TheSAGEHandbookof SpecialEducation
EditorialAdvisors
AniesAl-Hroub,AmericanUniversityofBeirut,Lebanon
PaulBartolo,UniversityofMalta,Malta
AmyBrereton,St.Edmund’sCollege,Cambridge,England
CristinaCardona,UniversityofAlicante,Spain
SuzanneCarrington,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,Australia
CristinaDevecchi,TheUniversityofNorthampton,England
JoeDunne,St.Patrick’sCollege,Ireland
SusanGabel,ChapmanUniversity,USA
JanGaffney,TheUniversityofAuckland,NewZealand
VivianHeung,HongKongInstituteofEducation,HongKong
JudyKugelmas,BinghamtonUniversity,USA
FestusObiakor,ValdostaStateUniversity,USA
CeliaOyler,ColumbiaUniversity,USA
SusanPeters,MichiganStateUniversity,USA
RichardRose,TheUniversityofNorthampton,England
MartynRouse,UniversityofAberdeen,Scotland
KateScorgie,AzusaPacificUniversity,USA
KatharineGreenShepherd,UniversityofVermont,USA
DeneseVaillant,ORTUniversity,Uruguay
SaiVäyrynen,UniversityofLapland,Finland
KathrynYoung,MetropolitanStateUniversityofDenver,USA
Editedby LaniFlorian
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Secondeditionfirstpublished2014
Firsteditionpublishedin2006,reprintedin2008,2009,2010,2011and2012
Editorialmaterial©LaniFlorian2014 Chapter1©LaniFlorian2014 Chapter2©MargaretA Winzer2014 Chapter3©TonyClineandNorahFrederickson2014 Chapter4©BrahmNorwich2014 Chapter5©BethHarry2014 Chapter6©SheilaRiddell2014 Chapter7©DavidJ Connor2014 Chapter8©MarciaRioux2014 Chapter9©RenatoOpertti,ZacharyWalkerandYiZhang2014 Chapter10©MelAinscow2014 Chapter11©ChunlingLiuandXueyunSu2014 Chapter12©NidhiSingal2014 Chapter13©RogerSlee2014 Chapter14©ElizabethKozleski,AlfredoArtilesandFedericoWaitoller2014 Chapter15©SipJanPijl2014 Chapter16©GaryThomas2014
Chapter17©JohnW Maag2014
Chapter18©J S deValenzuela2014
Chapter19©UshaGoswami2014
Chapter20©JustinJW Powell2014
Chapter21©DouglasBiklen,FernandaOrsatiandJessicaBacon2014
Chapter22©SamuelL OdomandKathleenLynneLane2014
Chapter23©KristineBlack-Hawkins2014 Chapter24©JillPorter2014
Chapter25©BarbaraRidleyandMichaelF Watts2014
Chapter26©SusanHartandMaryJaneDrummond2014
Chapter27©JonathanRixandKieronSheehy2014
Chapter28©DavidH Rose,JennaW GravelandDavidT Gordon2014 Chapter29©JeanWare2014
Chapter30©JudithHollenweger2014
Chapter31©LouiseHayward2014
Chapter32©RoseannaBourkeandMandiaMentis2014 Chapter33©AlexKozulin2014
Chapter34©J JoyCummingandGrahamS Maxwell2014
Chapter35©MarthaL Thurlow2014
Chapter36©SusanA Fowler,MichaeleneM OstroskyandTweetyJ Yates2014 Chapter37©SharonVaughn,JeanneWanzekandCarolynA.Denton2014
Chapter38©LisaA DiekerandSelmaPowell2014 Chapter39©RobertStoddenandKellyRoberts2014
Chapter40©MichaelF Giangreco,MaryBethDoyleandJesseC Suter2014
Chapter41©AmyG DellandDeborahA Newton2014
Chapter42©PennyStandenandDavidBrown2014
Chapter43©JohnWoodwardandRalphFerretti2014
Chapter44©DawnB Male2014
Chapter45©DianneL Ferguson,AmyN HanreddyandPhilipM Ferguson2014
Chapter46©LizTodd2014
Chapter47©RuthCigman2014
Chapter48©DeborahJ Gallagher2014
Chapter49©RuthKershner2014
Chapter50©KariNes2014
Chapter51©MarleenC PugachandLindaP Blanton2014 Chapter52©MargaretJ McLaughlinandAlanDyson2014 Chapter53©ValerieHarwoodandSamanthaMcMahon2014 Chapter54©SeamusHegarty2014 Glossary©CristinaDevecchi2014
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ISBN978-1-4462-1053-6
Preface
Acknowledgements
Endorsements
ComparativeandInternationalPerspectivesonSpecialEducation
JustinJ W Powell
21 ADisabilityStudiesFrameforResearchApproachesinSpecialEducation
DouglasBiklen,FernandaOrsatiandJessicaBacon
22 TheAppliedScienceofSpecialEducation:QuantitativeApproaches,theQuestionsTheyAddress,and HowTheyInformPractice
SamuelL OdomandKathleenLynneLane
23 ResearchingInclusiveClassroomPractices:TheFrameworkForParticipation
KristineBlack-Hawkins 24 ResearchandPupilVoice
JillPorter
25 UsingtheCapabilityApproachtoEvaluatetheWell-beingofAdultLearnerswithDis/abilities
BarbaraRidleyandMichaelF Watts
Pedagogicalapproachesandcurricularconsiderations
26 LearningWithoutLimits:ConstructingaPedagogyFreefromDeterministBeliefsaboutAbility
SusanHartandMaryJaneDrummond
27 NothingSpecial:TheEverydayPedagogyofTeaching
JonathanRixandKieronSheehy
28 UniversalDesignforLearning
DavidH.Rose,JennaW.Gravel,andDavidT.Gordon
29 CurriculumConsiderationsinMeetingtheEducationalNeedsofLearnerswithSevereIntellectual Disabilities
JeanWare Assessment
30 BeyondCategoriesandLabels:KnowledgetoSupportAssessmentforLearning ‘Disability’–A ProblemWellPut?
JudithHollenweger
31
AssessmentforLearningandtheJourneyTowardsInclusion
LouiseHayward
32 Self-Assessmentasan‘Insider’LensforLearningandAssessment
RoseannaBourkeandMandiaMentis
33 DynamicAssessmentandCognitiveIntervention
AlexKozulin
34 ExpandingApproachestoSummativeAssessmentforStudentswithImpairment
J JoyCummingandGrahamS Maxwell
Phasesofeducation
35 InstructionalandAssessmentAccommodationsinthe21stCentury
MarthaL.Thurlow
36 TeachingandLearningintheEarlyYears
SusanA Fowler,MichaeleneM OstroskyandTweetyJ Yates
37 TeachingElementaryStudentswithLearningDifficulties
SharonVaughn,JeanneWanzekandCarolynA Denton
38 SecondarySpecialEducationandInclusivePractices:PitfallsandPotentialfortheSuccessofAll
LisaA DiekerandSelmaPowell
39 StudentswithDisabilitiesinPostsecondaryEducation
RobertStoddenandKellyRoberts
Cross-phaseissuesofteachingandlearning
40 TeacherAssistantsinInclusiveClassrooms
MichaelF.Giangreco,MaryBethDoyleandJesseC.Suter
41 AssistiveTechnologytoProvideAccesstotheCurriculumandIncreaseIndependence
AmyG.DellandDeborahA.Newton
42 MobileLearningandGamesinSpecialEducation
PennyStandenandDavidBrown
43 TheEvolvingUseofTechnologyinSpecialEducation:Is‘Effectiveness’theRightquestion?
JohnWoodwardandRalphFerretti
DawnB Male 45 FindingaVoice:Families’RolesinSchools
DianneL Ferguson,AmyN HanreddyandPhilipM Ferguson
46 Inter-agencyWorkingandSpecialEducation:Beyond‘Virtuous’IdeasofPartnershiptowards AlternativeFrameworksforCollaborativeWorkwithChildren
LizTodd
EducationWithoutCondescension:Philosophy,PersonhoodandCognitiveDisability
RuthCigman
48 ChallengingOrthodoxyinSpecialEducation:OnLongstandingDebatesandPhilosophicalDivides Revisited
DeborahJ.Gallagher
49 WhatdoClassroomTeachersNeedtoKnowaboutMeetingSpecialEducationalNeeds?
RuthKershner
50 TheProfessionalKnowledgeofInclusiveSpecialEducators
KariNes
51 InquiryandCommunity:UncommonOpportunitiestoEnrichProfessionalDevelopmentforInclusion
MarleenC PugachandLindaP Blanton
52 ChangingPerspectivesofSpecialEducationintheEvolvingContextofStandards-BasedReformsinthe USandEngland
MargaretJ McLaughlinandAlanDyson
53 MedicalizationinSchools
ValerieHarwoodandSamanthaMcMahon
54 SpecialEducationanditsContributiontotheBroaderDiscourseofEducation
SeamusHegarty
Glossary
CristinaDevecchi
Index
ListofFiguresandTables
FIGURES
Figure41 ICFExpandedforEducationalUse
Figure51 Race/EthnicityandDisabilityStatistics
Figure61 PercentageofPupilsfromPubliclyFundedSchoolsinScotlandwithParticularTypesof DifficultybytheScottishIndexofMultipleDeprivationdecile(2009)
Figure91 TheContinuallyEvolvingJourneytoInclusion:FourCoreIdeasintheInternationalArena
Figure91a InclusionWithinaHumanRights-BasedPerspective
Figure9.1b InclusionasaResponsetoStudentswithSpecialNeeds
Figure91c InclusionasaResponsetoMarginalizedGroups
Figure91d InclusionasTransformingtheEducationSystematLarge
Figure121 The3EFramework
Figure221 ExamplesofSingleCaseDesigns
Figure22.2 RegressionLinesofComparisonandTreatmentGroups
Figure26.1 ThePractical,PrincipledPedagogicalModel
Figure281 TheUDLGuidelinesandCheckpoints
Figure321 TheSelf-AssessmentLensforLearning
Figure341 ModelofEquitableAssessmentforStudentswithImpairment:EASILEARN
Figure361 CarterFamilyVignette
Figure36.2 SupportingEmily
Figure371 MovementThroughTiersI,IIandIII
Figure37.2 Derek’sOralReadingFluency
Figure37.3 Amy’sOralReadingFluency
Figure541 KnowledgeInputtoTeaching–IncompleteRing
Figure542 InsighttoGuideTeachingMoment
TABLES
Table1.1 EvidencingInclusivePedagogy
Table9.1 InclusiveEducationfromRegionalPerspective
Table111 EnrollmentRatioofChildrenwithThreeTypesofDisabilitiesfromMOEandCDPFin1987
Table112 Numbers(Million)ofStudentswithDisabilitiesAccesstoEducation
Table121 PerceivedPurposeofEducatingThosewithDisabilities
Table151 Elster’sDecisionModel
Table23.1 KeySectionsoftheFramework
Table232 Who?What?AndWhy?ofClassroomParticipation
Table233 Sections,ElementsandQuestionsoftheFrameworkforParticipation
Table23.4 SummaryoftheFramework’sPrinciplesofParticipation
Table26.1 HowFixed-AbilityThinkingLimitsLearning
Table262 Teachers’PurposesinTeachingforTransformability
Table271 PossibleEnablingandDisablingFactorsUsingAuditoryandLinguisticCharacteristics IdentifiedThroughResearchwithPeoplewiththeDownSyndromeLabel
Table27.2 EvidenceofBestPracticeModelsandOutcomesintheEducationofChildrenwithEmotional Disturbance/BehaviouralDifficulties:AnInternationalReview’
Table273 ClustersofMeta-AnalysesandMeanEffectSizesforSpecial‘Education’,‘Special’Education and‘Related’Services
Table274 InclusivePedagogy:IndividualizedVersusEverybodyApproach
Table331 ThePrinciplesofStaticandDynamicAssessment
Table341 DescriptorsforThreeStandardsofAchievement–‘Performance’
Table371 DetailsofTierI,TierIIandTierIII
Table37.2 PracticesforEffectivelyUsingPairsandSmallGroups
Table373 ExplicitInstruction
Table374 SystematicInstruction
Table37.5 AmpleOpportunitiestoRespond
Table38.1 ListofConsistentStructuresinPlaceinInclusiveSecondarySettings
Table40.1 InternationalPerspectives
Table402 ReplicationResearchonLongstandingIssues
Table451 WebLogsWrittenbyParentsofChildren/YouthwithDisabilities
Table501 ProfileofCompetencesforInclusiveSpecialEducators
Table50.2 WhichDiversities?
Table531 ThreeDiscoursesofChallengingBehaviour
Table532 NamingtheThreeDiscoursesofChallengingBehaviour
Table541 MovementTowardInclusiveEducation–MotiveFactorsandtheUnderpinningKnowledge Bases
EDITOR
LaniFlorian is Professor and Bell Chair of Education at the University of Edinburgh and Visiting Professor of Special Education at the University of Vienna. She is an Academician of the Academy of Social Sciences (UK) Her research interests include models of provision for meeting the needs of all learners, and inclusive pedagogy Sheisco-authorofAchievementandInclusioninSchools(2007),winnerofthe2008NASEN/Times Education Supplement (TES) academic book award. She has consulted on special needs education and inclusionforanumberofinternationalorganizationsincludingOpenSocietyFoundations,UNICEF,andthe OECD
CONTRIBUTORS
Mel Ainscow is Professor of Education and Co-director of the Centre for Equity in Education at the UniversityofManchester HeisalsoAdjunctProfessoratQueenslandUniversityofTechnology Previouslya headteacher,localeducationauthorityinspectorandlecturerattheUniversityofCambridge,hisworkfocuses on ways of making school systems effective for all children and young people. Mel has been a consultant to UNESCO, UNICEF and Save the Children In the Queen’s 2012 New Year honours list he was awarded a CBEforservicestoeducation
AlfredoArtiles is the Ryan C. Harris Memorial Endowed Professor of Special Education in the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University (ASU) Professor Artiles’ interdisciplinary work examines the consequences of educational inequities related to the intersections of disability, race, social class, gender and language. He uses the insights gained from these analyses to advance policies, personnel preparation programs, and educational systems that enhance the wellbeing and educational opportunities of multiculturalcommunities
JessicaBaconiscurrentlyanassistantprofessorofSpecialEducationatLehmanCollege,TheCityUniversity of New York. She received her PhD from Syracuse University in December 2012. Her dissertation investigatedtheimpactofthestandards-basedreformmovementonspecialeducation Herdissertationispart ofalargerresearchagenda,whichfocusesonunderstandinginclusiveandspecialeducationsystemsthrougha disability studies perspective. She has integrated her research and practice by working with community membersandinvestigatingtheself-advocacymovement,parent-advocacy,inclusiveeducationandeducational policy.
DouglasBiklenistheDeanoftheSchoolofEducationatSyracuseUniversity.HeisauthorofAutismandthe
Myth of the Person Alone (2005), Communication Unbound (1993), Schooling Without Labels (1992), as well as other books and more than 100 research articles on school inclusion, Disability Studies, and autism and communication. Biklen was the co-producer of the Academy Award nominated documentary, Autism is a World (2004), and was the Executive Producer of RegularLives. He produced/directed with Zach Rozetti My Classic Life as an Artist: A Portrait of Larry Bissonnette He produced, with Gerardine Wurzburg, the film WretchesandJabberers(2010;http://www.wretchesandjabberers.org/).
Kristine Black-Hawkins has taught in schools and universities and worked for local government. She is currentlyLecturerinInclusiveEducationattheUniversityofCambridge Herresearchfocusesonhowschool and classroom cultures can be developed so as to support the learning and participation of all children and young people. She is particularly interested in exploring teachers’ understandings of inclusive classroom practices, and the generation of research approaches and tools to enable this work Her co-authored book, AchievementandInclusioninSchools,wonthe2008TES/NASENacademicbookaward
LindaBlanton is Professor at Florida International University, and has served in numerous leadership roles, including President of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children Among her publications, Dr Blanton is co-editor of Teacher Education in Transition: Collaborative Programs to Prepare General and Special Educators, co-author of a guide, Collaborative Programs in General and Special Teacher Education: An Action Guide for Higher Education and State Policymakers and a policy brief, Preparing General Education Teachers to Improve Outcomes for Students with Disabilities Dr Blanton was the recipient of the ExcellenceinTeacherEducationAwardgivenbytheTeacherEducationDivision.
Roseanna Bourke is the Academic Group Director, Educational Psychology at Victoria University, New Zealand, where she leads the educational psychology training programme Her research focuses on student voice, self-assessment and learning in school and tertiary educational contexts She has worked extensively in support of inclusive education in New Zealand schools. Roseanna has experience as a teacher, educational psychologist and researcher across the sector groups, including management positions in professional practice and in-service teacher education Her book, The Chameleonic Learner: Learning and self-assessment in context (2010)focusesonstudents’conceptionsoflearningandself-assessmentinschoolandout-of-schoolcontexts.
DavidBrown is Professor in Interactive Systems for Social Inclusion at Nottingham Trent University His researchfocusesonthedesign,developmentandevaluationofnewtechnologiesforthecognitiveandphysical rehabilitation of users within the real world. This is a multi-disciplinary approach carried out in collaboration with researchers and clinicians in health psychology, inclusive design, virtual environments, serious games, location-based services, robotics and contemporary media His research has been supported by funding from the ESRC, EPSRC, NIHR, the EU and charitable money and has generated 86 refereed journal and conferencepapers
RuthCigman is Senior Research Fellow in Philosophy of Education at the Institute of Education, London She specializes in moral education, special education, educational policy and ethics, and has published widely intheseareas.ShecommissionedandeditedMaryWarnock’s2005pamphletSpecialEducationalNeeds:Anew look, and in 2007 published Included or Excluded? The challenge of the mainstream for some SEN children, a
collectionofresponsestothatpamphlet.Ruthiscurrentlyworkingonabookonhappiness.
TonyClineisCo-DirectoroftheCPDProfessionalDoctorateinEducationalPsychology,UniversityCollege London and Visiting Professor of Educational Psychology, University of Bedfordshire His previous experienceincludedleadingtheInnerLondonEducationAuthority’sEducationalPsychologyServiceandthe Department of Psychology and Centre for Education Studies at the University of Luton (subsequently the University of Bedfordshire) His previous publications have covered psychological assessment, dyslexia, the education of bilingual children, selective mutism and changing patterns of childhood. He is co-author of the textbook, Special Educational Needs, Inclusion and Diversity His current research activity concerns child languagebrokeringinschools
DavidJ.Connor is Professor and Chairperson of the Special Education Department at Hunter College, City University of New York (CUNY) He is also a faculty member at large of CUNY’s Graduate Center doctoral program in Urban Education David has worked in the field of education for 25 years, including roles as a classroom teacher, professional development specialist and university faculty. He has authored/co-authored over 50 publications in the form of peer-reviewed journals and book chapters, in addition to four books on special education, inclusion, and dis/abilities For more information, see: http://huntercuny.academia.edu/DavidJConnor
Joy Cumming is Professor of Education at Griffith University, Queensland, Australia. She has had considerable experience in education and education research Her educational research focus includes assessment and accountability, particularly for students from diverse backgrounds Joy Cumming has completed formal legal studies in addition to her educational qualifications and is an admitted lawyer in the Supreme Court of Queensland Her education in law research integrates her education expertise to focus on legalandpolicyissuesinequityinassessmentandaccountability
J.S.deValenzuelaisanAssociateProfessorofSpecialEducationattheUniversityofNewMexico.Professor de Valenzuela’s research assumes the perspective of disability as a social construction In particular, her research focuses on issues of educational equity for culturally and linguistically diverse learners, such as disproportionate representation and the access of students with intellectual and severe disabilities to native languageinstruction
AmyG Dell is Professor and Chair of the Department of Special Education, Language and Literacy at The College of New Jersey. She has been exploring ways to prepare teachers to use assistive technology appropriately and effectively with students with disabilities for 20 years. She serves as Director of the Center on Assistive Technology and Inclusive Education Studies (CATIES) at the college and is co-author (with Deborah A. Newton and Jerry G. Petroff) of the book Assistive Technology in the Classroom: Enchancing the SchoolExperiencesofStudentswithDisabilities 2ndEdition.
Carolyn Denton is a Researcher in the Children’s Learning Institute at the University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston Her primary focus is on the identification, prevention, and remediation of reading difficulties and disabilities. Her current projects examine interventions for children who have both attention
and reading disorders, an early reading intervention targeting both comprehension and decoding, and adolescent reading engagement and comprehension She is the author of articles and book chapters and four books, and she serves on an expert panel convened by the US Department of Education to develop an evidence-basedpracticeguideonfoundationalreadinginstruction.
CristinaDevecchi is Senior Lecturer in Special Education and Inclusion, and Deputy Research Leader at the School of Education, University of Northampton Since gaining her PhD in 2007, she has been involved in numerousresearchprojects,suchasdevelopingmobiletechnologyforyoungpeoplewithautism,transitionto further and higher education for young people with disabilities in Ireland, inclusive practices in early years settings in England, and deployment and training of teaching assistants She is currently involved in the six countries’EuropeanUnion-fundedprojectSuccessatSchool,aimedatsupportingyoungpeoplewhodisengaged fromeducation
Lisa Dieker is Professor and Lockheed Martin Eminent Scholar at the University of Central Florida She coordinates the doctoral program in special education and is Director of the Lockheed Martin Mathematics and Science Academy She received her PhD from the University of Illinois and her undergraduate and Master’sdegreefromEasternIllinoisUniversity Shehasapassionforhowtechnology,andspecificallyvirtual environments, can be used to impact teacher preparation. She currently serves as the Associate Editor for TeachingExceptionalChildrenandisapastco-editoroftheJournalofInternationalSpecialNeedsEducation
MaryBethDoyleisProfessorandChairoftheEducationDepartmentatSt Michael’sCollegeinColchester, Vermont Her research has focused on teacher-paraprofessional collaboration, curriculum modification to facilitate inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms, and teacher preparation. At St Michael’s College, she prepares graduate and undergraduate secondary education students to welcome, support and teach students with a full range of diversity characteristics She is the author of The Paraprofessional’s Guide to the Inclusive Classroom: Working as a Team (3rd edition, Paul H. Brookes, 2008) as wellasseveralotherpublications
Mary Jane Drummond is an experienced teacher, lecturer, writer and researcher, specializing in early childhood education. Her recent publications include First Hand Experience: What Matters to Children (published by Rich Learning Opportunities, 2005), and Learning: What Matters to Children (2008), a book aboutthe‘verbsoflearning’,examiningwhatchildren– committedlearnersfrombirth–actuallydo Shewas amemberoftheLearningwithoutLimitsteam,andisaco-authorofCreatingLearningwithoutLimits(2012). HerbookAssessingChildren’sLearning(1993)wasreissuedasaRoutledgeEducationClassicin2012
AlanDysonisProfessorofEducationandCo-DirectoroftheCentreforEquityinEducationintheInstitute of Education at the University of Manchester, UK. His work focuses on educational equity broadly understood, including issues in inclusive education and in the relationship between social and educational disadvantage He has served on a range of government task groups, and has led evaluative studies of national education policies in the fields of special needs education and disadvantage. Before entering universities, he spent13yearsinschoolsasaspecialneedsteacher.
Dianne L. Ferguson is Professor and Director of Program Improvement and Accreditation at Chapman University Her areas of interest and expertise include school inclusion, family experiences, the relationships between school personnel and families, teacher–professional development and collaboration, disability studies and use of interpretivist research methods in education. Dr Ferguson has taught classes and consulted with generalandspecialeducatorsineightcountriesaswellasintheUS DrFergusonhaspublishedwidely,isthe author or co-editor of seven books and serves as an Associate Editor or on the Editorial Board of five professionaljournals.
PhilipM FergusonisProfessorintheCollegeofEducationalStudiesatChapmanUniversity Hisresearchis focused on family/professional interactions and support policy, social policy and the history of disability, as wellasqualitativeresearchmethodsindisabilitystudiesandeducation.Inadditiontonumerousarticles,book chapters, and monographs, Dr Ferguson’s publications include Abandoned to Their Fate: Social Policy and Practice toward Severely Disabled Persons, 1820–1920 – a book and accompanying video on the history of individuals with intellectual disabilities and their families. Together with colleagues Dianne Ferguson and StevenJ Taylor,heisthecoeditorofInterpretingDisability:AQualitativeReader
RalphFerretti is Professor in the School of Education at the University of Delaware He is currently serving in an administrative position as Director in School of Education in the College of Education and Human Development Ferretti has a doctorate in psychology from the University of Alabama His research interests include cognitive psychology, cognitive development and disabilities, problem-solving, instruction and special educational technology. His most recent work has been in the areas of social studies and argumentative writing
Susan A Fowler is Professor in the Department of Special Education at the University of Illinois and has been involved in teaching and research about the early years for more than 30 years Her interests include children who are considered at risk due to multiple factors, as well as children with disabilities and their families She served as Dean of the College and served as President of the Council of Exceptional Children and its Division for Early Childhood Her research typically focuses on inclusion and policy supports and barriers,andinteragencycollaboration.
Norah Frederickson is Director of the Educational Psychology Group at University College London and SeniorEducationalPsychologist,Buckinghamshire Hercurrentresearchinterestsincludesocialdevelopment and wellbeing in children and the promotion of inclusion and belonging in schools, particularly for children with special needs and disabilities She has published over 100 journal articles and book chapters, has coauthored leading text books on special needs for educational service professionals and students, and on educational psychology for psychology undergraduates, and has co-edited two major collections of assessment resourcesforuseinschools:formentalhealth/psychologicalwellbeing,andforspecialeducationalneeds
Deborah J Gallagher is Professor of Education at the University of Northern Iowa Her research interests centre on the philosophy of science as it pertains to research, pedagogy and policy in education and special education.Amongotherrecentpublications,sheistheleadauthorofabookentitledChallengingOrthodoxyin Special Education: Dissenting Voices (Love Publishing Company, 2004) with co-authors Lous Heshusius,
RichardIanoandThomasSkrtic.
MichaelF Giangreco is Professor in the Department of Education at the University of Vermont His work focuses on various aspects of educating students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms such as curriculum planning, service coordination, school service delivery, and personnel utilization. Dr Giangreco is the author or co-author of numerous publications including ChoosingOutcomesandAccommodationsforChildren:AGuide toEducationalPlanningforStudentswithDisabilities(3rdedition,PaulH Brookes,2011) Hehascreatedover 300cartoonsdepictingeducationalanddisabilityissues,includingAbsurditiesandRealitiesofSpecialEducation: TheCompleteDigitalSet(Corwin,2007)
David T. Gordon is an education journalist and editor of four books, including the bestseller, The Digital Classroom: How Technology Is Changing the Way We Teach and Learn. He is Director of Publishing and Communications at CAST Previously, he was editor of the HarvardEducationLetter and an associate editor ofNewsweek HewonaUS NationalPressClubAwardin2003forhiseducationreporting
Usha Goswami is Professor of Cognitive Developmental Neuroscience at the University of Cambridge, FellowofStJohn’sCollege,CambridgeandDirectoroftheCentreforNeuroscienceinEducation.Themain aim of her research is to establish the basic parameters of brain development in the cognitive skills critical for education She has received a number of career awards, including the British Psychology Society Spearman Medal, the Norman Geschwind-Rodin Prize for Dyslexia research, and Fellowships from the National Academy of Education (USA), the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Germany) and the Leverhulme Trust
Jenna W. Gravel is a Presidential Scholar at Harvard University and a doctoral student in the Education Policy, Leadership, and Instructional Practice program at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, where she investigates the effects of universal design for learning (UDL) on student learning She is co-editor (with David T. Gordon and Laura A. Schifter) of A Policy Reader in Universal Design for Learning, published by Harvard Education Press From 2006–2010, Jenna was a Research Associate at CAST, where she played a central role in the development of CAST’s UDL Guidelines She has been a middle-school inclusion specialist.
Amy Hanreddy is an assistant professor at California State University, Northridge. Amy is interested in parentperspectivesonschoolingfortheirchildrenwithdisabilities,inclusiveeducation,disabilitystudies,and instructional strategies for teaching students with significant support needs. She has taught teacher preparation courses for general and special education teacher candidates related to differentiated instruction andassessment,professionalcollaboration,andaugmentativeandalternativecommunication
BethHarry is Professor of Special Education and Chair of the Department of Teaching and Learning in the University of Miami’s School of Education. A native of Jamaica, she received her Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees from the University of Toronto, and her PhD from Syracuse University Her teaching and research focus on issues of diversity and special education, the challenges of serving families of children with disabilities, and qualitative methods in educational research. She served on the National Academy of Sciences
(2002) panel on ethnic disproportionality in special education and has published numerous articles and two booksonthattopic
SusanHart has been a teacher and researcher in schools and universities for more than 30 years Her specific area of interest has always been the dynamics of school and classroom life and how they impact upon young people’s learning Her publications include BeyondSpecialNeeds (Paul Chapman), Thinking Through Teaching (DavidFulton),andLearningWithoutLimits (Open University Press), with a team of colleagues and teachers based at the University of Cambridge Faculty of Education. She is also a co-author of Creating Learning without Limits (2012) Until 2008, she worked as a specialist teacher in a support service committed to fosteringaccessandinclusion
ValerieHarwood is based in the School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Wollongong. Valerie’s research includes the critical examination of medical and psychiatric categories as these impact on childrenandyoungpeopleandtheirschooling SheiscurrentlycompletingabookwithJulieAllan,University ofBirmingham,titledPsychopathologyatSchool:TheorisingMentalDisorderinEducation.
SeamusHegarty is a Visiting Professor at the University of Warwick. He served as Director of the National Foundation for Educational Research for 12 years until his retirement in 2005 He is founder editor of the EuropeanJournalofSpecialNeedsEducation,nowinits28thyear Hehaswrittenorco-authoredmorethan20 books and numerous papers. He served as Principal Academic Adviser for the Salamanca World Conference and has advised UNESCO and other international bodies on special needs issues for over 25 years He is Chair of the Advisory Board of the Observatory of Learning Outcomes at the UNESCO Institute of Statistics.
JudithHollenweger is Professor and Head of the Priority Area ‘Inclusive Education’ at the Zurich University of Teacher Education Her work focuses on the relationship between policy, practice and research, and how knowledge can bridge the gap between them. In Switzerland, she has recently developed a rights-based eligibility procedure which is currently implemented by the Cantons She is the President of the Swiss Accreditation Commission for diplomas in special needs education and the Swiss member of the Representative Board of the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. She works as a consultantandexpertforUNICEFCEE/CISandtheWorldHealthOrganization
Ruth Kershner is a Lecturer in Psychology of Education at the University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education.Shefocusesonpsychologicalandsocioculturalaspectsofprimary(elementary)classroomlearning, teaching and communication, with particular reference to the development of inclusive pedagogy. She is interested in the development of teachers’ professional learning and knowledge through their academic study, school-based research and day-to-day practice. She is also concerned with children’s and teachers’ personal epistemologiesandtherepresentationsoftheseknowledgebeliefsintheclassroomlearningenvironment.
ElizabethB Kozleski is Professor and Chair of Special Education at the University of Kansas Awarded the UNESCO Chair in Inclusive International Research in 2005 and the 2011 TED-Merrill award for her leadership in special education teacher education, her work focuses on theorizing systems change for equity,
inclusive education, and professional learning for urban schools. Her research interests include the analysis of models of systems change in urban and large school systems, examining how teachers learn in practice in complex, diverse school settings, researching multicultural educational practices in the classroom to improve studentlearning.
AlexKozulin is Professor and Head of the Graduate Program in Special Education at Achva College, and a DirectorofInternationalResearchandTrainingattheFeuersteinInstitutefortheEnhancementofLearning Potential in Jerusalem. His research addresses the issue of learning potential assessment, cognitive intervention programs, and special needs of immigrant and minority students His books include Vygotsky’s psychology: A biography of ideas (Harvard University Press), Psychological tools: A sociocultural approach to education (Harvard University Press), and Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context (co-edited with B. Gindis,V Ageev,andS Miller;CambridgeUniversityPress)
Kathleen Lynne Lane is Professor in the Department of Special Education at the University of Kansas Dr Lane’s research interests focus on school-based interventions(academicandbehavioural)withstudentsatrisk for emotional and behavioural disorders (EBD) She has designed, implemented, and evaluated comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered (CI3T) models of prevention in elementary, middle, and high school settings to (a) prevent the development of learning and behaviour challenges and (b) responding to existing instances Dr Lane has co-authored five books and published 120 refereed journal articles and 23 book chapters
Chunling Liu is Professor and Dean of the Department of Special Education at East China Normal University, Vice Director of the Shanghai Special Education Resource Centre and Executive Member of the Council of Rehabilitation for People with Intellectual Disabilities under the Chinese Association of Rehabilitation for People with Disabilities Her areas of research include the development and education of children with special educational needs, and the quality of inclusive education etc. She is a principal investigatoronmanynational-levelandShanghaicity-levelprojectsandinternationalresearchprojects
DawnMale is a Senior Lecturer in Psychology and Special Educational Needs at the Institute of Education, University of London. Her particular area of interest is children and young people with moderate, severe and profound and multiple learning difficulties Her research interests include friendships of children and young peoplewithlearningdifficultiesanddisabilities,challengingbehaviour,workingwithparentsofchildrenwith special educational needs, memory in children with moderate learning difficulties and teacher professional development Previously, she has worked as an Educational Psychologist and as a teacher in mainstream and specialschoolsandasatutorinthefurthereducationsector
JohnW.Maag is Professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln where he specializes in the education and treatmentofchildrenandadolescentswithemotionalandbehaviouraldisorders.Heisanationallyrecognized behavioural consultant on best practices for managing resistance and improving relationships with others Dr Maag has published over 90 articles and book chapters as well as authoring four books – one of which, Parenting without Punishment, won a Parent’s Choice award. He was also the recipient of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Distinguished Teaching Award A licensed psychotherapist, Dr Maag is a frequent public
speakerandconsultingeditortonumerousjournals.
GrahamMaxwellisAdjunctProfessortotheGriffithInstituteforEducationalResearch,GriffithUniversity, Queensland, Australia He formerly worked at The University of Queensland for over 30 years, and was Deputy Director of the Queensland Studies Authority. He is an internationally recognized expert in educational assessment A major focus of his work is the Queensland senior secondary school assessment system, identified as unique in the world for its professional reliance on teacher judgement of student achievementinahigh-stakessetting.
MargaretJ McLaughlin is Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Education, College of Education and Professor, Department of Special Education, University of Maryland, College Park, MD Dr McLaughlin began her career as a teacher of students with serious emotional disorders. She specializes in the study of specialeducationpolicyandhasdirectednumerousnationalresearchprojectsandcentresthatinvestigatedthe intersection of those policies and standards-driven reforms She has consulted with various international agencies and organizations as well as with US educational agencies and served on or co-chaired four National AcademyofSciencesCommitteesaddressingtopicsrelatedtoeducatingstudentswithdisabilities
SamanthaMcMahon is a Researcher in the School of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Wollongong Her research interests include the medicalization of child behaviour, pre-service teacher epistemology and teacher education. Samantha’s PhD thesis is a study of pre-service teachers’ knowledge of challengingbehaviour
Mandia Mentis is Senior Lecturer in the Institute of Education at Massey University, New Zealand She coordinatesthenationalPostgraduateSpecialEducationandSpecialistTeachingprograms.Shehastaughtat primary, secondary and tertiary levels and has worked as an educational psychologist in both special and inclusive education settings Her teaching and research interests include dynamic assessment, differentiated teachingande-learning.Hercurrentworkfocusesondevelopinganinter-professionalCommunityofPractice approachforonlineteachingandlearning
KariNes is Professor of Education at Hedmark University College, Norway As a trained teacher and special educator, she worked as a teacher and advisor in special and mainstream schools before entering teacher education. Kari’s main research interests are in inclusive and adapted education. She served as External Advisor to the 25-country EuropeanAgencyforDevelopmentinSpecialNeedsEducation ‘Teacher Education for Inclusion (TE4I) project’ and is currently undertaking research on special education for the Norwegian ResearchCouncil.
DeborahA Newton is Interim Dean of the School of Education at Southern Connecticut State University (SCSU) She coordinates the Master’s Degree and Sixth Year Diploma programs in adaptive technology and serves as a member of the internal advisory board for SCSU’s Center of Excellence on Autism Spectrum Disorders She is co-author (with Amy G Dell and Jerry G Petroff) of Assistive Technologyin the Classroom: EnhancingtheSchoolExperiencesofStudentswithDisabilities–2ndEdition
Brahm Norwich is Professor of Educational Psychology and Special Educational Needs at the Graduate
SchoolofEducation,UniversityofExeter.He was previously Professor of Special Needs Education, Institute of Education, University of London and has worked as a teacher, a professional educational psychologist and researched and published widely in these fields. His recent books Dilemmas of difference, disability and inclusion: international perspectives (Routledge, 2008), SEN: A new look (Continuum Publishers, 2010) (with Mary Warnock and Lorella Terzi) and Addressing tensions and dilemmas in inclusive education (Routledge, 2013).
Samuel L. Odom is Director of Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute and Professor in the School of Education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill He is the author or co-author of many refereed journal articles and editor or co-editor of seven published books His current research focuses on evidence-based practices and comprehensive treatment models for learners with autism spectrum disorders and their families He is Principal Investigator for the National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, funded by the Office of Special Education Programs, and the Center on Secondary EducationforStudentswithAutismSpectrumDisorders,fundedbytheInstituteonEducationScience.
RenatoOpertti is a sociologist and holds a Master’s in Educational Research He currently coordinates the Programme (Support Services to Member States; SSMS), International Bureau of Education (IBEUNESCO) encompassing capacity-development and technical assistance initiatives in Africa, Arab States, Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean He coordinates the IBE-UNESCO Diploma in Curriculum DesignandDevelopment Hisareasofexpertisearemainlysocialandeducationalpolicies,inclusiveeducation andcurriculum,andheistheauthorofnumerouspublicationsregardingeducationandcurriculumissues.He hascoordinatedsecondaryandteachereducationreformsinUruguay,andhasworkedasaneducationalexpert fortheIDB,theWorldBankandUNICEF Heteachescurriculumdesignanddevelopment
Fernanda T. Orsati is currently a PhD candidate in the Special and Inclusive Education Program in the School of Education at Syracuse University. She has published articles in journals including the International JournalofInclusiveEducationandJournalofSpecialEducationLeadership OrsatiistheLeadGraduateAssistant for the Institute on Communication and Inclusion where she works in providing communication to students and adults with developmental disabilities. She is interested in the construction of behaviour disabilities for young children in schools Her work as a consultant also includes self-advocacy, dynamic assessment, and alternativeandaugmentativecommunication(AAC)
Michaelene M. Ostrosky is a Goldstick Family Scholar and the Department Head of Special Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign She has been involved in curriculum development and applied research for much of her tenure in higher education including research and dissemination on social interaction interventions, social emotional competence, and challenging behaviour. Dr Ostrosky has much experience translating research into user-friendly materials for practitioners with more than 80 scholarly and appliedpublications
SipJanPijlisProfessorofEducationandEducationDirectorofthePedagogicalInstituteoftheUniversityof Groningen, The Netherlands. He is also appointed part-time at the Norwegian University for Science and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim His research focuses on both conditions for and effects of inclusive
education. He has published articles and (chapters in) books and is a member of the boards of the International Journal of Inclusive Education and the European Journal of Special Needs Education He further is thelead-convenoroftheEERAnetworkonInclusiveEducation.
JillPorter is a Reader in the Department of Education at the University of Bath. She has received funding fromtheDepartmentofEducationforaseriesofstudiesdevelopingmethodsforcollectinginformationfrom children (as well as parents) into the experience of disabled children participating in all aspects of school life Her research combines a ‘top down’ analysis of the culture of the organization with a ‘bottom-up’ perspective ofthelearner(includingthosewiththemostsevereandcomplexdifficulties)onthebarrierstolearning
JustinJ.W.Powell is Professor of Sociology of Education at the University of Luxembourg His comparative institutionalanalysesofeducationalsystemsexplainpersistenceandchangeinspecialandinclusiveeducation, in vocational training and higher education, and in science and research funding His publications include Barriers to Inclusion: Special Education in the United States and Germany (Boulder, CO: Paradigm, 2011) and Comparing Special Education: Origins to Contemporary Paradoxes, written with John G. Richardson (Stanford University Press, 2011), which received the 2012 Outstanding Book Award of the American Educational ResearchAssociation,DivisionB
Selma Powell graduated with her PhD from the University of Central Florida Her dissertation topic of research focused on developmentally appropriate use of mathematics apps for iPads in early childhood classrooms ShewasrecognizedbytheCouncilforExceptionalChildren,DivisionofEarlyChildhood,asthe J David Sexton Doctoral Student Award recipient for her contributions to children and families Selma Powell has published multiple articles and presented at national and state conferences. She is the editorial assistant of Teaching Exceptional Children Currently she is the project director for a US$10 million Race to theTopGrantattheuniversity
MarleenPugach is Professor at the University of Southern California. Her expertise focuses on the reform of teacher education at the intersection of general and special education Pugach has authored numerous articles on this topic, and is author of Because Teaching Matters, co-author of Collaborative Practitioners, Collaborative Schools, and co-editor of TeacherEducationinTransition:CollaborativeProgramstoPrepareGeneralandSpecial Educators She has been a Fulbright Scholar, and her research contributions have been recognized by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education and the Teacher Education Division of the InternationalCouncilforExceptionalChildren.
Sheila Riddell is currently Director of the Centre for Research in Education, Inclusion and Diversity (CREID) at the University of Edinburgh She was previously the Founding Director of the Strathclyde Centre for Disability Research, University of Glasgow. Sheila started her career as a teacher of English in a comprehensiveschoolintheSouthWestofEnglandbeforedoingaPhDattheUniversityofBristol.Moving to Scotland in 1988, Sheila has researched and written extensively on disability, social class and gender in the contextofeducation,trainingandemployment.
BarbaraRidley taught English and performing arts to pupils aged 12–18 before moving to the University of
EastAnglia(UEA)in1993toresearcheducationalprovisionforstudentswhohadbeenexcludedfromschool or refused to attend Later research concerned young people in local authority care and other marginalized groups. She has been involved in research and capacity-building in Ethiopian higher education since 1996, and with UEA’s doctoral programme in Hong Kong since 1999. Ridley teaches qualitative research methodologyandpredominantlyworkswithinternationalstudents
MarciaRioux is a legal scholar experienced in social policy and community participatory research in the areas of human rights, health and social justice. She is a Distinguished Research Professor in the School of Health Policy and Management and is Director of the York Institute for Health Research She teaches in Critical Disability Studies and Health Policy and Equity at York University in Toronto, Canada and co-directs a projecttomonitordisabilityrightsinternationally(DRPI).LecturingintheAmericas,Europe,Africaandthe Asia-Pacific, she advises government commissions and international NGO’s as well as United Nations agencies
JonathanRix is Senior Lecturer in Inclusion, Curriculum and Learning at the Open University in the UK. His research interests focus upon: policies, practices and language associated with inclusion; capturing diverse perspectives; and developing models to facilitate our thinking about the form and function of education He has a particular personal and professional interest in issues relating to learning difficulties. With Kieron Sheehy, he has led both a 3-year systematic review of pedagogies that effectively include children with special educationalneedsandareviewofpoliciesandpracticesrelatedtospecialeducationacross50nations
Kelly D. Roberts is Associate Professor at the Center on Disability Studies (CDS) at the University of Hawaii. She has worked at CDS since 1997 and became the Director of the Pacific Basin University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities in 2006 She is an Instructor in the CDS Disability Studies programme She has conducted multiple projects with a focus on postsecondary education transition and success including the development of culturally-based curricula to help high-school students with disabilities transition to postsecondary education and improving outcomes for individuals with disabilities in higher educationthroughfacultydevelopment
DavidH.Roseisadevelopmentalneuropsychologistandeducatorwhoseprimaryfocusisonthedevelopment of new technologies for learning In 1984, Dr Rose co-founded CAST, a not-for-profit research and development organization whose mission is to improve education, for all learners, through innovative uses of modern multimedia technology and contemporary research in the cognitive neurosciences. That work has grown into the field called Universal Design for Learning which now influences educational policy and practice throughout the United States and beyond Dr Rose also teaches at Harvard’s Graduate School of Educationwherehehasbeenonthefacultyforalmost30years.
KieronSheehyisProgrammeLeaderfortheDoctorateinEducationprogrammeattheOpenUniversity.His researchandteachinginterestsconcernconceptualizinganddevelopinginclusivepedagogies,withaparticular focus on children who experience significant barriers to learning in their lives. His research adopts various levelsofanalysisandencompassesinternationalreviewsofpolicyandpractice,theexperiencesofyoungpeople within and outside of the education system, the inclusive affordances of new technologies and technological
mediated spaces and the creation of new teaching approaches to develop word recognition and communicationskills
NidhiSingal is Senior Lecturer in Inclusive and Special Education at the Faculty of Education and Fellow of Hughes Hall, University of Cambridge. Her research interests include educating children with disabilities in Southern contexts, the relationship between education and poverty eradication, and developing culturally sensitive approaches in educational research From 2005–2010, she led the Disability, Education and Poverty Project based in Ghana, Kenya, India and Pakistan, funded by DFID (UK). Her research papers have been included in the World Bank Disability Tool Kit, translated into local languages in three countries and hosted ontheR4Dforum ShehasalsoconsultedforUNESCO,CBMandWorldVision
RogerSleeistheInauguralDirectorofTheVictoriaInstituteforEducation,DiversityandLifelongLearning at Victoria University Prior to this appointment, he held the Chair of Inclusive Education at the Institute of Education, University of London He is the Founding Editor of the International Journal of Inclusive Education. Slee has also served as the Deputy Director General of the Queensland Ministry of Education in Australia
PennyStanden is Professor in Health Psychology and Learning Disabilities at the University of Nottingham Her main area of research is developing and evaluating new technologies and gaming for people with intellectualdisabilitiestohelptheacquisitionofindependenceskillsandimprovecognitionandqualityoflife. Sheiscurrentlycollaboratingwithcolleaguesontheuseofvirtualrealityinstrokerehabilitation Herresearch has been supported by funding from the NIHR, ESRC, EPSRC, EU and charitable money and has generatedover100refereedandinvitedarticles,ninebookchaptersaswellaseditorialsandreports.
Robert A Stodden has been a researcher and professor of education for 35 years, working closely with the various funding agents, private foundations, state departments and programmes Dr Stodden has served as Department Chairperson at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and Coordinator of Special Needs Graduate Programs at Boston College He is the founding Director of the Center on Disability Studies (CDS) and has beenprincipalinvestigator/directorofmorethan150researchandtrainingprojectswithavalueofmorethan US$200million.
Xueyun Su is an associate professor in the Department of Special Education at East China Normal University She earned her PhD at ECNU and conducted post-doctoral research at Georgetown University She is a principal investigator on several national-level and Shanghai city-level projects on early intervention and inclusive education. Her areas of research include the policy development of special education, early interventionandinclusiveeducationforyoungchildrenwithdisabilities
Jesse C. Suter is a research assistant professor at the Center on Disability and Community Inclusion at the University of Vermont. His scholarship focuses on the development, research and evaluation, and real world implementation of community and school-based interventions for children with emotional and behavioral disabilitiesandtheirfamilies DrSuterhaspublishedwidelyonbothwraparoundandspecialeducationservice delivery. He was a lead developer of the Wraparound Fidelity Index, the field’s most widely used measure of
wraparound implementation, and co-author of a recent meta-analysis on wraparound effectiveness (Clinical ChildandFamilyPsychologyReview,2009)
GaryThomas started work as a teacher, then became an educational psychologist, and eventually a Professor of Education at the University of Birmingham, where his teaching, research and writing now focus on inclusive education and the methods used in social science research He has led a wide range of research projects and has received awards from the AHRC, the ESRC, the Nuffield Foundation, the Leverhulme Trust, the Department for Education, charities such as Barnardos and the Cadmean Trust, local authorities andarangeofotherorganizations Hehaswrittenoredited20booksandlotsofboringacademicarticles
MarthaThurlowisDirectoroftheNationalCenteronEducationalOutcomesandSeniorResearchAssociate in the University of Minnesota’s Institute on Community Integration. Her research and technical assistance activities address the implications of contemporary US policy and practice for students with disabilities, including national and statewide assessment policies and practices, standards-setting efforts, accessibility and universal design, accommodations, computer-based testing, alternate assessments, and graduation requirements Across her career, her research also has focused on instruction for students with intellectual impairments,earlychildhoodidentificationissues,andthepreventionofdropoutsamongthosestudentswith disabilities.
LizTodd is Professor of Educational Inclusion at Newcastle University. Liz Todd has worked as a secondary teacher, an educational psychologist and a therapist using narrative practices and video interaction guidance Over the past 14 years, her research has been into the ways that agencies and schools work together with parents and young people to ameliorate the impact of disadvantage on educational achievement. Her 2011 Routledge monograph with Cummings and Dyson, Beyond the school gates; can full service and extended schools overcomedisadvantage?washighlycommendedbytheSocietyofEducationalStudiesin2012
SharonVaughn, H. E. Hartfelder/Southland Corp. Regents Chair in Human Development, is the Executive Director of The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk an organized research unit at The University of Texas in Austin She is the recipient of the AERA SIG distinguished researcher award, The University of Texas distinguished faculty award, and the Jeannette E. Fleischner Award for Outstanding Contributions in the Field of LD from CEC She is the author of more than 35 books and 250 research articles She is currently Principal Investigator on several Institute for Education Sciences, National Institute forChildHealthandHumanDevelopment,andUSDepartmentofEducationresearchgrants.
FedericoWaitoller is Assistant Professor at the Department of Special Education at the University of Illinois at Chicago His research agenda focuses on inclusive education policies, practices, and tools and professional learning for inclusive education. He approaches these interests from a sociocultural and international perspective. He has published his work in numerous national and international journals and edited volumes. Dr Waitoller is the co-editor of Inclusive Education: Examining Equity in Five Continents by Harvard EducationPress.
Zachary Walker is an assistant professor at the National Institute of Education in Singapore. His current
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N e u n t e s K a p i t e l .
Das Land der Chané- und Chiriguanoindianer.
Wie ich ein Bild des Lebens der Choroti- und Ashluslayindianer zu geben versucht habe, will ich auch die Chané- und Chiriguanoindianer und meine verschiedenen Besuche bei ihnen zu schildern versuchen. Diese Indianer stehen bedeutend höher als die „Wilden“ des Chaco. Sie leben zum allergrößten Teil in Abhängigkeit von den Weißen, und ihre alte eigenartige Kultur verschwindet immer mehr.
Die Chiriguanos sind auch jetzt zu einem ganz bedeutenden Teil Christen. Seit über 300 Jahren haben zuerst die Jesuiten und dann die Franziskaner sie mit wechselndem Erfolg zu dem alleinseligmachenden christlichen Glauben zu bekehren versucht. Bei den Chiriguanos befinden sich auch jetzt noch mehrere Missionsstationen, bei den Chanés dagegen keine.
In den Chanés und Chiriguanos lernen wir Menschen mit einer höheren Kultur kennen, Menschen, die von den Indianern, von denen wir in den vorigen Kapiteln gelesen haben, vollständig verschieden sind. Vergleiche zwischen den beiden Kulturtypen, die wir im Chaco antreffen, sind natürlich von Interesse.
Was den Leser vielleicht am meisten wundert, ist der Umstand, daß beide primitive Kulturen nebeneinander bestehen können und sicher jahrhundertelang bestanden haben, ohne ineinander zu verschmelzen, ja ohne voneinander zu lernen, und dies, obschon hier keine natürlichen Grenzen vorhanden sind.
Im Mai 1908 besuchte ich, wie gesagt, den Chanéhäuptling Vocapoy am Rio Itiyuro in Argentinien nahe der bolivianischen Grenze. Dies ist einer der Flüsse, der vergebens den Wildnissen des Chaco zu entrinnen sucht. Er entspringt den äußersten, urwaldbestandenen Quellen der Anden und verschwindet in den Trockenwäldern des Chaco.
Vocapoy lag im Streit mit den Weißen, die sein Land usurpiert hatten und seine Auffassung, daß sie nur seine Pächter seien, nicht gelten lassen wollten. Er bat mich um Rat, wie er die Weißen dazu bewegen könne, das Recht der Indianer an dem Land anzuerkennen. Ich riet ihm, sich an den großen Häuptling der Weißen, den Präsident der Republik, zu wenden, und nahm Stellung als Feldmesser der Indianer an. Ich streifte mit den Indianern durch ihr Gebiet und zeichnete eine kleine Skizze, die Vocapoy mit zum Präsidenten nehmen sollte. Die Indianer hießen meine Skizze nicht gut, sondern zeichneten selbst eine Karte von dem Lande.
Leider weiß ich nicht, ob Vocapoy die lange Reise nach dem Dorfe des großen Häuptlings vorgenommen hat, ich erwarb mir aber durch die Feldmessung das Vertrauen der Indianer.
Abb. 74. Vocapoys Dorf am Rio Itiyuro.
Als ich Ende Juli 1908 die Chorotis und Ashluslays verließ, begab ich mich über Yacuiba nach San Francisco am Rio Pilcomayo. San Francisco war eine Missionsstation, die die Franziskaner unter den Chiriguanos gehabt hatten, die aber jetzt eingezogen ist. Nicht weit davon wohnen die Tapieteindianer, bei denen ich im August 1908 eine Woche zubrachte.
Abb. 75. Chanéindianer. Rio Itiyuro.
In Tihuïpa eröffnete ich einige Tage lang ein richtiges kleines Materialwarengeschäft. Indianer und Indianerinnen, besonders die letzteren, drängten sich um den Ladentisch. Es war ein eigentümlicher Laden. Kam eine Indianerin mit Geld dorthin, um zu kaufen, wurde sie vom Ladendiener höflich abgewiesen, kam sie dagegen mit einem hübschen alten Tongefäß, so wurde sie die glückliche Besitzerin von Korallen, feuerroten Bändern, Ohrringen mit wirklichen „Diamanten“, Ringen mit „Saphiren“ oder von anderem Wackeren, womit sie dann beim nächsten Trinkgelage prahlen konnte.
In diesen Missionsstationen befinden sich immer zwei Dörfer, eins für die Heiden, eins für die Christen. Ich für meine Person fühlte
Abb. 76. Chanéindianer. Rio Papapiti.
mich immer in dem ersteren am wohlsten, und dies nicht allein deswegen, weil dort mehr hübsche, alte Gegenstände zu sammeln waren, sondern auch, weil man dort in seinem Benehmen freundlicher, taktvoller und feiner war. Die Missionskinder waren zudringlich und frech.
Bei Machareti ist eine große Talmulde, in welcher ein kleiner Bach fließt, der nach einem heftigen tropischen Regen wahrscheinlich zu einem brausenden Fluß anschwillt und sich in den Wildnissen des Chaco verliert. Ganz nahe der Mission verläßt er die hübsch zerschnittenen Berge, wo überall in den Rissen der Klippen kleine Petroleumquellen hervorsickern. Er fließt dann durch eine Hügellandschaft, die allmählich in das gewaltige Flachgebiet des Chaco übergeht. Die Vegetation in diesen Gegenden ist keine sehr üppige. Der Wald, wenn solcher vorhanden ist, ist dünn, niedrig, strauchig und einförmig. Die Felder scheinen reiche Ernten zu geben, die Dürre selten zu groß zu sein. Oft werden diese Gegenden von gewaltigen Heuschreckenschwärmen verheert. Wie große, rotbraune Wolken habe ich diese schädlichen Tiere die Wälder bedecken gesehen.
Von Machareti gingen wir über Itatiqui, einem ganz interessanten Chiriguanodorf in einer wasserarmen Gegend, nach dem Rio Parapiti.
Dieser kommt von Pomabamba und Sauzes, von den Gebirgen der Quichuaindianer. Wenn er diese verläßt, ist er in der Regenzeit ein brausender, seine Ufer überschwemmender Strom. In der Trockenzeit führt er wenig Wasser. Auch der Rio Parapiti endet im Chaco. Während der Regenzeit verliert er sich in den Morästen, in der Trockenzeit verschwindet er in dem feinen Sand. Wenn der Rio Parapiti auf den Karten als südlichster Nebenfluß des Amazonenstromes stolziert, so ist dies also nur eine leere Prahlerei von ihm. Die Wälder längs des Rio Parapiti bestehen meistens aus Büschen und niedrigen, feinblättrigen Bäumen, Caraguatá und Kakteen.
In der Trockenzeit häuft der Wind große Dünen längs der Ufer des Flusses auf. Nachdem er die Berge verlassen hat, erhält er
keinen Nebenarm. Der Rio Parapiti ist sehr breit, aber niemals tief. Während der trockensten Zeit ist sein Bett in eine Sandwüste verwandelt, wo der Wind mit dem feinen Flußsand spielt. Stürmt es, so wird der Sand über den Flußboden gepeitscht. Will man an einem solchen Tag herüber, so macht man sich vielleicht die Füße nicht naß, muß aber seine Augen hüten.
Der Rio Parapiti ist fischreich, die Fische sind aber winzig klein. Die Ufer sind recht fruchtbar, da sie aber während der Regenzeit überschwemmt werden, gehen die Ernten leicht verloren. In der Trockenzeit wird oft alles durch die brennende Dürre verzehrt. Auch die Heuschrecken hausieren in diesen Gegenden und hinterlassen in ihren eigenen unappetitlichen Körpern einen schlechten Ersatz für das, was sie zerstört haben.
Am Rio Parapiti wohnen ganz hoch oben am Gebirge die Quichuaindianer, dann kommen die Chiriguanos, hierauf nahe dem Flusse die Tapietes, auch Yanayguas genannt, danach die Chanés und zuletzt in den unbekannten Wildnissen die Tsirakuaindianer.
Mein erster Besuch am Rio Parapiti galt dem Padre Carmelo, der dort eine kleine Missionsstation unter den Chiriguanos hatte. Diesen Mönch habe ich sehr lieb gewonnen, er hatte eine so vertraueneinflößende Freundlichkeit. Er gehört zu den Missionaren, die hier erforderlich sind, Menschen, die sich für andere aufopfern wollen und können, die allen eine gleich große Freundschaft erweisen.
Ich setzte nun längs des Rio Parapiti nach Isiporenda, am Nordufer des Flusses, fort. Gegenüber Isiporenda wohnen die Tapietes. Einen Besuch, den ich bei ihnen machte, will ich später schildern.
Bei Isiporenda traf ich den ersten Chané oder, wie sie hier genannt werden, Tapuy. Ich besuchte dann den größten Teil ihrer Dörfer. Besonders machte ich mit einigen ihrer Sagenerzähler Bekanntschaft, von denen Batirayu, der Neffe des letzten großen Häuptlings Aringuis, mein guter Freund wurde.
Vom unteren Rio Parapiti begab ich mich über Charagua, einem beinahe ausschließlich von Weißen bewohnten Dorf, nach dem Caipipendital, wo ich mich bei dem Chiriguanohäuptling Taruiri aufhielt.
Man kann sich wundern, daß ein Mensch in diesem wälderlosen Tale, wo man nur ein salziges, schmutziges Wasser findet, wohnen will, im Caipipendital braucht man aber kein Wasser zu trinken, denn dort gibt der Mais herrliche Ernten und dort herrscht niemals Mangel an Maisbier. Die Bewohner des Caipipenditals sind reich, und herrscht in anderen Gegenden Not, so kommen die Indianer von weither zu diesen Stammverwandten, um ihre Kostbarkeiten gegen Mais einzutauschen.
Es ist auch für Sammler ein herrliches Tal. Silberne Schmucksachen, silberne Schalen, fein geschnitzte Musikinstrumente und viele andere Seltenheiten fanden wir in diesem Paradies des Ethnographen. Steinäxte, Ruinen, Grabfelder von verschiedenen Völkern beweisen, daß das Caipipendital lange von den Indianern hoch geschätzt war.
Tief hat das Wasser sich in dieses Tal eingeschnitten. In der Regenzeit regnet es wohl auch dort.
Von Caipipendi kehrte ich über die Berge durch ein seiner heißen Quellen und seiner Schönheit wegen berühmtes Tal nach Charagua zurück, um dann längs der Anden in der Richtung nach Santa Cruz de la Sierra fortzusetzen.
Es war im Oktober 1908. Nicht ganz ein Jahr später, im Juli 1909, besuchte ich, nach umfassenden Flußfahrten weit hinten an der Grenze Brasiliens, den Chaco wieder. In einem anderen Buche werde ich diese Fahrten auf großen, schiffbaren Flüssen und durch Urwälder, deren üppiges Grün überwältigt, schildern.
Von Santa Cruz de la Sierra kam ich, wie gesagt, im Juli 1909 nach dem Chaco zurück. Ich reiste nun zuerst über den Rio Grande nach dem Rio Parapiti, um vor allem meinen Freund Batirayu zu besuchen.
Der Rio Grande ist der südlichste Nebenfluß des Amazonenstromes. Er kommt von den höchsten Bergen der Anden und fließt bei Sucre vorüber, welche Stadt lange der Stadt La Paz den Rang als Hauptstadt Bolivias streitig gemacht hat. Wenn er aus dem Gebirge tritt, ist er ein brausender, mächtiger Fluß. Weiter unten hat er einen höchst unbeständigen, sehr wenig bekannten Lauf. Nördlich von Santa Cruz de la Sierra nimmt der Rio Grande den Rio Piray auf und vereinigt sich schließlich mit dem Rio Mamoré. Einige Chiriguanos wohnen an diesem Fluß, auch wilde Tsirakuas und Sirionos streifen in den Urwäldern an demselben umher
Zwischen dem Rio Grande und dem Rio Parapiti ist ein höchst wasserarmes, zum großen Teil mit vollständig undurchdringlichem Gestrüpp und niedrigem Buschwald voller Caraguatá und Kakteen bedecktes Gebiet. Diese einförmige, düstere Vegetation wird hier und da durch Hügel und Grasebenen unterbrochen.
Außer den wilden Tsirakuaindianern, die diese Dickichte unsicher machen, findet man hier eine andere Merkwürdigkeit, nämlich den Guanako (auchenia). Es ist ganz sonderbar, ein Tier wie den Guanako, den man sich nur im Zusammenhang mit den kalten Hochebenen der Anden oder den oft unter Frost leidenden Pampas von Patagonien denken kann, in diesen oft von der Dürre verbrannten Gebüschen zu finden. Es wäre interessant, bestimmen zu können, ob dieser Guanako des tropischen Urwaldes wirklich derselbe ist, den man von kälteren Gegenden her kennt. Intelligente Weiße, mit denen ich hierüber gesprochen habe und die beide gesehen haben, halten sie gleichwohl für dieselbe Art.
Nach dem Rio Parapiti zurückgekommen, suchte ich Batirayu auf, mit dem ich schon 1908 intim bekannt wurde und der auch ein ausgezeichnetes Spanisch spricht.
Keinem Indianer, den ich kennen gelernt habe, bin ich so nahe gekommen, wie Batirayu. Er verstand, daß ich die alten Erinnerungszeichen aus Interesse für seinen Stamm sammele. Batirayu tat sein bestes, mir die religiösen Begriffe seines Stammes zu erklären. Des Abends saßen wir bei einer Zigarette in seiner Stube, und er erzählte von alten Zeiten, Zauberern, Häuptlingen und
Geistern. Zuweilen kam ein alter Häuptling Bóyra dazu, und von ihm hörte ich viele hübsche Chanésagen. Bis spät in die Nacht hinein saßen wir und plauderten bei einem flackernden Licht, das ich mithatte, um Aufzeichnungen zu machen.
Man irrt sich sehr, wenn man glaubt, daß die Gespräche mit diesen Männern nur ein interessantes Studium waren. Ich fühlte mich wohl bei diesen feinen, taktvollen, ja, warum nicht, gebildeten Menschen. Es war eine reine Erquickung, wenn man von den oft platten, inhaltlosen Weißen kam. Batirayu ist aber auch ein ungewöhnlicher Mann, der Stoff zu einem großen Mann, der zur Untätigkeit verurteilt ist.
Batirayu ist ein Chané. Diese Indianer sprechen jetzt dieselbe Sprache wie die Chiriguanos, und zwar Guarani. Die meisten ihrer Sitten und Gebräuche stimmen auch mit denen der Chiriguanos überein, von denen sie wahrscheinlich unterworfen worden sind. Ihrem Ursprung nach sind sie indessen Arowaken und somit die am südlichsten Wohnenden dieser Gruppe, die in Südamerika und auf den Antillen eine große Verbreitung hatte und noch hat.
Wenn ich die Chanés und die Chiriguanos hier zusammen schildere, so geschieht dies, weil ihre materielle Kultur so gleichartig ist. Gleichwohl habe ich angegeben, bei welchem Stamm ich diese oder jene Beobachtung gemacht habe; dies gilt besonders für das religiöse Gebiet, auf welchem die Chanés, wenigstens am Rio Parapiti, viele alte Vorstellungen beibehalten haben, die den Chiriguanos unbekannt sind.
Batirayu erzählte mir, einige von den Chanés wüßten noch einige Worte der alten Sprache des Stammes. Besonders bei den Trinkgelagen, wenn sie betrunken sind, pflegten sie sich damit wichtig zu machen, daß sie unter sich die alte Chanésprache, die sonst den Charakter einer Geheimsprache hat, sprechen.
In Begleitung Batirayus begab ich mich nach dem Dorfe „Huirapembe“, wo die Indianer zu finden sein sollten, die am besten Chané konnten. Es war nicht leicht, ihnen ihre Geheimnisse zu entlocken. Eigentlich waren es nur die Jüngsten, die am allerwenigsten wußten, die mir etwas mitteilen wollten.[48] Eine alte
Frau, die ausgezeichnet Chané können sollte, sagte, erst im Totenreiche wolle sie mich unterrichten. Da die Indianer an diesem glücklichen Platze nicht von den Weißen, auch nicht von den Ethnographen belästigt werden, war das Versprechen der Alten nicht sehr freundlich.
Bei einer Menge Ausdrücke, die Schimpfwörter sind, wenden die Chanés ihre alte Sprache an, z. B. karitimisóyti, das sie mit Sohn einer H—e übersetzen. Eine Einladung zum Koitus nennen sie pocóne. Auch Lieder finden sich in ihrer alten Sprache, z. B. siparakinánoyé, siparakinánoyé, siparakinánoyé, tonéya, tonéya, tonéya, wofür sie keine Übersetzung wußten.
Vom Rio Parapiti aus besuchte ich wieder den Chiriguanohäuptling Taruiri im Caipipendital, wo ich so viel alte Schmucksachen und andere Kostbarkeiten wie möglich zu kaufen suchte. Außer Taruiri besuchte ich auch einen anderen Häuptling, Yumbay, einen alten Ehrenmann, der mich immer zu umarmen und dabei zu sagen pflegte: „Ich bin Yumbay.“ „Ja, der große, mächtige Yumbay“, fiel ich ein, worüber der heruntergekommene arme Kerl sich sehr geschmeichelt fühlte.
Abb. 77. Von der Frau des Chiriguanohäuptlings Maringay hergestelltes Tongefäß. ⅙.
Vom Caipipendital ging ich über Pipi zur Mission bei Ivu. Diese liegt in einer trockenen, einsamen, wasserarmen Gegend, nahe einigen mächtigen Bergen, und das Leben muß da fürchterlich sein. Als die Blattern in der Gegend stark grassierten, wußte Vater Bernardino den Einzug der Krankheit in die Mission mit Erfolg durch Vakzinierung aller am Platze wohnenden Indianer zu verhindern. Vater Bernardino ist ein wirklich uneigennütziger Mensch, ein wirklicher Missionar. Infolge der Vakzinierung starb in Ivu niemand an den Blattern, während die unheimliche Krankheit unter den Weißen, einige Meilen von der Station, fürchterlich wütete. Es geschah ihnen beinahe recht. War einer an den Blattern gestorben, so wurde der Leichnam auf einen mit Papierblumen und einem Kruzifix geschmückten Tisch gelegt. Um diesen herum betranken sich die anderen Schweine und tranken so lange obligos,[49] bis sie auf den Tisch zu liegen kamen. Allein im Dorfe Cuevo starben in kurzer Zeit von zweihundert Personen sechzig. Ich habe die 140 besucht. Sie waren so lustig wie immer. Branntwein und Bier wurde in Massen verzehrt.
Dem Vater Bernardino wurde niemals die Ehre an diesem Werke zuteil, sondern den Medizinmännern, welche die Krankheit verhext hatten, so daß sie nicht nach Ivu kommen sollte. Auch die weißen Kolonisten ließen zuweilen die Medizinmänner kommen, um die Krankheit zu vertreiben. Auch sie glaubten nicht an die Vakzin.
Mit Ivu als Ausgangspunkt machte ich eine Exkursion nach dem Igüembetal, um den Chiriguanohäuptling Maringay zu besuchen. Es war ein hübscher Ritt auf hohe Bergkämme hinauf und in tiefe Täler hinab, durch eine oft großartige, farbenreiche Landschaft. Diese Täler sind waldarm. Nur in einer gut geschützten Schlucht, in welcher ein Bach hervorsickert, ist die Vegetation üppig.
Abb 78 Von der Frau des Chiriguanohäuptlings Maringay hergestelltes Tongefäß ⅐
Mit dem alten Maringay wurde ich bald sehr gut befreundet. Der Alte war konservativ, hielt fest an alten Sitten und meinte, die Indianer sollten mit den Weißen auf gutem Fuße leben, ihre alten Sitten und Gebräuche aber unverändert bewahren. Sein Dorf war außerordentlich interessant und sehr reich an alten, hübschen Sachen. Die Keramik, die ich dort antraf, gehört zu dem Allerbesten, was ich bei diesen Indianern gesehen habe. (Abb. 77 und 78.)
Von Maringay kehrte ich über die Missionsstation Santa Rosa nach Ivu zurück. Die erstere hat eine wunderbare Lage. Gleich einer alten Burg ist sie auf einem engen Hügel gebaut. Unterhalb liegen in langen Reihen die von niedrigem Wald mit Mimosazeen, Kakteen, kleinen Algorrobos und anderen feinblättrigen Bäumen umgebenen graubraunen Chiriguanohütten. Dieser Wald ist selten so dicht, daß man nicht leicht ohne Waldmesser herauskommen kann. Als ich in Santa Rosa war, herrschte Trockenzeit und alles war verbrannt. Der Regen zaubert aber wohl auch hier das Grün aus dem trockenen Boden. Manchmal bleibt aber der Regen so lange aus, daß die Indianer keinen Mais bekommen, und das bedeutet — Hunger.
Von Santa Rosa sieht man weit hinaus über die Berge und über die große Ebene Boyuovis, über das Land, welches das Vaterland der Chiriguanos war, wo sie bei Curuyuqui ihren letzten Kampf mit den Christen gekämpft haben, die sich das Recht anmaßen, alle schwächeren Völker zu bestehlen.
Nach dem Ausflug bei Maringay verließ ich das Land der Chiriguanos und Chanés und machte meinen, in diesem Buche schon geschilderten zweiten Besuch bei den Chorotis und Ashluslays.
Das von den Chiriguano- und Chanéindianern bebaute Gebiet ist wirklich sehr ausgedehnt. Es hat eine wechselnde Natur, von üppigen Urwäldern bis zu äußerst wasserarmen, vegetationsarmen Tälern und Ebenen. Es ist teilweise sehr bergig, aber die Chiriguanos und die Chanés sind keine Gebirgsvölker. Sie halten sich unten in den Tälern auf und klettern nicht, wie die Quichuaindianer, auf Gipfel und Hochebenen hinauf.
Das Tierleben in diesen Gegenden ist arm, ja sehr arm. Ein Jägervolk könnte dort niemals wohnen. Hier und da ein Rehbock, ein Wildschwein, einige Strauße, das ist alles, was man an Großwild sieht. Auch das Vogelleben ist arm. Die Zahl der Seen ist sehr gering, und ihre Größe nicht bedeutender, als daß wir sie in Europa Pfützen nennen würden. Am Rio Parapiti sieht man die ihrer kostbaren Federn wegen berühmten weißen Reiher[50] ziemlich zahlreich. Von den Waldvögeln liefert nur das Huhn „pavas“[51] einen
Beitrag zum Essen. Zuweilen sieht man einen großschnabeligen „Tukan“.[52] Fette, mit Mais gemästete Tauben leben oft in Massen in den Feldern der Indianer. Im Rio Pilcomayo herrscht ein großer Fischreichtum, in den kleinen Flüssen sind die Fische klein und schlecht. Die Indianer, die diese Gegenden bewohnen, müssen Ackerbauer sein, und Maisbauer sind sie im allerhöchsten Grad. Mais ist für sie Essen, Trinken, Freude, alles!
Abenteuer habe ich von diesen Indianern nicht zu berichten. Jedermann kann unbehelligt unter ihnen reisen. Der größte Kummer des Ethnographen ist, daß er nicht alles Interessante und Alte, was er dort sieht, sammeln kann. Man kann nicht alles nach Hause mitnehmen.
Noch lebt in den Wildnissen des Chaco ein Chiriguanohäuptling Cayuhuari, in dessen Dorf kein weißer Mann gewesen ist. Es soll an einem großen See liegen. Dort weiden große Herden von Pferden und Kühen, und die Maisscheunen sind immer voll. Dort sind die Indianer reich, denn dort gibt es keine Weißen. So erzählt man wenigstens.
Cayuhuari, der seit der Empörung 1890 im Chaco lebt, hat eine weiße geraubte Frau als Schwiegertochter. Man sagt, er habe zusammen mit den Tobas die Zuckerfabriken in Nordargentinien besucht. Er hatte seine Schwiegertochter mit. Die Besitzer der Fabrik erboten sich, sie von den Indianern zu retten. „Ich will sie nicht verlassen,“ sagte sie. „Bei ihnen habe ich meine Kinder.“ Diese Antwort ehrt sie.
Die Sitten und Gebräuche der Chiriguanoindianer sind von mehreren Verfassern,[53] meistens Missionaren, geschildert worden, so daß wir mehr von ihnen wissen, als von den Chorotis und den Ashluslays.
Ein Teil von dem, was ich über diese Indianer berichtet habe, ist nicht neu, wenn auch in neuer Beleuchtung gesehen. Verschiedenes, besonders was das Religiöse betrifft, unterscheidet sich gleichwohl von den Schilderungen der verschiedenen Missionare. Was ich hierin gesammelt habe, ist von den Chanés, und die Missionare kennen die Chiriguanos am besten.
Was mich in verschiedenen Schilderungen der Missionare von den Indianern unsympathisch berührt, das ist, daß sie danach zu streben scheinen, ihre Fehler in allzu dunklen Farben auszumalen, damit ihre eigene „zivilisatorische Arbeit“ so bedeutend wie möglich wirken soll. Die Missionare scheinen mir die Religion der Indianer nicht objektiv schildern zu können.
Wenn ich gelesen habe, wie die Missionare ihre eigene Eroberung des Landes der Chiriguanoindianer beschreiben, so hat es mir nicht gefallen, nur von dem Mut der ersteren und der Grausamkeit der letzteren zu hören. Ich leugne es nicht, die Missionare waren tapfer, mehr bewundere ich aber die Freiheitsliebe und den Mut der Chiriguanoindianer. Ist es den Mönchen zu schwer geworden, so sind ihnen beinahe immer Soldaten zu Hilfe gekommen. Die Indianer haben sich den Missionaren nicht nur infolge der „Religion der Liebe“, sondern infolge Kugel und Blei unterworfen. Der Weg zur alleinseligmachenden Kirche ist nicht selten mit Blut getränkt worden.
[48]
Chané. Chiriguano. Mojo. Wasser úne y une
Mais sopóro ahuáti seponi
Feuer yucu táta yucu
Hund tamúco yaúmba tamucu
Chicha (gutes) liqui cángui itico
Ratte cóvo angúya cozo
[49] Trinkt jemand obligo mit einem, so muß dieser austrinken
[50] Ardea.
[51] Penelope
[52] Rhamphastus.
[53] Die allermeiste Literatur finden wir von Domenico del Campana angeführt: Notizie etc l c
Z e h n t e s K a p i t e l .
