medium corollæ inserta. Stigma concavum, declinatum. Nux quadrilocularis.
B one petal; tube hairy at the mouth. Chives inserted into the middle of the blossom. Summit concave, declined. Nut four-celled.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Pogonia foliis eliptico-lanceolatis, glabris; floribus pendulis, minutis, albis.
Pogonia with leaves eliptically lance-shaped, smooth; flowers hanging down, small and white.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement, magnified.
2. A Blossom cut open, with the Chives in their place.
3. A Chive, magnified.
4. The Pointal and Seed-bud, natural size.
5. The same magnified.
T plant from New Holland, is rather more delicate than most of those we possess from that country; as it is apt to lose its leaves if exposed either to damps, or much cold. It was first raised in the year 1790, by the late Mr. Robertson, of Stockwell; is easily propagated by cuttings, and flowers in
January, or February. The other species figured in this work, Plate 212, and our present plant, are the only two yet known of this genus. They require a very light sandy loam, or peat soil, to make them flourish. The P. glabra does not grow more than three feet high and flowers the first year from cuttings. Our figure was taken at the Hammersmith Nursery.
PLATE CCLXXXIV.
CHIOCOCCA RACEMOSA.
Opposite-leaved Snowberry-tree.
CLASS V. ORDER I.
PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Five Chives. One Pointal.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
C . Perianthium quinquedentatum, superum, persistens.
C monopetala, infundibuliformis; tubus longus, patens; limbus quinquepartitus; laciniis æqualibus, acutis, reflexis.
S . Filamenta quinque, filiformia, longitudine corollæ. Antheræ oblongæ, erectæ.
P . Germen inferum, subrotundum, compressum. Stylus filiformis, longitudine staminum. Stigma simplex, obtusum.
P . Bacca subrotunda, compressa, coronata calyce, bilocularis.
S duo, subrotunda, compressa, distantia.
E . Cup five-toothed, above and remaining.
B one petal, funnel-shaped; tube long, spreading; border five divided; segments equal, pointed and reflexed.
C . Five threads, hair-like, the length of the blossom. Tips oblong, upright.
P . Seed-bud beneath, roundish, flattened. Shaft thread-shaped, the length of the chives. Summit simple, blunt.
S - . A roundish berry, flattened, crowned with the permanent cup, two-celled.
S two, roundish, flattened, and at a distance from each other.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Chiococca foliis oppositis, ovatis, acuminatis; ramis horizontalibus; floribus racemosis, pendulis.
Snowberry-tree with opposite leaves, egg-shaped, tapered; branches grow horizontal; flowers grow in bunches hanging down.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE
1. The Empalement, natural size.
2. The same, magnified.
3. A Flower.
4. The Chives and Pointal, natural size.
5. The same magnified.
T Snowberry-tree is a native of Jamaica, and some of the other West India islands; requiring the temperature of the hothouse to preserve it; growing to the height of four or five feet; but the stem being too weak to support itself, must be assisted. It is propagated by cuttings, and delights in a rich soil. We are informed in Miller’s Dictionary, treating of this plant, that it was introduced to us, in the year 1729, by Mr. Warner, of London; and that it was cultivated, in the garden of Mr. Sherard, at Eltham, about that time. The root of this plant is used medicinally, and has a very bitter, acrid taste. It is a very free blowing plant, flowering the first year from the cuttings; but never produces its fine white berries in this country, which constitute its greatest beauty, and whence its generic title. Our figure was made from a plant in the Hammersmith Collection. Flowers in September.
PLATE CCLXXXV.
FERRARIA VIRIDIFLORA.
Green-flowered Ferraria.
CLASS XVI. ORDER I.
MONADELPHIA TRIANDRIA. Threads united. Three Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
M . Spathæ unifloræ.
P sex, undulato-crispata. Stigmata cucullata. Capsula 3-locularis, infera.
O P . Sheaths one-flowered.
P six, waved and crisped. Summits cowled. Capsule three-celled beneath.
See F , Pl. CLXXVIII. Vol. III.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Ferraria foliis distichis, vaginantibus, costatis; petalis lanceolatis æqualibus, interioribus immaculatis, angustioribus, virescentibus.
Ferraria with leaves pointing opposite ways sheathing the stem and ribbed; petals lance-shaped, equal, the inner ones without spots, narrower and greenish.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Seed-bud, Chives and Pointal.
2. One of the Chives, a little magnified, as seen from the inside.
3. The same seen from the outside.
4. The Seed-bud, Shaft and Summits, the Chives removed.
5. One of the Summits magnified.
Our figure represents the Moræa Ferrariola of Jacquin’s Collectanea 4. p. 141; but, as we conceive Ferraria a good, and distinct genus, we have not followed either him, or Thunberg, who has likewise thrown these plants to Moræa. At first sight we did not think this plant possessed of sufficient distinctive character to be treated as a different species from the F. undulata; but upon closer inspection found it to vary nearly in every part; in the shape of the flower, the leaves and the root. The singular character of this, and the other Cape Ferrarias, of making but one growth in two, and sometimes three years; is hardly to be traced in any other plants, but constantly so in these. They produce their flowers about July, the season of their flowering; the flowers are as transitory as those of the F. pavonia; that is to say, the duration of about six hours. Our figure was taken from a plant in the Hibbertian Collection, which flowered in the month of July 1802. The Ferrarias all propagate by the root; and should be planted in sandy peat mixed with a small portion of loam.
PLATE CCLXXXVI.
HIBISCUS PATERSONIUS.
Norfolk Island Hibiscus.
CLASS XVI. ORDER VI.
MONADELPHIA POLYANDRIA. Threads united. Many Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
C duplex; exterior polyphyllus. Stigmata 5. Capsula 5-locularis, polysperma.
E double; outer one many-leaved. Five Summits. Capsule five-celled, many-seeded.
See H , Pl. CCXXVIII. Vol. IV.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER
Hibiscus foliis acuminato-lanceolatis, coriaceis, supra punctatis, subtus tomentosis: floribus axillaribus; calycibus monophyllis, quinquedentatis.
Hibiscus with tapering lance-shaped leaves, leathery, dotted above and downy underneath; flowers grow from the insertion of the leaves; cups oneleaved, five-toothed.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE
1. The Cup with its foot-stalk.
2. The columnar part of the Chives cut open, the pointal taken away.
3. The Pointal.
4. A skinny membrane, which surrounds the seed-bud at the base.
5. A ripe capsule, with the enlarged cup attached.
6. The same, cut through the middle horizontally.
7. A ripe seed.
T Norfolk Island Hibiscus is a tender greenhouse plant; was introduced to Britain, in the year 1792, having been raised from seeds communicated by Col. Paterson, then stationed on that Island. It attains the height of 13 feet, or more, becoming a small tree; may be increased readily from cuttings, and should be planted in a mixture of loam and sandy peat. Our figure is from a specimen received from the Right Hon. Lord Viscount Courtenay, in whose collection at Powderham, near Exeter, it flowered for the first time in the year 1800; and where also the seeds ripened.
We have no doubt but this plant belongs to the Genus Lagunæa, of Schreber; but as he proposes himself, and as L’Heritier as justly observes, the simplicity of the cup is not a sufficient ground, on which to found a new genus; so we have rather given our present subject, the name under which it is in general known, than adopt a title for it which is acknowledged by the author, as rather unwarrantable.
PLATE CCLXXXVII.
STYPHELIA PARVIFLORA.
Small-flowered Styphelia.
CLASS V. ORDER I.
PENTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Five Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
C imbricatus. Corolla tubulosa.
S fauci inserta. Drupa quinquelocularis. Semina bina.
E tiled. Blossom tubular.
C inserted into the mouth of the blossom. A five celled berry. Seeds by twos.
See S , Pl. LXXII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER
Styphelia foliis lanceolatis, oppositis; floribus capitatis terminalibus; corollis minutis, albis.
Styphelia with lance-shaped, opposite leaves; flowers terminate the branches in heads; blossom small and white.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement magnified.
2. A Flower, natural size.
3. The same, magnified.
4. A Blossom, cut open, with the Chives attached.
5. The Pointal, natural size.
6. The same, magnified.
T Styphelia, as are all the known species of the genus, is a native of New Holland, and was amongst the first plants which were raised from seeds from that country. It is a hardy greenhouse plant; grows very bushy, handsome in its foliage, and seldom exceeds two feet in height. It is propagated by cuttings, made from the tender shoots, about the month of April; and treated as directed for other plants natives of the same clime. Should be planted in sandy peat earth.
Our figure was taken from a specimen communicated by Mr. Cuff, from his select collection at Teddington, Middlesex; where it flowered, we believe, for the first time in England, last year, in the month of August, 1802.
PLATE CCLXXXVIII.
PROTEA CYNAROIDES.
Artichoke-like-flowered Protea.
CLASS IV. ORDER I.
TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Four Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
C quadrifida seu quadripetala. Antheræ lineares, insertæ petalis infra apicem. Calyx proprius nullus.
S solitaria.
B four-cleft or four petals. Tips linear, inserted into the petals below the point. Empalement proper none.
S solitary.
See P , Pl. XVII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Protea foliis suborbiculatis, glaberrimis; petiolis longissimis; squamulis calycinis lanceolatis, apice carinatis.
Protea with nearly orbicular leaves, and very smooth; footstalks very long; scales of the cup lance-shaped, keeled at the point.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE
1. A Floret spread open, with the Chives in their places.
2. The Pointal and Seed-bud.
T the Right Hon. the Earl of Coventry we are indebted for the figure of this superb plant; it having flowered in his Lordship’s rich, and extensive collection at Croome, Worcestershire, this present February, 1803, for the
first time, in England; his Lordship did us the favour to order the flower to be cut, and sent to London; where it arrived, without the least injury, and continued in perfection many days.
The magnificence of this species of Protea, can be but poorly expressed within the limited bounds of our publication; we have, nevertheless, endeavoured to do it all the justice within our grasp. A considerable part of the lustre of the flower is lost, from the small portion of the leaves which could be introduced; as the contrasted beauty of the fine broad shining leaves, which form, as it were, a nidus, or ground wood for the blossom, contribute, so much, to heighten the beauty of the whole.
The Protea cynaroides is a hardy greenhouse plant, was introduced to Britain, in 1792, by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith, from the Cape of Good Hope. May be increased by cuttings, taken off the lower part of the plant; where they shoot out in clusters to the length of an inch or more, and must be treated as has already been directed for Proteas in general. The plant, even at the Cape, seldom grows higher than 18 inches, or two feet.
INDEX
TO
THE PLANTS CONTAINED IN VOL. III.
Plate 145 Hillia longiflora Long-flowered Hillia H. H. Shrub. February.
146 Psoralea aculeata Prickly Psoralea G. H. Shrub. August.
147 Gladiolus cuspidatus Spear-spotted Gladiolus
148 Lachenalia quadricolor Four-coloured Lachenalia
149 Struthiola ciliata Fringed-leaved Struthiola
G. H. Bulb. May.
G. H. Bulb. December.
G. H. Shrub. August.
150 Geranium præmorsum Bitten-leaved Geranium H. H. Shrub. March.
151 Pittosporum coriaceum
Thick-leaved Pittosporum
152 Geranium spathulatum Spathula-leaved Geranium
G. H. Shrub. May.
G. H. Shrub. April.
153 Viola pedata Bird’s-foot-leaved Violet Har. Herb. May.
154 Echium argenteum Silvery-leaved Viper’s Bugloss
G. H. Shrub. July.
155 Ixia polystachia Many-spiked Ixia G. H. Bulb. May.
156 Banksia ericæfolia Heath-leaved Banksia G. H. Shrub. March.
157 Cordia Sebestena Rough-leaved Cordia H. H. Shrub. April.
158 Geranium echinatum Prickly-stalked Geranium
159 Ixia capitata, Var. flo. albo, fundo nigro Bunch-flowering Ixia. Var. white fl. black bottom
H. H. Shrub. March.
G. H. Bulb. May.
160 Aristea major Spike-flowered Aristea G. H. Herb. July.
