WARRIORSOF ANATOLIA
AConcise Historyofthe HITTITES
Trevor Bryce
Publishedin2019by
London z NewYork www.ibtauris.com
Copyright q 2019TrevorBryce
TherightofTrevorBrycetobeidentifiedastheauthorofthiswork hasbeenassertedbytheauthorinaccordancewiththeCopyright, DesignsandPatentsAct1988. Allrightsreserved.Exceptforbriefquotationsinareview,thisbook, oranypartthereof,maynotbereproduced,storedinorintroduced intoaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans, electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise, withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
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ISBN:9781788312370
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Iwould like to dedicate this book to my wife Nan, in recognition of her unfailing support and patience for this and the many other projects in which Ihave engaged throughout my academic career.
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
maps and figures MAPS
MapI.1 Anatolia,satellitephotobyJeffSchmaltz, MODISRapidResponseTeam,NASA/GSFC. 4
Map6.1 TheHittiteworld. 47
Map6.2 LateBronzeAgeGreeceandwesternAnatolia.52
Map21.1 Hattusa. 208
FIGURES
(All figures/photographs arebytheauthorunlessotherwise acknowledged.)
FigureI.1 ModernHittitehospitality. 1
FigureI.2 Thediskmonument,courtesyUmutÇomak. 2
FigureI.3 Thestagcontainer. 2
Figure1.1 Yazılıkayatoday. 8
Figure1.2 Thekeysentence. 14
Figure2.1 Scribesatwork,from TheHittites (film documentary),courtesyTolgaÖrnek,EkipFilm. 19
Figure6.1 ClassicalMiletos,LionHarbour. 51
Figure7.1 Aleppocitadel,courtesyJonathanTubb. 59
Figure10.1 SuppiluliumaI,from TheHittites,courtesy TolgaÖrnek,EkipFilm. 82
Figure11.1 Hittitedouble-headedeagle,symbolof imperialpower,AlacaHöyük. 93
Figure11.2 SuppiluliumaIIaswarrior,Hattusa. 97
Figure11.3 TudhaliyaIV,Yazılıkaya. 105
Figure12.1 SealofMursiliII. 108
Figure16.1 AHittitewedding?Fromvase (c.1600)found atBitiknearAnkara,drawnbyPaulC.Butler(usedwith kindpermission),fromS.L.BudinandJ.M.Turfa, Women inAntiquity,2016,LondonandNewYorkRoutledge.146
Figure17.1 RamessesII,AbuSimbel. 164
Figure18.1 HittiteWarriors(localsusedinEkipFilm’ s production, TheHittites). 168
Figure18.2 Warrior-God,withdetailofuppertorso, ‘King’sGate’,Hattusa. 171
Figure18.3 Three-manHittitechariot,Luxor. 173
Figure19.1 Puduhepa,from TheHittites,courtesy TolgaÖrnek,EkipFilm. 185
Figure21.1 Yerkapı,Hattusa. 203
Figure21.2 Tirynsgallery. 203
Figure21.3 PosternGate,Hattusa. 204
Figure21.4 Sphinx,AlacaHöyük. 206
Figure21.5 Acropolis,Hattusa. 209
Figure21.6 TempleoftheStormGod,Hattusa. 209
Figure21.7 LionGate,Hattusa. 210
Figure21.8 UpperCitytemples,Hattusa. 211
Figure21.9 Yenicekale,Hattusa. 213
Figure21.10 Entrancetoacropolis,Hattusa.
Figure21.11 Büyükkayagranaries,Hattusa.
Figure21.12 Temple5,Hattusa.
Figure21.13 Reconstructedwall,Hattusa.
Figure21.14 Reconstructioninprogress.
Figure24.1 TeshubandHepatleadtheparadeof deities,Yazılıkaya.
Figure24.2 The12gods,Yazılıkaya.
Figure24.3 TudhaliyaandSharrumma,Yazılıkaya.245
Figure24.4 TheSwordGod,Yazılıkaya.
Figure25.1 Sherdenwarriors(aSeaPeoplesgroup),Luxor.260
Figure25.2 Ugarit.
Figure25.3 Agruesomesci-fi explanationofwhat endedtheHittiteworld.
acknowledgements
My thanks go firstly to I.B.Tauris editor Alex Wright for his invitation to write this book, his advice on what kind of book it should be, and for all his work in seeing the book through the initial stages of the publication process. My sincere thanks too to those other members of I.B.Tauris’seditorial staff who have seen the book through to completion.
Iamgrateful also to the School of Historical and Philosophical Inquiry, University of Queensland, for the valuable infrastructure support it has provided throughout the various stages of the book’ s preparation.
I’dlike to give specificacknowledgement here to the generosity of those persons who have contributed to the illustrations in this book. They are Paul Butler, Umut Çomak, Tolga Örnek, and Jonathan Tubb. Specificdetails of their contributions appear in the List of Maps and Figures.
Introduction
EverywhereyougoinAnkaratoday,you ’ll fi ndreminders oftheHittites.YoucanhailaHittiteTaxiServicecabto takeyoutoaneating-placecalledtheHittiterestaurant, ornegotiateapricewiththecabbietodriveyoutotheHittite capitalHattusa,some160kmtotheeast.Thereinthemodern villagecalledBoghazkale,youcanstayovernightinahostelry witha ‘ WELCOMETOHATTUSA’ signaboveit.Andonceback inAnkara,youcancheckintoahotelcalledtheLUGAL.That wordmeans ‘ King’ inHittiteinscriptions.Alongsideoneofthe thoroughfaresintoAnkara’ scentralbusinessdistrict,you’ llsee amonumentalimageofastag fl ankedbytwobulls,allthree
animalsframedinadisk-likearch.Themonumentisagiant replicaofanancientAnatoliansculpturerepresentingthe supposedlinksbetweentheHittitesandthepeopleoftheregion today(thoughtheoriginalsculptureisactuallypre-Hittite).Keep
FigureI.3 Thestagcontainer.
FigureI.2 Thediscmonument.
lookingaboutyouandyou’ ll findHittitesymbolsonawhole rangeofothermodern-worldstuff,frombiscuitstobuses.
Nodoubtyou’llwanttolearnmoreabouttheseBronzeAge forerunnersoftheTurks,andasastartingpointit’sworthchecking outthelocalbookstores.OnmyrecentvisittoAnkara,abookshopI exploredinasuburbanshopping-mallhadstacksofpublicationson theHittites,almostoutnumberingnearbycopiesofDanBrown,Clive Cusslerandotherairportbestsellers.ThefactthatIwasatthetime wearingaT-shirtwiththeword ‘Hititleri’ (Turkishfor ‘Hittites’) stencilledonthefrontandaprocessionof12armedHittitegodson thebackearnedmeadiscountonmypurchases.Andafterreturning tomyhotel,I finishedthelastofmypiecesofTurkishdelight,agift fromalocalhostpresentedinanexquisiteglasscontainer,itssurface embellishedwithanencirclingrowofgoldenHittitestags.
InaskingmetowriteabouttheHittites,I.B.TauriseditorAlex Wrightsaidhe’dlikeabookthatofferstostudentsandgeneralreaders morethanjustcoreinformationonHittitehistoryandcivilisation. Ofcourse,suchinformationisbasictoanunderstandingofthese ‘warriorsofAnatolia’.ButAlexwasalsolookingfor ‘somethingmore daring,lessformulaic’,for ‘freshperspectives,newinsights’,something tomakethebook’sreadersthink ‘innovelandexcitingandunexpected waysaboutthetopicsaddressed’.I’vekeptthisadviceinmindwhile writingthebook.Attimes,I’vegoneoutonabitofalimbwithwhat I’veproposed.AndtherearetimeswhenI’veaskedyou,thereader,to joinme.Scatteredthroughoutthebookareproblemsandquestions I’veinvitedyoutoconsider.Areyoupreparedtotakeupthe invitation?Afreshpairofeyesmayjustpossiblyseethingsthathave escapedthescrutinyofprofessionalscholars.
Anyhow,ifyou findmybookabitunconventionalandquirky, Imakenoapologies.Thathasbeenmyintention.Butletmestress thatI’vebeenprettycarefulaboutthis.Aboveall,mybookis intendedtoprovideareliableintroductiontoHittitehistoryand civilisation,onewhichtouchesonmanyfeaturesoftheHittite world,exploressomeoftheminmoredepthandproposesa numberofnewideasandapproachestolongstandingproblems –all,Ihope,withinthelimitsofhistoricalcredibility,ifnot provability(atleastatpresent).
Let’slookbrieflyatourtime-andspace-frames.Theperiod coveredbytheHittitecivilisationspanshalfamillennium,from theseventeenthtotheearlytwelfthcenturyBC.Inmodern archaeologicalterminology,Hittitehistorystartstowardstheend oftheMiddleBronzeAgeandlastsuntiltheendoftheLateBronze Age.ThechronologicaltableinAppendix2givesyoumoredetails. Unfortunately,wedon’thavekinglists(aswedoforseveralother ancientcivilisations)togiveuspreciselengthsofthereignsof Hittitekings.Sowecanonlyassignapproximatedatestotheir reigns,linkingthesedates,onthefewoccasionswherethisis possible,withthereignsofEgyptianandBabyloniankings.Butthat tooisnotwithoutitscomplications.Iwon’tgointowhattheseare, beyondsimplynotingthatthreechronologieshavebeenproposed forHittitehistory – aHigh,MiddleandaLowChronology.The MiddleChronologyistheoneI’veusedinthisbook.
Whatabouttheterm ‘Anatolia’,whichpopsupfrequentlyinthe followingpages?ThistermactuallyoriginatesfromaGreekword –anatole, ‘rising’.Itisusedtorefertotheregionwhere,fromaGreek perspective,the ‘rising(ofthesun)’ takesplace.Firstattestedinthe
tenthcentury AD , ‘ Anatolia ’ isstilloftenusedformodernTurkey, particularlythewesterntwo-thirdsofit(peninsularTurkey),and sometimesrefersmorespeci fi callytoTurkey ’ scentralhighlands. ‘ Anadolu ’ istheTurkishformofthename.OneofAnatolia ’ s mostdistinctivefeaturesisits highlandplateauwhichrises 1,000mabovesealevel.ThecoreterritoryofHatti,kingdomof theHittites,layinthenorth-centralpartoftheplateau.Wenow callittheHittitehomeland.Onthenorththeplateauisbounded bythePonticmountains,onthesouthbytheTaurusrangesand intheeastitmergesintotheArmenianmountains.Theseranges sharplydifferentiatetheplateaufromtherestoftheAnatolian region.Inthewest,theplateauslopesdownmoregentlytothe Aegeancoast.
Syriawillalso figureprominentlyinourstoryoftheHittites,for itprovidedthekeytointernationaldominanceintheLateBronze AgeNearEasternworld.Thiswasbecauseitspreadoverthe crossroadsofthisworld,betweenAnatoliatothenorthwest, Mesopotamiatotheeast,ArabiatothesouthandEgypttothe southwest.Manyinternationalroutesofcommunication,usedfor bothpeacefulandmilitarypurposes,passedthroughit.InaBronze Agecontext,weshallusetheterm ‘Syria’ torefertothelargeexpanse ofterritorylyingbetweentheEuphratesriverandtheeastern MediterraneanSea.(Ofcourse,themodernpoliticalstateSyria extendswellbeyondtheEuphrates.)InmanyperiodsofNear Easternhistory,fromtheBronzeAgetothepresentday,thegreat powersoftheagehavesoughtcontrolovertheregion,andoften foughtoneanothertoachieveit.Asyou’llsee,Syriawasveryclosely connectedwithboththeriseandthefalloftheHittitekingdom,and alsowiththegradualrediscoveryofthiskingdominthemodernera. Whereverpossible,weshouldallowtheHittitestospeakfor themselvesasweseektoreconstructtheworldinwhichtheylived. TheirmostimportanttextsarenowfairlyreadilyavailableinEnglish translations.I’veasteriskedtheseinthegeneralbibliographyaswell asintheEndnotes.
Oneofmymostchallengingtasksinwritingthisbookhasbeen topresentascomprehensiveanaccountaspossibleoftheHittites whilestickingtothepublisher’slimitof85,000words. ‘Concise’ in
thebook’ssub-titleistheoperativeword!Forreaderswishingto studytheHittitesingreaterdepth,I’vegivenreferencesinthe endnotestomoredetailedtreatmentsofanumberoftopicsdealt withonlybrieflyhere.
That’senoughbywayofintroduction.Iwishyouaninformative andenjoyableread.
Imagineyouhaveboardedatimemachinethattakesyou3,500 yearsintothepastanddepositsyouincentralTurkey,ina hugerockandmudbrickcitysurroundedbywallsstretching asfarasyoucansee.Everyonestarescuriouslyatyou. ‘Water!’ you say,asyoufeelyour firstblastofintensedrysummerheat.Youare immediatelyunderstood.Someonehurriesoffandreturnswitha bowlbrimmingwithliquid. ‘Watar,’ hesaysashehandsittoyou.
A STRANGEWORLDREVEALED
Let’smoveforwardtotheyear1834 AD ,tothe28thdayofthe monthofJulytobeprecise.Onthesiteofourtime-travelvisit,a FrenchmancalledCharlesTexiernowstands,staringuncomprehendinglyatthedesolateruinbeforehim.Forthatisallthecity nowis.AnancientCelticsettlementcalledTaviumissupposedto liethereabouts,andTexierhasbeensentbytheFrenchMinistryof Cultureto findit.ButTaviumdatestotheperiodofRomanrulein Turkey.Texierhasnoideawhatthecitywherehenowstandsis. Butherealisesthatitisverymucholderandverymuchlargerthan Taviumcouldhavebeen.Theimpressivebuildingsandimmense wallsofthecityattheheightofitsgloryhavenowcompletely disappeared.Butthewalls’ stonefoundationsandthoseofthe buildingswithinitstilltestifytothecity’sformergrandeur.Asdo severalofitsstill-survivingmonumentalgates.Oneinparticular
drawsTexier’sattention.Onitiscarvedahuman figureover2m tall.Wearingahelmetandshortkilt,andarmedwithaxeand sword,this figureobviouslydepictsawarrior.ButthatisallTexier cansay,forhehasneverseenanythingelselikeit.
Heisevenmoremystifiedwhenheisshownbysomelocalstoa largeoutcropofrockthatliesnearthegreatcity.Itiscalled Yazılıkaya – aTurkishwordmeaning ‘InscribedRock’.Here Texierseestwoprocessionsofcarved figures,dressedinstrange garbandapproachingeachother.Therearesymbols,wornbutstill visible,nexttosomeofthese figures,curiouspicture-likesymbols. Maybetheserepresentaformofwriting,theirpicture-like characterrecallingthehieroglyphicscriptofEgypt.Butthesigns arenothinglikeEgyptianhieroglyphs.Thereareotherstrange figurescarvedontherockwalls – ahuman-headedswordplunged intotheground,agroupof12identical figureswearingshortkilts, conicalhatsandfootgearwithupturnedtoes.Armedwithscimitarlikeswords,theyaredepictedinprofileandappeartoberunning –orwalkingveryfast.Therearetwoother figures,wearingskullcaps andcarryingstaffswithcurled-upends.Oneofthese figuresis
Figure1.1 Yazılıkayatoday.
accompaniedbyataller figurewearingaconicalhatwithhorns attached;hehashisarmaroundhiscompanioninwhatappearsto beaprotectivegesture.Againstrange ‘hieroglyphic’ symbolsare carvednexttothe figures.Texierisfascinatedbyhis finds,and sketchesmanyofthem.Buthehasnoideawhattheyare.
SOLVINGTHEMYSTERY
Itwouldbedecadesbeforethemysteryofthestrangecityandthe nearbycarvedrockoutcropwassolved.Howthiswasdoneisin itselfafascinatingstory,madeupofseveraldifferentstrands.Let’ s considerthesestrandsonebyone,andthewaysinwhichtheyhave beeninterwoventoproducethe finalsolution.
Strandno.1:WellknownfromtheBiblearepeopleand individualpersonswecall ‘Hittites’,afterthebiblicalname Hittîm. Sometimestheyarecalled ‘thesonsofHeth’– hencetheGerman name ‘Hethiter’ fortheHittites.SeveralbiblicalHittitesarewell knowntous,liketheill-fatedUriah,sentbyKingDavidtohis deathonthebattlefieldsothatDavidcouldhavefreeaccesstohis beautifulwifeBathsheba.Mostofourbiblicalreferencesimplythat theHittiteswerejustoneofanumberofminortribeslivinginthe Judaeanhill-countryofsouthernPalestine.ButthereareafewOld Testamentpassagesthatsuggesttheexistenceofa ‘Hittitenation’ of considerablygreaterstatusandpower.Themostnotableoftheseis fromtheSecondBookofKings,wheretheAramaeanssaytoone another ‘Look,thekingofIsraelhashiredtheHittiteandthe Egyptiankingstoattackus!’ (2Kings7:6).Thisepisode,datingto thetimeoftheninth-centuryprophetElisha,speaksnotonlyof Hittitekings,butgivesthesekingsastatussimilartothatofthe pharaohsofEgypt.
Strandno.2:In1822,theFrenchscholarJean-Francois Champollionsuccessfullycompletedthedeciphermentofthe Egyptianhieroglyphicscriptandthelanguageforwhichitwas used,asuccesscloselyassociatedwiththefamousRosettastone. Itwasthestartingpointforrevealingtousthecontentsofthousands ofEgyptianinscriptions.Someoftheseinscriptionscontain referencestoacountrycalledHt(oftenvocalisedasKheta).This
wasclearlyanimportantcountry.ThepharaohRamessesIIclaimed victoryoverit(wrongly!)inthefamousbattleofQadeshonthe OrontesriverinwesternSyria,andanearlierpharaohTuthmosisIII haddealingswithitduringhiscampaignsinnorthernSyria.
Strandno.3:Inthe1830s,acliff-faceinscriptioninthree languages,OldPersian,BabylonianandElamite(theso-called Behistun/Bisitunmonument,locatedinwesternIran),provided theOrientalistHenryRawlinsonwiththekeytothedecipherment ofthemostimportantancientNearEasternlanguages,including the(subsequentlydeciphered )Assyrianlanguage.Passages fromtheAssyrianinscriptions,inparticularthosedatingfrom thelatesecondmillenniumthroughtheearlycenturiesofthe fi rst millenniumBC,containreferencestoalandcalledHatti,which seemedtobeconnectedparticularlywithterritoriesinnorthern SyriawestoftheEuphratesriver.
Strandno.4:Fiftyyearslater,in1887,acacheofclaytablets, now382innumber,wasdiscoveredinEgypt,ataplacecalled el-Amarna,onthesiteoftheancientcityofAkhetaten.Thecity wasnewlybuiltinthemid-fourteenthcenturyastheroyalcapitalof thepharaohAkhenaten.Threehundredand fiftyofthesetablets recordcorrespondencebetweenthepharaohandhissubject-rulers andforeignpeers.Anumberofthetablets,liketheAssyrianrecords, refertoalandofHatti,andinonecasetoakingofHatti.
Strandno.5 :Intheearlyyearsofthenineteenthcentury,an eccentricSwissmerchantcalledJohannLudwigBurkhardt travelledwidelyintheNearEast,dressedinorientalgarband callinghimselfSheikIbrahim.DuringavisithemadetotheSyrian cityHama,hecameuponablocko fstonebuiltintoahouseinthe bazaar.Strangesymbolsonthestonewereinterpretedbyhimasa formofwriting,abitlikehieroglyphicsymbols,thoughquite differentfromthoseofEgypt.Hewroteabouthis fi ndinhisbook TravelsinSyriaandtheHolyLand ,publishedin1822.
Fiftyyearslater,anotherthreesimilarlyinscribedstoneswere foundinbuildingsinthebazaaratHama,andyetanotherstone withsimilarinscriptionwasfoundbuiltintothewallofamosque inAleppo.Thefollowingyear(1872),anIrishmissionarycalled WilliamWrightreceivedpermissionfromthelocalTurkishpasha
topriseoutthesestones(withstrongprotestsfromthelocalpeople whoattributedmagicalhealingpowerstothem)andshipthemto Constantinopleforcloserstudy.Itbecameclearthatthesymbols onthestoneswerelikethosefoundbyTexieratYazılıkayaand werepartofthesameancientscript.Thisscriptwasnowfoundina numberofotherplacesaswell – notonlyinSyriabutalsointhe Anatolianpeninsula,almostasfarwestasAnatolia’sAegeancoast.
RIGHTFORALLTHEWRONGREASONS
Nowletuspullallthesestrandstogether.Inalandmarklecture deliveredinLondonin1880to theSocietyforBiblical Archaeology,ascholarlymanofthecloth,theRev.Archibald HenrySayce,presentedaboldandapparentlynewproposition: theHittitesoftheBiblewerethepeopleofavastempirewhich extendedthroughAnatoliaandalargepartofSyria.This conclusionhebasedverylargelyonthewidespreaddistribution ofthe ‘ hieroglyphicscript ’ throughouttheseregions – ascript whichSaycebelievedwasthewrittenlanguageoftheHittites themselves – thoughno-onehadtheslightestideathenofwhat theinscriptionssaid.(Actually,WilliamWrighthadalready publishedthisconclusionacoupleofyearsearlierinanobscure article,butitwasSaycewhogotthecreditforit.)
Sayce’slecturemightwellberegardedastheverybeginningof therediscoveryofalostworld.Howonearthdiditgetlostinthe firstplace,whenweconsideritssize(Saycewascertainlyrightin hisclaimabouttheempire’svastness)andthefactthatthegreat contemporarypowersofEgypt,AssyriaandBabylonwere never losttohumanknowledge?That’samattertowhichweshallreturn. Butatthispoint,let’smakesomeimportantcorrectionstoSayce’ s conclusions:
(a)the ‘Hittites’ never calledthemselvesHittites; (b)the ‘hieroglyphicscript’ was not writtenintheHittitelanguage; (c)theadministrativecentreoftheempirewas not inSyria (CarchemishontheEuphrateswasafavouredlocation)butin north-centralAnatolia;
(d)theHittiteempiredated not totheIronAge(latesecond millenniumonwards)buttotheprecedingBronzeAge,theLate BronzeAgeinparticular(fromtheseventeenthtothetwelfth century).
HowcouldSaycehavebeensorightandyetsowrongatthesame time?
THE HITTITELANGUAGEDECIPHERED
Toanswerthisquestion,weneedtomoveforwardtotheearly yearsofthetwentiethcentury.In1906,aGermanAssyriologist calledHugoWinckler(aratherunpleasantman,tojudgefrom accountsofthetime)andhisTurkishcolleagueTheodorMakridi, beganthe fi rstmajorexcavationsinthecitythathadsomysti fi ed CharlesTexiersevendecadesearlier.Weshould,however, acknowledgethatthe fi rstoffi cialexcavationsofthesitewere conductedintheyears1893 – 4bythearchaeologistErnest Chantre.Thesite’ smodernnamewasBoghazköy,todaycalled Boghazkale.Rightfromthebeginning,claytabletsingreat quantitiesstartedcomingtolight.Therewaslittledoubtthatthis sitewaspartofthegreatHittiteempire,asChantre ’ sexcavations tenyearsearlierhadalreadysuggested.AndWincklercouldread quiteafewofthetabletssincetheywerewrittenintheAkkadian language(AssyrianandBabylonianwereitstwomainversions). Thishadbeendecipheredmanydecadesearlier,andwaswidely usedinitsowntimeasaninternationallinguafranca.Butthe majorityofthetabletswerewritteninastrange,unknown language.ThismusthavebeenthelanguageoftheHittites themselves.
Fromthetextsthat could bereaditbecameclear,alreadyinthe firstyearoftheexcavations,thattheancientnameofthesitewas Hattusa.Therecouldbenodoubtfromtheseexcavationsthat HattusawasaveryimportantcityoftheHittiteworld.Butitwasto provemorethanthat!AsWincklerperusedthebasketloadsof tabletsandtablet-fragmentsbroughttohimeachday,hecame acrossoneinparticularthatcausedhimgreatexcitement.Itwasa
copyofanAkkadianversionofapeacetreatydrawnupbetween oneofthemostfamousofallpharaohs,RamessesII,sometimes calledRamessestheGreat,andaGreatKingofHatti,called Hattusili.WhereelsebutintheHittiteroyalcapitalwouldsucha documentbefound?ThesiteWincklerwasexcavatingwasthevery heartoftheHittiteempire!(Inallfairness,weshouldpointoutthat theactualcreditforidentifyingthissiteastheHittitecapital belongstoGeorgesPerrot,anOrientalscholarwhotwodecades earlierhadwrittenanarticleclaimingthatBoghazköynot CarchemishwasthecapitaloftheHittiteempire.Butitwasnot untilWinckler ’ sexcavationsthathardevidenceforthis identificationwasfound.)
TheAkkadiantabletsprovidedimportantinformationabout thecityandtheempireitruled.Butthisinformationwasstillvery limited – andwouldremainsountilthelanguageusedonthe majorityofthetablets,nodoubtthelanguageofthe ‘Hittites’ themselves,couldberead.Thatwasatask finallyachieved,during WorldWarI,byaCzechscholarcalledBedřichHrozny,who hadbeenreleasedfromwarservicetoundertakeit.Attemptsby earlierscholarshadfailed.Atleastthe script inwhichthelanguage waswrittencouldbereadsinceitwasonecommonlyusedinthe NearEasternworld.ItsinventionisassociatedwithanEarly BronzeAge(thirdmillennium)peopleofMesopotamiacalledthe Sumerians.Theyexpressedtheirlanguageinwrittenformby pressingthetriangularendsofreedscutfromtheTigrisand Euphratesriver-banksintosoftclay.Modernscholarscallthis script ‘cuneiform’,aftertheLatinword cuneus forwedge,because ofthewedge-likeshapesproducedbythisprocess.Andthescript thuscreatedwaswidelyadoptedbymanycivilisations,including theHittitecivilisation,throughouttheNearEasternworldfor severalmillenniatocome.
SotheunknownscriptontheHattusatabletscouldliterallybe read,orsoundedout,eventhoughthelanguagetheyrecordedwas stillunintelligible.Thenthefamousbreakthrough!Ashewas perusingthetexts,Hroznycameacrossasentencewhichwhen transliteratedintolettersofourownalphabetread: nu NINDA-an ezzatteniwatar-maekutteni.Now,NINDAwasanoldSumerian
Figure1.2 Thekeysentence.
logogram.Thiswasasignrepresentingasinglewordwhichwas adoptedwithoutchangeinothercuneiformscriptswrittenin differentlanguages.NINDAmeant ‘bread’– soitseemedthatthe sentencewasaboutfood. ezza-(tteni) remindedHroznyofthe Latinword edo andtheGerman essen,bothofwhichmean ‘eat’ . eku-(tteni) recalledtheLatinword aqua,suggestingthatthisword hadsomethingtodowithwater.Andmostinterestingly,theword watar(-ma) recalledtheGermanword Wasser,andtheEnglish word ‘water’.Hroznyconcludedthat ezzatteni and ekutteni were secondpersonpluralverbsmeaning ‘eat’ and ‘drink’ respectively. Andthushereadthesentenceasawholeas ‘Youwilleatbreadand drinkwater’ .
Buttherealsignificanceofhis findwashisconclusionfromthis sentencethatHittitewasamemberofaverylargelanguagefamily whichwecallIndo-European.Membershipofthefamilycovered awiderangeoftongues,bothancientandmodern,including Sanskrit,Greek,Latin,English,Germanandthemodernromance languages.Hittitewasnowestablishedastheveryearliestofthese languagespreservedinwrittenform.AndHrozny’ssentence
providedthekeytoreadingandunderstandingthethousandsof tabletsandtablet-fragmentsinscribedinthislanguage,foundby theGermanexcavatorsintheHittitecapital.
Butweshouldnotcontinuebeforegivingcredittoanearlier scholarwhohadidentifiedthelanguageasIndo-Europeana decadeandahalfearlier.AmongtheAmarnatablets,therewere twopiecesofcorrrespondenceexchangedbetweenthepharaoh andakingofacountrycalledArzawainAnatolia.Unlikethegreat majorityoftheAmarnatablets,theywerewrittennotinAkkadian, butinathenunknownlanguage.In1902,theNorwegianscholar J.A.Knudtzon,whilenotbeingabletotranslatetheletters, declaredthattheirlanguagewasanIndo-Europeanone.Ofcourse, hedidnotknowthenthatitwasthelanguageoftheHittites.Forat thattimetheHittiteswereonlyjustre-emergingfrom3,000years ofalmosttotalobscurity.Alas,Knudtzonfailedtohavethecourage ofhisconvictions.Hegavewaybeforesustainedhowlsofprotests fromhisscholarlycontemporaries.Theideawasridiculous,they declared.Afterall,practicallyalltheknownlanguagesoftheage belongedtotheSemiticlanguagefamily – likeAkkadian,andlater languageslikeAramaic,HebrewandArabic.ItwasabsurdlyfarfetchedtosuggestthatalanguagerelatedtoLatinandGreekand EnglishandFrenchandsooncouldpossiblyhaveemergedinthis partoftheworldsoearlyinitshistory.SoKnudtzonbuckled underpressureandgaveuphisproposal,andHroznyhadtostart alloveragain.
READINGTHEANCIENTSCRIPTS
WithHroznythecurtainbegantobedrawnasideto revealtheancientHittites,andwhattheytellusabout themselvesandtheworldtheyinhabited.Let’sexplore thisworld.But firstweneedtosaysomethingaboutthetablets,the cuneiformscriptwrittenonthem,thewritersofthescriptand wheretherecordstheymadewerekept.Byfarthemajorityofthese recordswerewrittenonareadilyavailablematerial – clay,the mainwritingmaterialusedintheNearEasternworldatleastasfar backasthefourthmillennium.
Withjustonelatermainexception,theSumerianscriptandall subsequentcuneiformscriptsweresyllabic.Thatistosay,each symbol,orgroupofsymbols,representedasyllable.Thiscouldbea vowelonitsown,aconsonant þ vowel,avowel þ consonant, aconsonant þ vowel þ consonant,oroccasionallyavowel þ consonant þ vowel.Sometimesagroupofsymbolscouldrepresent awholewordlike ‘god’ or ‘king’ or ‘land’ or ‘city’.InSumerian, thesewordswerepronouncedDINGIR,LUGAL,KURandURU respectively.Modernscholarscallthemlogograms.Sometimes, logogramswereusedpurelytoidentifythenatureofthewordthey immediatelypreceded.Inthesecases,wecallthem ‘determinatives’ .
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128. HARD SHORT RIBS. (NOT DELIVERABLE, BOARD OF TRADE.)
HARD SHORT RIB TEST
FIG.
129 SHORT RIB
STANDARD SHORT RIB TEST.
FIG
EXTRA SHORT RIB TEST
FIG. 130. EXTRA SHORT RIB.
FIG. 131. SHORT CLEAR (SHORT RIB AND SPARE RIB REMOVED.)
FIG 132 EXTRA SHORT CLEAR EXTRA SHORT CLEAR TEST.
CLEAR BACK. S. P. BELLY TEST.
CLEAR BACK. D. S. BELLY TEST.
FIG. 133. CLEAR BACK.
CLEAR BACK. D. S. RIB BELLY TEST.
LOIN. S. P. BELLY, D. S. FAT BACK TEST.
LOIN S P BELLY, FAT BACK (TANK) TEST
LOIN D S BELLY, FAT BACK (TANK) TEST
Fat backs, tank 15³⁄₄ $0 07975 $1 2561
Pork loins 8¹⁄₂ .10675 .9031
Lean trimmings 1 .07 .0700
Fat trimmings 2 065 1300
Clear bellies (dry salt) 15³⁄₄ .10275 1.6175
Spare ribs
LOIN. D. S. FAT BACKS. D. S. RIB BELLY TEST.
Rib bellies (dry salt) 16³⁄₄ $0.10275 $1.7203
Fat backs (dry salt) 16¹⁄₂ 09525 1 5716
Pork loin 8¹⁄₂ .10675 .9031
Lean trimmings ¹⁄₄ 07 0175
trimmings
LOIN. D. S. FAT BACK. CLEAR BELLY TEST.
Fat backs (dry salt) 16 $0 09525 $1 5716
FIG 134 —RIB BELLY
Clear bellies (dry salt) 15³⁄₄ .10275 1.6175
Pork loin 8¹⁄₂ 10675 9031
Lean trimmings ¹⁄₄ .07 .0175
Fat trimmings 2 .065 .1300
Spare ribs 1 .055 .0550
LOIN D S RIB BELLY FAT BACKS (TANK TEST)
Fat backs, tank 15³⁄₄ $0 07975 $1 2561
Pork loins 8¹⁄₂ .10675 .9031
Lean trimmings 1 .07 .0700
Fat trimmings 2 065 1300
Rib bellies (dry salt) 16³⁄₄ .102 1.7085
Tests on Five Sides.
—The following tests show the results of cutting sides in various manner and are useful as showing the percentage yield in various lots:
RECAPITULATION
Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into extra short clears $9.910
Five rough sides with the tenderloin in, made into extra short ribs and pork loins 9 946
Five rough sides made into extra short clears, this cut being the same as the previous one, except that the spare rib is removed from the side 9 880
Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into regular ribs 9.734
Five rough sides made into pork loins, clear bellies, which consist of taking out the spare ribs and fat backs 9.600
Five rough ribs with tenderloin in, made into rib bellies, pork loins and fat backs 9.614
Five rough ribs made into short clear backs by removing spare rib on 9 700
loin and leaving spare ribs in bellies
Five rough ribs made into short clear backs, removing the spare rib from the bellies, making them clear bellies 9 700
In the foregoing tests the prices were effective at the time the tests were made. The percentages are accurate. It will be noted that the different cuts vary in value from $9.60 to $9.91, a variation of 31c per hundred pounds. From this will readily be seen the advantage of cutting hogs according to the market conditions.
FIVE ROUGH RIBS, TENDERLOIN IN, MADE INTO REGULAR RIBS.
FIVE ROUGH RIBS CONVERTED TO RIB BELLIES IN SHORT CLEAR BACKS.
FIVE ROUGH RIBS CONVERTED TO SHORT CLEARS.
FIVE SIDES CLEAR BACKS. CLEAR BELLIES.
FIVE ROUGH SIDES, MADE INTO PORK LOINS, CLEAR BELLIES
FIVE ROUGH RIBS, TENDERLOIN IN, CONVERTED TO EXTRA SHORT CLEARS.
FIVE ROUGH RIBS, TENDERLOIN CONVERTED TO RIB BELLIES, PORK LOINS AND FAT BACKS
EXTRA SHORT RIBS.
Special Test on 1,265 Mixed Hogs.
—Average Live Weight 245 Pounds. In all well-managed houses a test is made at least weekly to determine the actual profit or loss appearing. These tests are of value as a guide when buying hogs to secure a quality best adapted to make cuts sell to the best advantage. The following tests on 1,265 live hogs, averaging 245 pounds, shows the method in use. It will be noted that this test is carried through carefully, taking the market price on the various cuts. The recapitulation shows the actual results at the time the test was made. All percentages of cuts of meats shown in the following tables are figured from the live weight of hogs:
HAMS
SHOULDERS
SIDES.
LARD
MISCELLANEOUS
OFFAL.
Estimated value of blood and casings at 6c per head, $77 10 Added to $129 37, the value of the offal, makes a total value of $206 47
RECAPITULATION.
NET RESULTS
1,265 hogs Net live weight 309,925 pounds at average $0.0533 per lb. $16,518.90 Killing expense 642.50 13 condemned for No. 1 grease, weighing 3,158 lbs. and 7 condemned for No 2 grease, weighing 1,908 lbs , at average, $0 0150 per lb 75 99 Total $17,237.39 Gain, $733.33, or 58c per hog, or 23c per 100 pounds alive.
Prices on preceding tests are changeable—the percentage yield is practically the same at present.
CHAPTER XXII.
CURING
