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TheSociologyofEducation TheSociologyofEducation:ASystematicAnalysisisacomprehensiveandcross-culturallookatthesociology ofeducationThistextbookgivesasociologicalanalysisofeducationbyincorporatingadiversesetof theoreticalapproachesTheauthorsincludepracticalapplicationsandcurrenteducationalissuestodiscussthe structureandprocessesthatmakeeducationsystemsworkaswellastherolesociologistsplayinboth understandingandbringingaboutchange
Inadditiontoup-to-dateexamplesandresearch,theeightheditionpresentsthreechaptersoninequalityin educationalaccessandexperiences,whereclass,raceandethnicity,andgenderarepresentedasseparate (thoughintersecting)vectorsofeducationalinequalityEachchaptercombinesqualitativeandquantitative approachesandrelevanttheory,classicsandemergingresearch,andmicro-andmacro-levelperspectives
JeanneHBallantineisUniversityProfessorEmeritaofSociologyatWrightStateUniversityShereceivedher Master’sdegreefromColumbiaUniversityandherPhDfromIndianaUniversity.Jeannehastaughtina numberofvenuesincludingJapan,Brazil,Spain,ItalyRwanda(asaFulbrightscholar),SemesteratSea,and WittenbergUniversityinOhioHerprimaryareasofscholarshiparesociologyofeducation,appliedsociology, globalstudies,andglobalwomen’sissues.
FloydMHammackisProfessorEmeritusintheSociologyofEducationProgramatNewYorkUniversity’s SteinhardtSchoolofCulture,Education,andHumanDevelopmentHeeditedTheComprehensiveHighSchool Today(TeachersCollegePress,2004),andrecentlypublished“SchoolingforSocialMobility:HighSchool ReformforCollegeAccessandSuccess,”intheJournalofSchoolChoice
JennyStuberisAssociateProfessorofSociologyattheUniversityofNorthFloridaInadditiontoherbook InsidetheCollegeGates(LexingtonBooks,Lanham,MD,2011),herresearchhasappearedinSociological Forum,TheJournalofContemporarySociology,TheInternationalJournalofQualitativeStudiesinEducation, andTeachinginHigherEducation
Ballantine,Hammack,andStuber’sSociologyofEducationtextbookexamineseducationthroughasystemicdescriptionofhowstructural, cultural,andindividualfactorsintersecttoshapeeducationaldesignforcommunitiesandtheirfutureaswellasindividualexpectationsand learningoutcomesTheoreticallyprogressive,theauthors’gobeyondtraditionalsociologicaldescriptionsandinnovativelyincludepostmodern,feminists,andcriticalperspectivesthatenablebottom-upperspectivesandmargin-to-centerdiscussionsOvermanyyearsofusein bothonlineandtraditionalcoursesthebookhasalwaysprovidedaninnovative‘out-of-the-box’teachingandlearningalternativeto sociologicaldescriptionsofeducation
JesseGarcia,LamarUniversity
IhaveusedthisbooksinceitsfirsteditionanditremainsoneofthetopcomprehensivetextsonthemarketinsociologyofeducationThe “opensystemmodel”providesaclearcontextforasociologicalanalysisofschoolingthatisaccessibletostudentsandyetcomplexenoughto laythegroundworkfortheextensiveeducationpolicydiscussionsthatfilleachchapterSincemycoursefocusesoninequalitiesinschooling, thiseditionisevenstrongerinthatgenderandracialdisparitiesaregivenfulltreatmentinseparatechaptersandarenotcollapsedintooneas inthepastThisismygo-toresourcewheneverIaddresseducationalissuesinanysociologycourse
WilliamA.Mirola,MarianUniversity
TheSociologyofEducation ASystematicAnalysis EIGHTHEDITION JeanneHBallantine
WrightStateUniversity
FloydMHammack
NewYorkUniversity
JennyStuber UniversityofNorthFlorida
Eightheditionpublished2017
byRoutledge
711ThirdAvenue,NewYork,NY10017
andbyRoutledge
2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,OxonOX144RN
RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness
©2017Tayloy&Francis
TherightofJeanneHBallantine,FloydMHammack,andJennyStubertobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthis workhasbeenassertedbytheminaccordancewithsections77and78oftheCopyright,DesignsandPatents Act1988
AllrightsreservedNopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedorutilisedinanyformorbyany electronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingand recording,orinanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublishers.
Trademarknotice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarks,andareusedonly foridentificationandexplanationwithoutintenttoinfringe
FirsteditionpublishedbyPrentice-Hall1983
SeventheditionpublishedbyPearson2011
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Ballantine,JeanneH|Hammack,FloydM|Stuber,JennyM,1971–Title:Thesociologyofeducation/JeanneH.Ballantine,WrightStateUniversity,FloydM.Hammack,New YorkUniversity,JennyStuber,UniversityofNorthFlorida
Description:NewYork:Routledge,[2016]|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex Identifiers:LCCN2016030127|ISBN9781138237353(hardcover:alkpaper)|ISBN9781138237360(pbk:alk paper)|ISBN9781315299914(ebook)
Subjects:LCSH:Educationalsociology
Classification:LCCLC191B2542016|DDC30643dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2016030127
ISBN:978-1-138-23735-3(hbk)
ISBN:978-1-138-23736-0(pbk)
ISBN:978-1-315-29991-4(ebk)
TypesetinAvenir,BellandBembo byApexCoVantage,LLC
Visitthee-resourceatwwwroutledgecom/9781138237360
ContentsinBrief Preface
SupplementaryMaterial
ListofAbbreviations
1SOCIOLOGYOFEDUCATION:AUNIQUEPERSPECTIVEFORUNDERSTANDINGSCHOOLS
2CONFLICTINGFUNCTIONSANDPROCESSESINEDUCATION:WHATMAKESTHE SYSTEMWORK?
3EQUALITYOFEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY?:ALOOKATSOCIALCLASSDIFFERENCES ANDINEQUALITIES
4EQUALITYOFEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY?:ALOOKATGENDERDIFFERENCESAND INEQUALITIES
5EQUALITYOFEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY?:ALOOKATRACIALANDETHNIC DIFFERENCESANDINEQUALITIES
6THESCHOOLASANORGANIZATION
7CONFLICTORCOOPERATION?:FORMALROLESWITHINTHEEDUCATIONALSYSTEM
8STUDENTS:THECOREOFTHESCHOOL
9THEINFORMALSYSTEMANDTHE"HIDDENCURRICULUM":HOW"INVISIBLE"FORCES IMPACTEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCES
10THEEDUCATIONSYSTEMANDTHEENVIRONMENT:ASYMBIOTICRELATIONSHIP?
11THESYSTEMOFHIGHEREDUCATION
12EDUCATIONSYSTEMSAROUNDTHEWORLD:ACOMPARATIVEVIEW
13EDUCATIONALMOVEMENTSANDREFORM
Index
DetailedContents Preface
SupplementaryMaterial
ListofAbbreviations
1SOCIOLOGYOFEDUCATION:AUNIQUEPERSPECTIVEFORUNDERSTANDINGSCHOOLS
SociologyandEducation
USSchoolsintheEarlyTwenty-FirstCentury
TheoreticalApproachesintheSociologyofEducation
TheOpenSystemsApproach
ResearchMethodsintheSociologyofEducation
OrganizationoftheBook
Summary
SampleResearchQuestionsintheSociologyofEducation
PuttingSociologytoWork
2CONFLICTINGFUNCTIONSANDPROCESSESINEDUCATION:WHATMAKESTHE SYSTEMWORK?
ConflictingFunctionsofEducation
UnanticipatedConsequencesofFunctions
TheImportanceofProcessesinEducationalSystems
TheFunctionofSocialization:WhatWeLearnandHowWeLearnIt
TheFunctionofCulturalTransmissionandProcessofPassingonCulture
TheFunctionofSocialControlandPersonalDevelopment
TheFunctionofSelectionandAllocation:TheSortingProcess
TheFunctionofChangeandInnovation:LookingtotheFuture
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
3EQUALITYOFEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY?:ALOOKATSOCIALCLASSDIFFERENCES ANDINEQUALITIES
SocialClassSocializationandEducationalInequality
SocialClassandEqualityofEducationalOpportunity:SystemicSourcesofDifference
SocialClassandEqualityofEducationalOpportunity:TheContinuingImportanceofPeers andCulture
SocialClassandEqualityofEducationalOpportunity:TheTransitiontoHigherEducation
BeatingtheOddsorChangingtheGame?
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
4EQUALITYOFEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY?:ALOOKATGENDERDIFFERENCESAND INEQUALITIES
GenderSocializationatHomeandSchool
GenderDifferencesinSecondarySchool
GenderDifferencesinHigherEducation
EffortstoCombatGenderInequalitiesinEducation
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
5EQUALITYOFEDUCATIONALOPPORTUNITY?:ALOOKATRACIALANDETHNIC DIFFERENCESANDINEQUALITIES
RacialandEthnicInequalitiesinEducationalOpportunity
ResearchonEqualityofEducationalOpportunityandEducationalOutcomes
UnequalSchooling:TheRoleofResources
UnequalSchooling:TheRoleofFamily,Culture,andSocialPsychology
AClashofCultures:SchoolingBeyondBlackandWhite EffortstoCombatRacial/EthnicInequalitiesinEducation
RacialandEthnicInequalitiesinEducation:Past,Present,andFuture
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
6THESCHOOLASANORGANIZATION
TheSocialSystemoftheSchool
GoalsoftheSchoolSystem
TheSchoolasanOrganization
CentralizedVersusDecentralizedDecisionMaking:TheFightOverControlofSchools
ReformofSchoolOrganization
CharterSchools
SupportsforSchoolImprovement
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
7CONFLICTORCOOPERATION?:FORMALROLESWITHINTHEEDUCATIONALSYSTEM
TheMeaningofRoles
RolesinSchools
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
8STUDENTS:THECOREOFTHESCHOOL
CharacteristicsofStudents
SchoolFailuresandDropouts
StudentsandtheInformalSystem
StudentsandTheirEnvironments
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
9THEINFORMALSYSTEMANDTHE"HIDDENCURRICULUM":HOW"INVISIBLE"FORCES IMPACTEDUCATIONALEXPERIENCES
TheOpenSystemsApproachandtheInformalSystem
TheEducational"Climate"andSchoolEffectiveness
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
10THEEDUCATIONSYSTEMANDTHEENVIRONMENT:ASYMBIOTICRELATIONSHIP?
TheEnvironmentandtheEducationSystem
SchoolSystemEnvironments:InterdependenceBetweenInstitutions
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
11THESYSTEMOFHIGHEREDUCATION
HistoryandDevelopmentofHigherEducation
TheoreticalApproachestoHigherEducation
CharacteristicsofHigherEducationintheUnitedStates
FunctionsoftheHigherEducationSystem
HigherEducationasanOrganization
RolesinHigherEducation
EnvironmentalPressuresonHigherEducation
OutcomesofHigherEducation
ProblemsandReforminHigherEducation
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
12EDUCATIONSYSTEMSAROUNDTHEWORLD:ACOMPARATIVEVIEW
EducationAroundtheWorld:ComparativePerspectives
ComparativeEducationandtheSystemsApproach
TheoreticalPerspectivesinComparativeEducation
EducationinRichVersusPoorCountries
MethodsUsedinComparativeEducation
GlobalInterdependence:Meso-LevelInstitutions
HigherEducationAroundtheWorld
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
13EDUCATIONALMOVEMENTSANDREFORM
TheNatureofEducationalMovements
EarlyEducationalMovements
AlternativeEducationandRelatedMovements
StructuralandCurricularChangesintheSchools
Summary
PuttingSociologytoWork
Index
Preface Integratingtheimportantanddiversetopicsinthefieldofsociologyofeducationbyshowinghowtheyare relatedtooneanotheristhemaingoalofthistextItemphasizesthediversityoftheoreticalapproachesand issuesinthefieldandtheapplicationofthisknowledgetotheunderstandingofeducationandschooling Educationischangingrapidly;itisnoeasytasktopresenttheexcitementofadynamicfieldwithdiverseand disparatetopicsTopresentthematerialtostudentsinameaningfulway,aunifyingframeworkanopen systemsapproachisusedItismeanttoprovideacoherentstructuretothefieldofeducation,nottodetract fromthetheory,empirical,andpracticalcontentofsociologyofeducation.
Intheeightheditionofthetext,discussionsofnewstudiesandcurrenttopicsreplaceandsupplementolder topicsAlltablesandfigures,newandexisting,presentthelatestdataavailableatthetimeofrevisionThis editionalsopresentsthreechaptersoninequalityineducationalaccessandexperiences,whereclass,raceand ethnicity,andgenderarepresentedasseparate(thoughintersecting)vectorsofeducationalinequalityEach chaptercombinesqualitativeandquantitativeapproachesandrelevanttheory,classicsandemergingresearch, andmicro-andmacro-levelperspectives.
Wearepleasedtointroduceournewco-author,DrJennyStuber,asociologistofeducationfromthe UniversityofNorthFloridaShebringsnewideas,content,organization,andadditionalstudent-friendly contenttothebook,makingthisanexcitingandextensiverevision.Herresearchfocusesonsocialclass inequalitiesinhighereducation,withaspecialfocusonstudents’socialexperiencesandinvolvementin extracurricularactivitiesSheisespeciallyinterestedinhowidentitiesareformedwithineducationalsettings Youwillenjoyherperspectivesandcontributions!
Afterteachingsociologyofeducationtomanyundergraduateandgraduatestudentsandusingavarietyof materials,wewereconcernedthatthematerialsavailable,thoughexcellentinquality,werenotreaching undergraduateandgraduatestudentsfromsociology,education,andothermajorsThelevelofmanytextsis quiteadvanced,thethemesofsomebooksmaketheircoverageorapproachlimited,andthebookspresent researchinsuchdepththattheyareoftentoodetailedandabstractformanyundergraduateandbeginning graduatestudents,makingitdifficultforthemtoapplytotheirworkineducationalsettingsDuringworkwith theProjectonTeachingUndergraduateSociology,theauthorsdevelopedaguideforteachingsociologyof educationandfocusedonpresentationofmaterialstoundergraduatesThesematerialsandideashavebeen incorporatedintothistextThebookisbestsuitedforsociologyofeducationandsocialfoundations/cultural contextofeducationcoursesattheundergraduateorbeginninggraduatelevel.
Severalgoalsguidedthewritingofthisbook:
1TomakethebookcomprehensibleandusefultostudentsRealizingthatmoststudentsare interestedinhowthefieldofeducationcanhelpthemdealwithissuestheywillface,weemphasize theusefulnessofresearchfindingsChoiceshadtobemadeconcerningwhichstudiesandtopicsto coverThosechosenshouldhavehighinterestforstudentsandhelpthemastheyworkinand interactwithschoolsystems.
2TopresentmaterialinacoherentframeworkTheauthorspresentkeyideasinthesociologyof educationbyutilizingasystemsframeworkTheinstructorhasleewaywithintheopensystems approachtoaddtopics,excludesectionsofthetext,andrearrangetheorderoftopicswithoutlosing thecontinuityandintegrationpresentinthisframework
3TopresentdiversetheoreticalapproachesinsociologyofeducationSeveralvaluable perspectivesinthefieldareinfluentialtoday;thebookgivesexamplesthroughoutoftraditionaland newtheoriesandhowtheyapproachissuesinthefield.
4Toincludetopicsthatareimportant,current,orofemerginginteresttostudentsSeparate chaptersaredevotedtohighereducation,organizationofschoolsandrolesinschools,informal education(“climate”andthe“hiddencurriculum”),theschoolenvironment,educationaroundthe world,andeducationalmovementsandalternatives
5Toindicatehowchangetakesplaceandwhatrolesociologistsplayinbothunderstanding andbringingaboutchange.Withtheincreasingemphasisonappliedsociology,morecoursesare
includinginformationonappliedaspectsoftopicscovered.Thisisthefocusofthefinalchapterbutis alsocoveredthroughoutthetext
6Tostimulatestudentstobecomeinvolvedwitheducationalsystemswheretheycanusethe knowledgeavailableinthisandothertextbooks.Thistextcanbeusedtostimulatediscussion andencourageothertopicsofinteresttobeintroducedintothecourseUsefulfeaturesofthebookto enhanceteachingeffectivenessincludeprojectsattheendofeachchapter,thecoverageofissues,and theInstructor’sManual,completewithclassroomteachingaids,techniques,andtestquestions
Thebookdoesnotattempttouseonetheoreticalapproachtotheexclusionofothers.Rather,itfocusesonthe valueofseveraldifferentapproachesandtheiremphasesindealingwiththesameissueBecausethebookis meantasanoverview,itsurveysthefieldratherthanprovidingcomprehensivecoverageofafewtopicsThis allowsinstructorstheflexibilitytoexpandwheredesired.
SupplementaryMaterial Instructor’sManualandTestBank:TheInstructor’sManualandTestBankhavebeenpreparedtoassist teachersintheireffortstopreparelecturesandevaluatestudentlearningForeachchapterofthetext,the Instructor’sManualoffersdifferenttypesofresources,includingdetailedchaptersummariesandoutlines, learningobjectives,discussionquestions,classroomactivities,andmuchmore.
AlsoincludedinthismanualisaTestBankofferingmultiple-choice,true/false,fill-in-the-blank,and/or essayquestionsforeachchapterTheInstructor’sManualandTestBankareavailabletoadoptersat http://routledgetextbooks.com/textbooks/instructordownloads/.
PowerPointPresentations:LecturePowerPointsareavailableforthistextTheLecturePowerPointslides outlineeachchaptertohelpyouconveysociologicalprinciplesinavisualandexcitingwayTheyareavailable toadoptersathttp://routledgetextbooks.com/textbooks/instructordownloads/.
Thanksgotomanypeopleforsuggestionsonearlydrafts:forreviewsofthemanuscriptfortheeighth edition,wearegratefultoHarrietJHartman,RowanUniversity;ChristopherDonoghue,MontclairState University;VictoriaRankinMarksandDanielleLewis,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia;JosephRosher, AlabamaA&MUniversity;JesusGarcia,LamarUniversity;DanaMitra,PennStateUniversity;ArianaSteck, CaliforniaStateUniversitySanMarcos;andWilliamAMirola,MarianCollegeFinally,ourinterestinthis fieldisconstantlystimulatedbythediverseandever-changingexperiencesofourchildrenandstudentsas theyhavepassedthroughthestagesofschoolingandsharedtheirexperienceswithusJeannethanksHardy, whoseknowledgeandcreativeideasinthefieldofeducationgaveoriginalimpetusandcontinuingsupport andencouragementtothiswork.FloydthanksNancyforherusualattentiontodetailandtohercontinuing interestinhisworkJennygivesspecialthankstoherstudentswho,overtheyears,continuetorenewherfaith thatthenextgenerationswillbeascuriousastheirpredecessors
JeanneHBallantine FloydM.Hammack JennyStuber
ListofAbbreviations AAUPAmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors
ACTsAmericanCollegeTests
ADAAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct
AFTAmericanFederationofTeachers
AIDSacquiredimmunodeficiencysyndrome
APAdvancedPlacement
ASCAAmericanSchoolCounselorAssociation
AYRadequateyearlyprogress
CAIcomputer-assistedinstruction
CLACollegiateLearningAssessment
CMOchartermanagementorganization
CoPcommunityofpractice
CRSculturallyresponsiveschooling
DACADeferredActionforChildhoodArrivals
DAREDrugAbuseResistanceEducation
DREAMActDevelopment,Relief,andEducationforAlienMinors
EHEAEuropeanHigherEducationArea
ELLsEnglishlanguagelearners
EMIeffectivelymaintainedinequality
ESEAElementaryandSecondaryEducationAct
ESSAEveryStudentSucceedsAct
ETSEducationalTestingService
EUEuropeanUnion
FERPAFederalEducationalRecordsandPrivacyAct
GDPgrossdomesticproduct
GEDGeneralEducationDevelopment
GPAgradepointaverage
GPIgenderparityindex
HBCUsΗistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversities
HERIHigherEducationResearchInstitute
HHSHealthandHumanServices
HIPAAHealthInsurancePortabilityandAccountabilityAct
IBInternationalBaccalaureate
IDEAIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationAct
IEPindividualizededucationalplan
ILOInternationalLaborOrganization
IPEDSIntegratedPostsecondaryEducationDataSystem
IQintelligencequotient
KIPPKnowledgeisPowerProgram
MITMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
MMImaximallymaintainedinequality
MSIsMinority-ServingInstitutions
MWYFMaliVaiWashingtonYouthFoundation
NAEPNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress
NBANationalBasketballAssociation
NCAANationalCollegiateAthleticAssociation
NCLBNoChildLeftBehind
NEANationalEducationAssociation
NYGSNationalYouthGangSurvey
OECDOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment
PIRLSProgressinInternationalReadingLiteracyStudy
PISAProgramforInternationalStudentAssessment
PWIspredominantlyWhiteinstitutions
SATsScholasticAptitudeTests
SESsocioeconomicstatus
STEMScience,Technology,Engineering,andMathinitiative
TCUstribalcollegesanduniversities
TERCEThirdRegionalComparativeandExplanatoryStudy
TIMSSTrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy
Chapter1 SociologyofEducation AUniquePerspectiveforUnderstandingSchools “JoyceIrvinevs.millions.Youcanbuyalotofhelpforchildrenwiththatmoney,”commentedtheprincipalof WheelerElementarySchoolinVermont(Winerip,2010)ShehadjustbeenfiredfromherpositionWhy?The districtsuperintendentcommentedthattheyhadtofireherinordertofollowthegovernmentmandatesand requirementsforreceiving$3millioningovernmentsupportand“weneedeverybitofsupportwecanget!” ThesuperintendentlamentedthelossofoneofherbestemployeesWheelerElementarySchoolhadstudents mostlyfromimmigrantfamilies,manyofwhomhadrecentlyarrived,andwithfewEnglishskillsInthe5th gradealone,37ofthe39studentswererefugeesorstudentswithspecial-educationneedsorboth.Thishardworking,talented,compassionateprincipalhadmadegreatstrideswiththesechildrenHowever,itwasnot enoughtosatisfywell-intentionedgovernmentofficials’requirementsanddefinitionsoffailingschools,based ontestingthatwasinappropriateforthesechildren.Thisexamplesetsthestageforalookatthesometimes conflictingmeans(effectiveteachingversuspassingtestscores)toreachendsofeducatingourchildrenfor theirandourfutures
EducationisalifelongprocessItbeginsthedaywearebornandendsthedaywedieItisfoundinevery societyandcomesinmanyforms,rangingfromthe“schoolofhardknocks,”orlearningbyexperience,to formalinstitutionallearningfrompostindustrialtononindustrialcommunities,fromruraltourbansettings, andfromyouthtoolderlearnersSociologistsofeducationlookintoarangeofquestionssuchasthefollowing: Howcanweincreaseacademicachievement?Doschoolssimplyperpetuatethecountry’sstratificationsystem, richversuspoor?Whatmoralorreligiousimpactshouldschoolshaveonyoungpeople?Arechildrenwho haveaccesstotechnologyinschoolsbetterpreparedforthefuture?Whilesociologistsdonottrytoanswer questionsofrightandwrong,goodandbad,theydoconsiderthestateofeducationandtheoutcomesof certainpoliciesandpractices
Figure11EducationEncompassesManyValuesandHopesSource:iStock
SociologyandEducation SociologistsstudypeoplewhoareinteractingandinsmalltolargegroupsituationsWithinthisbroad frameworkaremanyspecialties;thesecanbedividedintostudiesofinstitutionsinsocieties(established aspectsofsocietythataddresscommonneedsofpeople),studiesofprocesses,andstudiesofinteractions betweenindividualsandgroupsThestructureofsocietymeaningtherecurringpatternsofbehaviorand orderedinterrelationshipstoachievetheneedsofpeopleisrepresentedbysixmajorinstitutionsthat constitutesomeofthemajorsubjectareasinsociology:family,religion,education,politics,economics,and healthFormal,complexorganizations,suchasschools,arepartoftheinstitutionalstructuresthatcarryoutthe workofsocieties
Processes,theactionpartofsociety,bringthestructuresalive.Throughtheprocessofsocialization,people learnhowtofitintosocietyandwhatrolesareexpectedofthemTheprocessofstratificationdetermines wherepeoplefitintothesocialstructureandtheirresultantlifestyleChangeisanever-presentprocessthat constantlyforcesschoolsandotherorganizationstoadjusttonewdemandsLearningtakesplaceboth formallyinschoolsettingsandinformallybyourfamily,peers,media,andotherinfluencesinourlivesNotall childrenintheworldreceiveaformalschooleducation,buttheyallexperienceprocessesthatpreparethemfor adultrolesTheinstitutionofeducationinteractsandisinterdependentwitheachoftheotherinstitutionsFor instance,thefamily’sinvolvementineducationwillaffectthechild’sachievementinschool.
Sociologyofeducationasafieldisdevotedtounderstandingeducationalsystems;thesubjectmatterranges fromteacherandstudentinteractionstolargeeducationalsystemsofcountriesBystudyingeducation systematically,sociologistsofferinsightstohelpguidepoliciesforschools.Researchoneducationalsystemsis guidedbysociologicaltheoriesandstudiedusingsociologicalmethodsAlthoughsociologyprovidesaunique andpowerfulsetoftoolstoobjectivelyexploretheeducationalsystemsofsocieties,itmaydisappointthose whohaveanaxetogrindorwhosegoalistoproselytizeratherthanobjectivelyunderstandorexplore. Sometimessimplyraisingcertainquestionsisideologicallyuncomfortableforthosewho“knowtheright answer,”butwherethereisacontroversyabouteducationalpolicy,severaldifferentviewsemergeand proponentsfeeltheirviewistherightanswer.Thegoalofsociologyofeducationistoobjectivelyconsider educationalpractices,sometimescontroversialtopics,andevenunpopularbeliefstogainanunderstandingofa systemthataffectsusall
Asyoureadthisbook,pleaseaskquestionsChallengeideasExplorefindingsbutdosowiththeintentof openingnewavenuesforthought,discussion,andresearch.Thepurposeofthisintroductorychapteristo acquaintyouwiththeuniqueperspectiveofthesociologyofeducation:thequestionsitaddresses,the theoreticalapproachesituses,themethodsusedtostudyeducationalsystems,andtheopensystemsapproach usedinthisbook.Webeginourdiscussionwithanoverviewofsociologyofeducation.
WhyStudySociologyofEducation? Thereareseveralanswerstothisquestion.Somedayyoumaybeaprofessionalinthefieldofeducationorina relatedfield;youwillbeataxpayer,ifyouaren’talready;oryoumaybeaparentwithchildrenintheschool systemRightnowyouareastudentinvolvedinhigherorcontinuingeducationWhyareyoutakingthis class?Ifyouareasociologymajor,youarestudyingeducationasoneofthemajorinstitutionsofsociety;if youareaneducationmajor,sociologymaygiveyouanewordifferentperspectiveasyoupreparetoenterthe classroomYoumaybeatcollegeinpursuitofknowledge;orthiscoursemayberequired,youmayneedthe credit,perhapstheteacherissupposedtobegood,oritsimplymayfitintoyourscheduleLet’sconsidersome ofthesereasonsforstudyingsociologyofeducation.
TEACHERSANDOTHERPROFESSIONALSBetween2014and2024,kindergarten,elementary,and
secondaryschoolteachers’jobgrowthwillbe6percent(between15and16millionteachers),aboutthe averagegrowthinthelabormarketintheUnitedStates,duetoprojectedincreasesinstudentenrollmentsand retirementsofcurrentteachers(BureauofLaborStatistics,2015)Yetthefieldisalsoexperiencingashortage, duetoretirements
Anestimated3.1millionfull-timeteachersareinvolvedinpublicschooleducation(NationalCenterfor EducationStatistics,2015)Othercollegegraduatesteachintheirrespectiveacademicfieldsorbecome involvedwithpolicymattersintheschoolsProfessionalsinsuchfieldsassocialworkandbusinesshave regularcontactwithschoolswhendealingwithclientsandemployees.Forbothteachersandalloftheseother professionals,understandingtheeducationalsystemisimportantknowledgeforeffectivefunctioning
TAXPAYERSTaxpayersplayamajorroleinfinancingschoolsattheelementary,secondary,andhigher educationlevels,andtheyshouldhaveanunderstandingofhowthismoneyisbeingspentandwithwhat resultsAlmost100percentofthemoneyusedtopayforphysicalplants,materials,salaries,andother essentialsintheUSpubliceducationalsystemisfromtaxesRevenuesforschoolscomefromthreemain sources:local,state,andfederalfundsfromsales,income,andpropertytaxesIn2016,thetotalgovernment spendingoneducationwas$1trillion,or15percentofthefederalbudget(USGovernmentSpending,2016).
Map11PercentageofTotalRevenuefromPropertyTaxesandParentGovernmentContributionsforPublicElementaryandSecondary SchoolDistricts,byState:FiscalYear2013Source:USDepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,CommonCoreof Data(CCD)CommonCoreofData(CCD)“SchoolDistrictFinanceSurvey(F-33)”fiscalyear2013,PreliminaryVersion1a Localgovernmentsaccountfor44percent,states49percent,andfederalsupport13percentAveragespending perstudentintheUnitedStatesis$10,314(McCann,2016),withlow-incomeareasreceivingsignificantlyless thanhigh-incomeareasSociologyofeducationhelpstaxpayersunderstandtheschoolsystemforwhichthey arepaying
PARENTS.AlargepercentageofadultsintheUnitedStatesareparents,withanaveragehouseholdsizeof2.54 members(Statista,2015)Thatisalotofparentswhohavechildreninschoolsandmanywanttounderstand whatishappeningduringthesixtosevenhoursadaytheirchildisawayfromhomeSociologyofeducation has
Table11WhatDoYouThinkAretheBiggestProblemsthatthePublicSchoolsofYourCommunityMustDealWith?
someanswers!Accordingtothe“47thAnnualPDK/GallupPollsofthePublic’sAttitudesTowardthePublic Schools”(2015),adultsexpectschoolstoteachbasicskills,disciplinechildren,andinstillvaluesandasenseof responsibilityTheconcernsoftheAmericanpublicregardingschoolshaveshownahighlevelofconsistency fromyeartoyear(seeTable1.1)(BushawandLopez,2012).Lackoffinancialsupportandlackofdiscipline toppedthelistofproblemsseenbythepublicin2012,withovercrowdingbeingthirdFightingandgang violenceanddrugswerenumbers4and5onthelist
Parentsagreewithstudentsandeducatorsthatthereistoomuchemphasisonstandardizedtesting(64 percent),and41percentofrespondentssayparentsshouldbeabletohavetheirchildrenoptoutof standardizedtestingNinety-fivepercentofrespondentsfeelqualityofteachersisimportanttoimprovepublic schools,and84percentsupportmandatoryvaccinationsThesearejustafewofthefindingsfromthis representativenationalpoll(NEA,2016),buttheyillustratetheconcernsparentshaveintheirchildren’s schools
STUDENTS ChildrenspendmanyhoursadayinschoolTheymaynotquestionthesociologicalresearchers thattrytounderstandtheirexperiences,buttheydothinkaboutthegoodand“bad”teachers,niceclassmates andbullies,andeasyandhardclassestheyhaveTheknowledgethatresearchersprovidecanhelpeducators understandwhatstudentsfaceandhowtomaketheroadsmootherandmoresuccessfulGradeschool educationismandatoryinmostcountries.Highschoolleveleducationismandatoryindevelopedcountries, andavailableinsomedevelopingcountriesAccordingtoastudybyHarvardUniversityandtheAsian DevelopmentBank,only67percentoftheworld’spopulationhasacollegedegree(TheHuffingtonPost,2010) WithintheUnitedStatesandothereconomicallyadvancedcountries,manycitizenshavehigherlevelsof educationIntheUnitedStates,amongadultsage25andolder,32percenthaveattainedabachelor’s;12 percenthaveattainedamaster’sdegreeorhigher;and2percenthavecompletedaPhD(USCensusBureau, 2014)
Collegeattractsawidevarietyofstudentswithnumerousincentivesandgoalsfortheireducational experienceForsociologymajors,sociologyofeducationprovidesauniquelookateducationalsystemsand theirinterdependencewithothermajorinstitutionsinsocietyForeducationmajors,newinsightscanbe gainedbylookingintothedynamicinteractionsbothwithineducationalsettingsandbetweentheinstitution ofeducationandotherinstitutionsinsocietyTheseinsightsshouldgiveeducationmajorstheabilitytodeal
withcomplexorganizationalandinterpersonalissuesthatconfrontteachersandadministrators.
OTHERREASONS.Beinganinformedcitizen,understandinghowtaxdollarsarespent,andgaining knowledgeforthesakeofknowledgelearningwhatthereistolearnareamongtheotherreasonstostudy sociologyofeducation
QuestionsAskedbySociologistsofEducation Asstudents,parents,andmembersofacommunity,wefaceeducationalissuesconstantlyConsiderthe followingexamples:
AREOURCHILDRENSAFEINSCHOOLS?Amongthemostseriousschoolproblems,accordingtosurveys oftheAmericanpublic,arelackofdiscipline,fightingandgangviolence,anddrugsinschools(Bushawand Lopez,2012)Nationalstudiesindicatethatmoststudentsdonotexperiencecriminalvictimization,andthose thatdoaremorelikelytoexperiencepropertycrimesStudentsinschoolswithgangmemberspresentexpress moreconcernaboutsafety.Inaddition,one-thirdofstudentsindicatethatdrugsareavailableandone-fifth thatalcoholisavailableattheirschool(Addingtonetal,2002)AmongUS8th,10th,and12thgraders, however,recentstudiesshowadecreaseinuseofalcohol,cigarettes,andillicitorillegaldrugs,andnoincrease inmarijuanause.However,thereisalsoadecreaseintheperceivedharmofmarijuanause,anduseofecigarettesremainshigh(NationalInstituteonDrugAbuse,2016)Areourstudentssaferinschoolsthanoutof school?Thisquestiondependsontheschoolandneighborhood,butstudiesconcludethatstudentsinmost schoolsaresafefromviolenceanddrugabuse(CDC,2015).
SHOULDMINIMUMCOMPETENCYINKEYSUBJECTSSUCHASREADINGANDMATHBE REQUIREDFORHIGHSCHOOLGRADUATION?InmanycountriesandinsomepartsoftheUnitedStates, studentsarerequiredtotakereadingandmathexamsinordertoenterhighschoolandgraduatefromitThe NoChildLeftBehindandRacetotheTopfederalpoliciesintheUnitedStatesrequireallstudentstobetested atvarioustimesthroughouttheirschoolyearsonCommonCorestandardsMorerecently,theEveryStudent SucceedsAct(ESSA),signedbyPresidentObamaonDecember10,2015,reaffirmstherightofeverychildto haveanequalopportunityforeducation.Withhighschoolgraduationratesup,dropoutratesdown,andmore studentsgoingtocollege,thislawfocusesonpreparingallstudentsforcollegeandcareersIncreasingly,as statesholdschoolsandteachersresponsiblefortheacademiccompetenceofstudentswhomovethroughthe system(BormanandCotner,2011),thislawwillsetgoalsforthenextphaseofeducationalprogrammingatthe nationallevel(USDepartmentofEducation,2015)Italsoreflectstheglobalconcernabouttheschool-to-work pipelineandhowtoimproveitseffectivenessStandardizedtestsareviewedbymanyasonewaytohold schoolsaccountableforstudents’progress.Yet,someeducators,researchers,andparentsquestionthevalueof requiringcompetencytestsbecausetheyhavelittlebenefitforstudentswhopassthemandcanharmstudents whodonotpass(WarrenandGrodsky,2009)Whataresomeimplicationsofrequiringornotrequiring tests?Thisquestionwillbediscussedinlaterchapters.
HOWSHOULDEDUCATIONBEFUNDED?Manycountrieshavecentralizedgovernmentaleducational fundinganddecisionmakingAcrosstheUnitedStates,however,localtaxpayersvoteonlocalschoollevies thatprovideover40percentofschoolfundingThecriticismisthatlocalschooldistrictsvarydramaticallyin propertyorothertaxesavailabletopaytheirshareforschoolsbasedonrichversuspoordistrictsSomeschools areforcedtocurtailprogramsandcutthenumberofteachersbecausethereisnomoneyLocalschoollevies arefailing,settingsomedistrictsevenfartherbehindThiscouldbearesultofdissatisfiedparents,competition forresources,abidformorecommunitycontrol,orrebellionagainsthighertaxes.Thefederalgovernment contributesonlyabout2percentofitstotalbudgettoschools(or$789billionin2016,and$85billionproposed for2017),andthatistosupportspecialinitiatives(Tucker,2015)Someaspectsofthesedifficultissueswillbe addressedinthefollowingchapters.
WHATTYPESOFTEACHERSANDCLASSROOMENVIRONMENTSPROVIDETHEBESTLEARNING EXPERIENCEFORCHILDREN?Educatorsdebatelectureversusexperientiallearning,andcooperative
learningversusindividualizedinstruction.Studies(e.g.,PescosolidoandAminzade,1999)ofeffectiveteaching strategiesprovideinformationtohelpeducatorscarryouttheirroleseffectivelyForexample,researchonthe mosteffectivesizeofclassesandschoolsattemptstoprovidepolicymakerswithdatatoinformdecision making(Darling-Hammond,2010)Whatotherclassroomfactorsinfluenceteachingandlearning?
AreviewofthetitlesofarticlesinthepremierejournalSociologyofEducationprovidesanoverviewofcurrent topicsbeingstudiedinthefieldForexample,researchersexploredimmigranteducation,causesofacademic failureanddroppingout,socialclassdifferencesincollegeexpectationsandacceptance,interracialfriendships, racialsegregationinschools,educationalattainmentandattitudestowardschooling,highereducation aspirationsandenrollments,andfemalesandmalesindifferentacademicfieldsLookthroughthisbookand othersociologyofeducationresourcestoaddtothelistofquestionsaskedbysociologistsofeducation;they coverafascinatingarrayoftopics.Sociologicalresearchshedslightoneducationalissues,andthushelps teachers,citizens,andpolicymakerswiththedecision-makingprocessMultitudesofquestionsarise,and manyofthemarebeingstudiedaroundtheworld
ApplyingSociologytoEducation:Fromwhatyouhavereadsofar,whattopicsinsociologyof educationinterestyou?
Box1.1 CurrentResearchintheSociologyofEducation Thefollowingsamplingofcurrentresearchquestionsgivesanideaofthewiderangeofsubjectmatter:
1Ifparentsareinvolvedintheirchildren’sschooling,arechildrenmoresuccessfulinschool?
2Howeffectivearedifferentteachingtechniques,stylesoflearning,classroomorganizations,and schoolandclassroomsizeinteachingstudentsofvarioustypesandabilities?
3Whataresomecommunityinfluencesontheschool,andhowdotheseaffectdecisionmaking inschools,especiallyasitrelatestotheschoolcurriculumandsocializationoftheyoung?
4.Doteacherproficiencyexamsincreaseteachingquality?Dostudentachievementexams improveeducation?
5Canminoritystudentslearnbetterormoreinanintegratedschool?
6.Doschoolsperpetuateinequality?
7Shouldreligionbeallowedinschools?Whatarethepracticesaroundtheworld?
8Doestracking(abilitygrouping)helporhurtstudentlearning?
9.DidtheUSgovernmentpoliciesunderPresidentObama“NoChildLeftBehind,”“Racetothe Top,”andCommonCorehavepositiveornegativeeffectsoverall?
10Doschoolspreparestudentsforthetransitiontowork?
11.Whoaretheworld’smostpreparedstudentsaccordingtointernationaltests,andwhy?
12Aresomestudentsaroundtheworldovereducatedfortheemploymentopportunitiesthatare availabletothem?
13.Howdoeseducationaffectincomepotential?
14Doesschoolchoiceproducebetterschools?
15Doesculturalcapitalofstudentsaffectacademicachievement?
(Note:Theseandothertopicsarefromarticlesthatappearinsociologyjournals)
USSchoolsintheEarlyTwenty-FirstCentury SomekidsseelittleadvantagetocompletinghighschoolTheyfeelalienatedfromtheschoolenvironment, havefewrolemodelswhohave“madeit,”andseelittlereasontostrugglethroughTheseattitudestoward educationhaveahistory,addressedinbookssuchasKozol’sSavageInequalities(1991),MacLeod’sAin’tNo Makin’It(1987),andPaulle’sToxicSchools(2013),anddocumenttheinequalitiesbetweenrichandpoorschool districtsandlifeinpoorneighborhoodsandschools
Whenseveralprominentsociologistsofeducationwereaskedabouttheirpredictionsforeducationintheyears ahead,mostpredictedthattheproblemsfacingUSschoolswouldseelittleimprovementinthenearfutureThe problemsfacingourschoolsreflectthedeeplyrootedproblemspastandpresentinoursocietyThey suggestedthatsociologicaltheoriesandmethodswouldmakeamajorcontributiontounderstandingthe societalforcesandtheschooldynamicsthatunderlieschoolproblems;thisknowledgeisessentialtotacklethe problemsofthetwenty-firstcentury
Planningforsocialandinstitutionalchangeassumesknowledgeofeducationalsystemsandfuturetrends Informationcollectedbysociologists,othersocialscientists,andeducatorsprovidesanoverviewofschoolsin thetwenty-firstcentury,andsamplesofpredictionsforthefuturebasedonresearchdataDemographers,for example,provideuswithrelevantinformationforschoolplanning:populationprojections,migrationpatterns, andsocialtrends.Proposalsforreformandinnovationcomebothfromwithintheeducationalorganization andfromitsenvironmentpolitical,economic,andtechnologicaldimensionsaswellasnationalandworld trendsInthisnextsection,weprovideexamplesofsometrends,projections,andimplicationsthataffect education.
DemographicTrends Therapidgrowthofeducationthroughthe1960sintheUnitedStatesandmanyothercountriescreateda boommentality:therewasanexpansionofteachertrainingprogramsinpublicschoolsanduniversities;new facilitieswerebuilt;andwhenmoniesbecameavailable,innovationswereimplementedHowever,education hascycles,andwiththeendoftheboomcameabustthatclosedsomeschoolsandclassroomsduetodropping numbersofstudents,lossofjobs,boarded-upschools,anddroppingfinancialsupport.Map1.2indicatesthe projectedchangeinenrollmentsbetween2014and2026
PopulationtrendsagainimpactedschoolsasincreasesintheannualbirthsintheUnitedStatespeakedin1990; enrollmentswerealsoaffectedbynewchildrenfromimmigrantfamiliesenteringschools.PublicschoolK-12 enrollmentsin2016topped50millionstudents(DigestofEducationalStatistics,2015,Table20310),withthe largestincreasesinthewesternUnitedStates
Map12ProjectedPercentageChangeinPublicSchoolEnrollmentinPrekindergartenthroughGrade12,byState:BetweenSchoolYears 2013–14and2025–6Source:USDepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,CommonCoreofData(CCD),“State NonfiscalSurveyofPublicElementary/SecondaryEducation,”2013–14;andStatePublicElementaryandSecondaryEnrollmentProjection Model,1980through2025SeeDigestofEducationStatistics2015,table20320
FamilyandSocialTrends Changeinthesocialclasscompositionoftheschool-agepopulationistakingplace,largelybecauseminority groupsarethefastest-growingpopulationsintheUnitedStatesandtheyhavehighestpercentageofchildren livinginpovertyMorethan155millionchildrenintheUnitedStatestodayarepoor,and“adisproportionate numberareBlackandLatino Theyareoftenlesshealthy,cantrailinemotionalandintellectual development,andarelesslikelytograduatefromhighschool”(Children’sDefenseFund,2016).
ConsidertheHispanicpopulation,thefastest-growingethnicgroupintheUnitedStates.Hispanicssurpassed AfricanAmericansasthelargestminorityin2005Infall2015,schoolswerecomposedof247millionWhite students,77millionBlackstudents,and131millionHispanicstudentsInfallof2014,Latino,Black,andAsian studentsoutnumberednon-HispanicWhitestudents(Maxwell,2014).By2050,Hispanicsarepredictedtobe25 percentoftheUSpopulation;thus,theriseinenrollmentsisdueinparttoHispanicchildrenenteringschools Again,povertyisprevalentinsomeHispaniccommunities,andthesechildrenarealsofacedwithalanguage barrierinschool.
Lessthanhalf(46percent)ofUSchildrenliveinahomewithtwoheterosexualparents,comparedto73 percentin1960;35percentliveinsingleparentfamilies;that’s24,689,000children(Livingston,2014;Kids CountDataCenter,2016).Nearlyhalfofthoseraisedbyasinglemotherarelivingbelowthepovertyline(US CensusBureau,2015)Whydoesthismatter?Itmattersbecausetoomanystudentsinpovertyfailtograduate, astheystrugglewithhighdropoutratesandlackofaccessorfundstocontinuetheireducationThenumberof servicesectorandskilledhigh-techjobsinsocietyisincreasing,buttheskillsneededchangefrequently becauseofnewtechnologies,inturnrequiringreeducationThosewhohavenotfinishedhighschoolwilllack therequiredskillsandhavedifficultytrainingforthenewjobs
EconomicTrendsAffectingEducation AsWesternsocietiesmovemoredeeplyintothepostindustrialinformationage,knowledgecreationand processingbecomesaprimarycommodityServicesectorjobsinhealth,education,andotherserviceareasare growingrapidly,andwhite-collarjobsareoutstrippingblue-collarjobsintermsofdemandandearnings.Jobs inprimarysectorsoffishing,forestry,agriculture,andmanufacturingaredecliningAlthoughprivatesector
jobsareincreasingslowlysincetherecession,manyhavebeenlosttooutsourcingThegrowthsectorsofthe economywillrequireinformation-processingskills,especiallytheabilitytousecomputersandrelated technologiesThus,jobgrowthwillbeinareasrequiringhighlevelsofeducationandtechnologicalknowledge Highschooldropoutsandlesseducatedcitizenswillhaveincreasingdifficultycompeting,withsomebeingleft behindYetresearcherswonderwhetherthismeanseveryoneshouldcompleteacollegedegree
SchoolsoftheFuture PredictionsarealwaysproblematicTechnologiesarechangingatsucharapidratethattomorrowisuncertain However,anumberoffuturologistshaveattemptedtodrawscenariosoftheschoolsoftomorrowusing knowledgeofsocioeconomicconditions,predictednewtechnologies,recommendationsfrommorethanthirty commissionandtaskforcereports,knowledgeofdemographics,andothersourcesPredictionsofpossible changesforschoolsofthefutureincludeincreasingschoolchoice,smallneighborhoodschools,reducedclass sizes,moretechnologyinschools,changedmissionsincludingnewcurricula,reconfiguredclassrooms,24/7 schools,lessuseofpaper,changesingradedistributions,mainstreamedspecialeducation,moreearly childhoodeducation,andmorehomeschoolingusingcomputertechnology.Computersandelectronic classroomswillbeanessentialingredientinsuccessfulschools(EducationWorld,2016)
Futurologistspredictthattechnologywillplayanincreasingroleintheeducationalprocessbothinclassrooms andininformationretrievaloutofclassroomsTeachersarelikelytobecomemoreinvolvedwiththeir students,addingahumantouchtoeducation;moreclasstimewillbedevotedtogroupdiscussions;fieldtrips willbecomemorefrequent;demonstrations,investigativeprojects,andhands-onlabexperienceswillincrease; andeducationwillbecomemoreindividualizedLifelonglearningwillbearegularpartoftheadultexperience andwilltakeplaceinmanysettings.Structuresofschoolsmayalsochange,includingsmallerschools;more privateschools,especiallyifvouchersystemsareenacted;andmorehoursofoperation,includingafter-school andeveningprograms
Mostoftheseplanssoundplausible,butwemustkeepseveralfactorsinmind.First,money.Mostofthe suggestionsforschoolchangesrequiremoney,andatatimewhenmanydistrictsarestrugglingtoholdonto theprogramsandteacherstheyhavewithoutmakingmajorcutbacks,thisappearsproblematicSofarthe publicrecordonpassageoftaxleviesforadditionalmonieshasnotbeenpromising.
Inaddition,somepoorersocioeconomicgroupsinAmericansocietymaynotbepreparedtoparticipateinthe neweducationalandeconomicstateTheknowledgeandskillgapthatexiststodayislikelytowidenthegap betweensocioeconomicgroupsandleaveanevenmorepronouncedunderclass
ReformandPolicyinEducationalSystems ThroughoutthisbookwediscussissuesfacingeducationtodayInsomecases,policieshavebeenformulated andprogramsimplementedtodealwithproblems.Inotherexistingandemergingareas,suchasglobalsystems ofeducationandinequalitiesbetweenboys’andgirls’education,solutionstoproblemsarestillbeing researchedandimplemented
IntheUnitedStates,theBushadministration’sNoChildLeftBehindpolicy,passedin2001,calledforincreased accountability,morechoiceforparentsandstudents,greaterflexibilityforeducationalsystems,putting readingfirst,andothermandatesaimedatimprovingeducationalperformanceTheObamaadministration’s RacetotheTopandotherplanssuchasCommonCorehavebeentransformingmanyareasofeducation, includinghowteachersarepromotedandcompensated.Recently,the“EveryStudentSucceeds”plansaimto seeappropriateeducationforeachchildThesereformplanswillbediscussedthroughoutyourtext
Sociologistshavearoletoplayinresearch,policymaking,andthechangeprocessEveryorganizationneedsto havebuilt-in,ongoingdata-collectionmechanismsinorderfortheorganizationtodetermineifitismeetingits
goalsForexample,sociologistsarestudyingtheimpactofgovernmentpoliciesonachievementPrograms oftenrequireevaluationtodeterminewhethergoalsarebeingmet,andsociologistsarefrequentlycalledonto providetheseprogramevaluationsanddevelopproceduresforcollectingandanalyzingdataSociologists contributetoourunderstandingofeducationalsystemsbystudyinghowsystemsworkandhowthepartsfit together
Sourcesoftension,strain,andchangefrombothinsideandoutsidetheorganizationprovideimpetusfor change,yetmanyreformersarepessimisticaboutchangingtheself-preservingeducationalsysteminmore thanasuperficialway.Wewillseethateducationalsystemsarevulnerabletopressuresfromwithinthe systemandfromoutsideIfthosewiththepowertoimplementchangewanteducationalchange,reformis possibleTobringaboutreform,oneshouldhaveanunderstandingofindividuals,organizations,and environmentsthatmakeupthetotaleducationalsystem.Thatiswherethisbookcanhelp!
SociologyofEducationintheUnitedStates Initially,themotivationofsociologistsofeducationintheUnitedStateswastoreformsocietyandthe educationsystemLesterFrankWard,oneofthesixfoundingfathersofAmericansociologyandthefirst presidentoftheAmericanSociologicalAssociation,arguedin1883thateducationisaprincipalsourceof humanprogressandanagentofchangethatcanfostermoralcommitmentandcognitivedevelopmentto bettersociety(Bidwell,1979)Thefieldwasreferredtoaseducationalsociology,anditfocusedonpractical issuesandtheformulationofpolicyandrecommendations.Thenamesociologyofeducationwasintroducedin thelate1920sbyRobertAngell(1928)Angellandothersbelievedthatresearchineducationalinstitutions wouldproducereliablescientificdata,butthatsociologycouldnotandshouldnotpromisetoproduceanswers orsuggestchangestosolveschoolproblems.Today,however,thereisaneedforsociologistswithboth emphases:tobothcarryoutobjectiveresearchandtoworkwithschoolsininterpretingandimplementing scientificfindingsNeededforbothemphasesistohavespecialtraininginscientificmethodology,aswellas practicalknowledgeofhowschoolsworkinordertoapplysociologicalfindings.
Thisbookdealsbothwiththeoreticalstudiesofschoolsandwiththepracticalapplicationoftheoryand researchinschoolsandclassroomsThelatteraspectisimportantbecausemostofyouwillbeusingthis knowledgeinyourrolesasparentsorprofessionals.Sociologyhaspracticalapplicationsandanimpacton policyinadditiontoitsabstractandtheoreticalsideWeturnnexttotheroleofsociologicaltheoryinstudying education
TheoreticalApproachesintheSociologyofEducation Somanyquestions,somanytopicsforresearch,somuchimportantinformationforschools!Toguideresearch studiesonthemanyquestionsposed,sociologistsusetheories,statementsregardinghowandwhyfactsare relatedtoeachotherandtheconnectionsbetweenthesefacts.Thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthemajor theoreticalparadigmsusedinthesociologyofeducation
Althoughsociologyofeducationisafairlynewfieldofinquiry,ithasrootsinclassicalsociologicaltheoryIn thepastcentury,emphasishasbeengiventoeducationasauniqueinstitutionandanobjectivefieldofstudy. Duringthisperiod,researchhasfocusedonmanyofthesocialissuesmentionedintheprevioussectionin whicheducationplaysapart
Inthetwenty-firstcentury,workinthesociologyofeducationcanbedividedintodifferentlevelsofanalysis, fromthelarge-scalemacro-levelstudiesthatconsidereducationsystemsofcountriesandworldtrends,aswell astheroleoflarge-scalepolicies,tothesmall-scalemicro-levelstudiesofclassroominteractionsScientistsuse theoreticalperspectivestoprovidelogicalexplanationsforwhythingshappenthewaytheydoStartingthe studyofasubjectwithatheoreticalperspectiveprovidesaguideto,oraparticularconceptionof,howthe socialworldworks
AtheoreticalpointofviewalsoinfluenceswhattheresearcherseesandhowitisinterpretedJustasour individualexperiencesinfluenceourinterpretationsofeventsinoureverydaylives,sociologistshaveseveral theoreticalperspectivestohelpexplainwhythingshappenthewaytheydoJustaseachindividualinterprets situationsdifferentlydependingonhisorherbackground,theoristsfocusondifferentaspectsofaresearch problemAtheoreticalapproachhelpstodeterminethequestionsresearchersaskandthewaytoorganize researchinordertogetanswers
InthissectionwediscussseveralimportanttheoreticalparadigmsSociologistsusingeachtheoryhavemade majorcontributionsinthefieldofsociologyofeducation,andwewilldiscussmanyofthemthroughoutthe text.Thefirsttwoapproachesconcerndifferingviewsofthewaysocietiesandeducationalsystemsworkatthe macro-levelThenexttwodealwithinteractionsinsocialsituationsthemicro-levelThefunctionaland conflictapproachestendtodealwithmacro-level(large-scale)institutionsofeducationinsocieties,whereas theinteractionapproachesfocusonmicro-level(small-scale)interactionbetweenindividualsandsmallgroups. Theopensystemsapproach,whichprovidesthemodelorframeworkforthisbook,isexplainedattheendof thischapter
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Kumpumäen kivisellä kukkulalla kaksi taloa on vieretyksin.
Vanhat vaarit tavallansa vakavalla niissä elelevät ystävyksin.
Vuorotellen toisissansa talkohissa valkohasten rengit, piiat käyvät.
Vuorotellen vaarit itse kaupungissa liikeseikoistansa selvittäyvät.
Niinpä kerrankin on tullut kaupungista toisen talon ukki illan suussa.
Vaan ei muista mainitakaan tuomisista, niin on mieli myllertynyt muussa.
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Rautateitse palaavat he Suomen kautta, Suomen kansa kilvan heitä kiittää.
Tullos rautatielle, meidänkin sen tautta täytyy kiitoksemme heille liittää."
Pian toinen vaari ymmärtää jo toisen, ottaa kiireisesti nutun, lakin, alottaen sauvamarssin aikamoisen. Toinen vaari pääsee sauvattakin.
Pitkin lehtotietä illan viileässä ukit kiirehtivät kulkuansa, — radan vierustalla ylikäytävässä kaksin odottavat vieraitansa.
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Paljon kertomista riittää vanhuksilla lapsillensa vierahista näistä.
Vierahatkin hauskimmilla muistelmilla muistavat "ne kaksi yksinäistä."
1899.
Herra sensori.
Käy sensori taiten tarkastamaan mitä poikanen hälle on tuonut, mitä metsissä kuutamomatkoillaan runoniekka on nuorekas luonut. —
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Ja poikanen lemmekäs hervahtain tytön jalkojen juureen heittyi… koko maan sekä taivaan unhottain hän armaansa helmaan peittyi. — —
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Nämät ken voi eksyä unhottamaan, kun jää tytön jalkojen juureen, kapinallinen kelmi on kerrassaan, on eksynyt syntiin suureen.
Herra sensori ankaran muodon saa, viran puolesta toimeliaasti hän velvollisuutensa oivaltaa — rivin pyyhkivi tarmokkaasti. 1899. Ihanteen etsijä.
Olen aatetta kauvan kaivannut, joka lauluni lentoon saisi.
Olen katsonut kaihoten taivaat, maat, mikä mieltäni innostaisi.
Valon kaihossa kauvan hapuilin, vaan unhotin pohjolan päivän, ajatusteni aalloissa uiskellen koin huuhtoa mieleni häivän.
Minä kaihosin ihmisveljeyteen, vaan naapuriveljiä vieroin, ja veljeyskaihoni — kauhulla näin — oli itserakkaus kieroin.
Isänmaalleni mieleni sitten soin, se vanhakin vaikk' oli aate.
Sen pohjalle — ihmeeksi maailman — oli aikeeni laittaa raade.
Isänmaassani astelin tarkastain mun viljelystarhani juurta, johon jotakin voisin nostattaa eriskummaista, loistavan suurta.
Sitä juurta mä missään nähnyt en, ja kun katselin kaihoisemmin, olin ankara kurjasta synnystäin — ja itseän taas minä lemmin.
Kun niin minun mieleni myllertäin oman toivonsa tarhoja kitki, kotimaani mä vaarassa silloin näin, minä näin miten kansani itki.
Kotimaani mä vallassa vaaran näin, mut kansani murheissaankin oli jäyhä ja uljas ja maallensa oli altis se uhrautumaankin.
Olen poikanen Suomen! Kansani on kotimaassani luonani mulla.
Jäsen jäntevän heimoni olla ma saan, ja tahdon sen verraksi tulla.
Oi, Suomeni, sulla on muinaisuus maan kansojen kaunokaisin, on kuin runo sorja ja sointuinen, syvä, suuri ja ihanaisin.
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Kivikummuista, korvesta, kansani, loit sinä viljavat pellot ja niityt, ja siksi sä kantelin, lauluines niin lujasti maahasi liityt.
Vaan lauluissa, joittenka soinnussa on humu kuusten ja kuiskeet tuulen, tulet tunnen mä rintojen kaihoisten ja Väinämön viisautta kuulen.
Kun taas sinä, kansani, laulaen teet vaikeissa vaaroissa työtä, ihanteeni ja onneni suurin on sun työssäsi olla myötä.
Syyskuulla 1899.
Torpanpoika.
Minä olen pienosen torpan poika, poikanen matala ja köyhä, kivikosta, karikosta leipäni kaivan eipä se elo ole löyhä.
Mulla on neitonen naapurissa, sirkeäsilmä ja nuori. Tupani kun korjaan, tyttönsä mulle lupasi jo naapurin muori.
Kulkuritattari reppua kantaa, paperia mulle näyttää:
"Kirjoita, talon sulle lahjaksi annan, apuani tahdotko käyttää?"
Kaikkoa kauvaksi reppuriraukka, kulkuriheittiö hurja!
Sulta en ikänäni "apua" mä huoli, oloni jos ois kuin kurja.
Itse mä mökkini kuntoon laitan, yli lahen purrella soudan, onneni, lempeni lauluja laulan, kultani kotihini noudan.
Viekas tattari vilkuen virkkaa: "Maltahan, huutaja huima, vien sinut soturiksi vieraalle maalle, sielläpä elosi on tuima.
Vien sinut sinne ja kultasi tänne, täällä sun kultasi nääntyy. Mulle jos sydämesi, uskosi annat, maireeksi matkasi kääntyy."
Pakene jo luotani kulkurikonna, kaikkoa taakse aidan, taikka sun, turkasen, tuttujes luokse lintujen siivillä laitan!
Itse mä työstäni onneni etsin, Luojani johtoon luotan, Luojalta paulojes päästimeksi apua ja turvaa vuotan.
Itse mä työstäni onneni etsin, onneni tytölleni kannan, itseni, tyttöni, Luoja jos sallii, maalleni uhriksi annan.
Tampereella 1899. Pohjolan neidet lännessä.
Mereltä neittä seitsemän toi tuuli tullessaan. He puitten varjoon istuivat rannalle länsimaan.
Kajossa illan katsomaan tulivat viiksisuut, tulivat suuret ruunupäät ja pienoisemmat muut.
Suloiset, sorjat neidet on, vaan kenpä tiesi sen, ne onko immet Vellamon vai keijut ilmojen.
Vaan länsi heidän kaukaisen sukunsa kuulla saa, kun vetten taakse katsellen he laulun kaijuttaa.
Se laulu kaihosointuinen kainosti ilmoittaa:
etäällä pohjolassa on yks ihanainen maa.
Sen lehdot veessä heijastuu välillä vuorien, ja taivas illoin, aamuisin luo ruskon kultaisen.
On kansa siellä kunnokas ja jäyhä toimissaan; se korvesta on kyntänyt valoisan viljamaan.
Ja taistot tuimat käynyt on se nuijin, miekoinkin, vaan ihanammat, suuremmat runoin ja kantelin.
Se talviyöstä noussut on suv'aamun säteilyyn; sen laihot nosti latvojaan jo päivän häikäisyyn. —
Niin pohjan neidet laulullaan ihasti viiksisuut, ihasti suuret ruunupäät ja pienoisemmat muut. Syyskuulla 1899. Kotkankallio.
Kotka se lenteli ilmojen halki, siipeä viisti ja aaltoon löi ja kun pesän huomasi pienosen linnun, siihen se iski ja mylleröi.
Kallion loukossa, harjalla kummun, niskalla kosken kuohuisen kivenviha kasvatti poikasiansa, kunnes ne kuontuisi lentimilleen.
Kotka se ulapalla vaaniessansa kallion loukkoon tähtäili, liiteli, laateli, kiertäen, kaartain, kohti jo vihdoin syöksähti.
Kova oli kallion korkea kärki, kotka iski kyntensä kalliohon, siinä se kahleissa vieläkin istuu, kivenviha kallion turvissa on.
Tampereella 1899.
Keväinen kotiintuminen.
Suli hei, hepo, astele arvelematta, elä niskojas nakkele ensinkään! Sulonurmi jo kaunoset kunnaat kattaa, käki täyttää tienoot helkyllään. Ratas laulavi, raikuu raklattain, tulisirkoset pyörästä säihkyy vain. Suli hei, hepo, rattaita vinhaan vie! Kovin pitkä on tie.
Ilo sammui maailman pauhinassa, sydän synkkeni kuohussa kaupungin. Suru pitkien iltojen valvonnassa tuli vieraaksi kalliomuureihiii. Jopa lämpeni päivä ja hanget vei,
elo elkeni, uhkeni, hei suli hei, kotitietä on riemukas taivaltaa, kun on vihreä maa!
Tiehaara on kaukana kuonnuksissa ja se kotihin kulkijan johdattaa. Koko tien näen täältä jo aatoksissa, pää vaikkapa vaivoin silmiin saa. Lepät lehtevät vierellä versoo sen, ratas kuopissa keinuu horjuellen. Hepo tietävi tiensä kääntyessään ihan itsestään.
Niin tuttuja tääll' ovat pensaat, puutkin, ahot marjavat, niityt aitoineen. Kotitanhuat, metsiköt, tienoot muutkin sulomuistoja kiehtovat aatokseen. Lehdon lentävät lintuset laulelevat tulolaulelut raikkaat, riemuisat. Kotiseutuni, kuin olet armainen, miten armainen!
Mäki eessäni vielä on männikköinen, koti ei ihan kuonnu kuumottamaan. Kevätaurinko laskee, hengetär öinen käy männikön lehvillä soutelemaan. Mäen rinteessä aattelen, onkohan vaan koti kaunonen viel' ihan ennallaan. Hevon kaula se rinteessä kyömään käy, koti vaan ei näy.
Se on tuolla, se tuolla on kummullansa, on tuolla se rannalla lahdelman! Kas, kuinka se nostaa kattoansa sädeloistoon päivyen laskeevan! Kas, rannalla tuuhea pihlajapuu kera kartanon lahdessa heijastuu! Katon harjalla viiri se viittaa päin mua tervehtäin.
Suli hei, hepo hilkkase arvelematta mäen viettoa vierua laskettain! Ilokyynele silmää kastelematta ei anna mun katsoa armastain. Ratas vierivi, matka jo loppuun saa, hepo portilla riemuiten hirnahtaa. Kotiportti se vinkuu hiljaisen tuloterveisen.
Kotihalli se haukkuu kartanolla, kunis tuntevi, alkavi riemuamaan. Ihanaisia hetkiä monta olla tällaisia ei voi päällä maan. Isä, äiti ja sisko ja perhe muu ulos pihalle pirtistä sulloutuu. Ilohaastelu vilpas viihdyttää ja viihtymys jää. 1898. Iltakello.
Iltakello helkähdellen rannat kattaa kaijullaan, kaiku lehdot kierrätellen helkkyy ylle viljamaan.
Kumarassa kukkivaiset kultaviljan korjaajat kuullen kaijut kaunokaiset selkiänsä oikovat.
Reipas renki, nuori Ville sirpin maahan singottaa, takin heittää hartehille, piipun hampaihinsa saa.
Torpan joukot päivätyönsä taasen saivat illoilleen, miehyt kiinnittävi vyönsä päivän työssä löyhtyneen.
Torpan vaimo pientarelle käypi luokse lastensa,
antaa rinnan pienoselle, nokan niistää toiselta.
Torpan tyttö kainomieli ruista suorii sormillaan, rauniolle häll' on mieli vaapukoita poimimaan.
Piikatyttö ruskosilmä suorii tumman palmikon, kartanolle käyden vilmä alkaa lemmenlaulelon.
Syksyillan tienoholle virittäissä varjojaan, joukot käyvät kartanolle kylpemään ja nukkumaan.
Sängiköllä jälkipuolia vaari tarkastellen käy, onko toimet tehty huolla, ettei tähkäpäitä näy.
1899.
Ilta. Iltapäivän kultaloimo lahden rannat peittää, lehtoniemen liepehelle poika verkot heittää.
Häll' on tyttö soutimilla, tyttö kultatukka,
kirkassilmä, ruskoposki rantakummun kukka.
Päivän säihkyt suutelevat nuoren neidon kaulaa, nuori neito soutaessa raikkahasti laulaa.
Nuoren rinnan riemusoinnut laulelosta tulvii, kaihon kumma kaukomieli riemun alla hulvii.
Neidon laulu rantamilla kaikuhunsa hukkuu, kaukaisessa kuusikossa käkikulta kukkuu.
1998.
Neitosen sulhaset.
Kasvoi neitonen kirkassilmä taattonsa tanhuilla. Kaksipa kasvoi sulhaspoikaa kahdella naapurilla.
Kasvoi neidosta kultatukka, vieno ja sorja ja sievä. Kirkkaitten silmien huomenrusko oli niin sulosa ja vievä.
Sinisukissa sipsutteli neitonen kiehkurakulma,
rengaskorva ja sormussormi — naapurin poikien pulma.
Rikkaan, mahtavan naapurin poika kosimassa kulki, kiilloilla, hopehilla houkutteli — neito se mielensä sulki.
Pienosen naapuritorpan poika mökkiänsä laittoi — hälle se neitonen kirkassilmä ruusuja rintaan taittoi.
Vaan tuli ryssä ja neidon ryösti viettäen Venäjälle.
Rikas poika hyppäsi katsomahan pellon veräjälle.
Siitä kun kuuli se torpparipoika, ryssän jäljestä juoksi.
Ryssä, se pelkuri, neidon jätti vierivän virran luoksi.
Punapaidan helma hulmakehti ryssän juostessa tietään, mutta se neitonen kirkassilmä torpan miniäksi viedään. 1899. Neitokolmikko.
Suuren seljän niemekkeellä, lehväkuusten katvehessa, kaiteilla mykevän kummun vihannoivat viljapellot. Pellon keskikenkämällä koti kaunonen kohosi. Kodin helmassa kasusi kolme nuorta kaunokaista, neitoa solakkavartta.
Yksi näistä neitosista kesin kulki marjamailla karjojansa kaitsemassa. Illoin laulellen, iloiten toi hän karjan kartanolle, villoi vuonat, lypsi lehmät, vaali, hoiteli visusti.
Toinen noista neitosista viiletteli venhosella kiikutellen, keinutellen suuren seljän rantamilla lainehitten läikkehessä.
Kolmas niistä neitosista allapäin, hajallamielin istuskeli ikkunassa, siinä silmänsä hapuillen katselivat kaukomaille.
Tuli sulho sarkatakki, immen karjan kaitselijan kopallutti karjahansa, viedä kiidätti kotiinsa, huonehensa hoitajaksi, suurentajaksi sukunsa.
Tuulen henkonen heräsi, aallot korkeiksi kohotti, toisen noista neitosista purren kanssa kaikotutti järven aaltojen ajolle.
Kolmas impi ikkunassa katsoi kaihoten alati. Silmät siintävät hapuillen häilyivät jälessä toisten kauvemmaksi kaikotessa.
Ensimmäinen neitosista elinaikansa kulutti hyörinässä, pyörinässä.
Lapsensa samalla lailla jatkoivat eloa äidin.
Toinen sortui soljuessa järven aaltojen ajolla, kuohuaallot kumpuellen vieryivät väsähtämättä kuolinpaikkansa ylitse.
Kolmas hukkui huolihinsa, kaihomielen kyyneleihin, missä hukkui, siinä huolten kyynelhelmyet kimalsi. 1896.
Neitonen, tietäjä kuitenkin.
Tuoksuva, kukkiva suvi oli silloin, kun hänen luonansa olla sain, kulkien kummut ja soutaen aallot tenhossa toivojen, tunnelmain.
Vartensa hento, nuorekas, norja sorjana soljui käydessään, vaan miten varma oli uljas ryhti hallitsi puhdasta lempeyttään!
Katsoinko kulmien kaarien alle, tummat taikojen kuilut näin, näin niin syvät ja viisaat silmät, että mä säpsähdin säikähtäin.
Silmien kiehkurakaarien alta katse tuijotti tutkien, vaan kun aatteista innostuimme, silloin se säihkysi säteillen.
Hän oli hento ja sentään suuri, neitonen, tietäjä kuitenkin, nauravan koskaan en hänen nähnyt, hymy oli hillitty, vienoisin.
Vaikea hänt' oli väittein voittaa, vaikea tuntein valloittaa, sain toki kerran kaihoa nähdä tunteensa hetteistä tulvahtavaa.
"Umpeen vaipui se kirkas silmä", lauloi äänin hän vienoisin, "äidin peittivät mullan alle" — silloin silmä jo vettyikin.
Kostein silmin hän katsoi kauvas, kauvas seutuun salaiseen — vaan kun katsehen mulle heitti, sirkosi silmä jo säkeneen.
Joskus illoin häntä mä mietin niinkuin outoa ongelmaa, vaikka mä mietinkin ymmärtämättä, aina hän eessäni kangastaa.
1899.
Annikki. (Kalevala 18).
Annikki tytti on toimeva tytti, keveä ja ketterä käynniltään. Kukko kun kiekkuu puolen yön, Annikki alkaa jo puhdetyön.
Hämärä on pirtti ja pitkä on puhde, Annikki ei sitä huomaakaan.
Hän se kun kehrätä kieputtaa yli tuvan värttinä vieputtaa.
Annikki tytti kun karjoja katsoo piikoja lypsää luikuttaa, hyrisevät piiat mielissään, eivätkä potkase ensinkään.
Annikki tytti kun sotkuja huuhtoo laiturin reunalla laulellen, kotilehto lauluja toistuttaa, lainoset louhia loiskuttaa.
Annikki katsovi ylle ja alle, niemiä, saaria silmäilee. Päivä se lehtoja seijastaa, aaltojen allakin heijastaa.
Annikki tytti on toimeva tytti, miniänä vasta se vikkelä ois. Ken hänet kotihinsa kuljettais, kotihinsa ainosen onnen sais.
Kosihin jo kulkevi naapurin Väinö, kosihin jo Ilmariveljytkin.
Kosihin ne kulkevat, eipähän vaan
Annikin kosijata kuulukaan.
1898.
Kumma tyttö.
Kumma tyttö, kumma tyttö, kumma tyttö kerrassaan! On kuin pieni leppäkerttu, melkein neulan nuppi vaan.
Nauratellen, riemahdellen
liepsut, leijut yhtenään, niinkuin kuusilehdon tikka tiksuttelee mielissään.
Pienen pieni, kirkassilmä — kumma tyttö kerrassaan! Naurusuuta nähdessäni mun on pakko nauramaan.
Mitäs tästä elämästä… naurakaamme sille vaan! Yksintuumin naurakaamme hupsut huolet unholaan.
1896.
Koulu jo alkaa.
Heippararalla, Pekka ja Malla, joukkomme kaikki jo tulkaa pois! Koulu jo alkaa, polkien jalkaa astumme, torvi kuin tahtia
