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The Rou T ledge h is T o Ry of Medieval Ma gic

The Routledge History of Medieval Magic brings together the work of scholars from across europe and North a mer ica to provide extensive insights into recent developments in the study of medieval magic between c.1100 and c.1500.

This book covers a wide range of topics, including the magical texts which circulated in medieval europe, the attitudes of intellectuals and churchmen to magic, the ways in which magic intersected with other aspects of medieval culture, and the early witch trials of the fifteenth century. i n doing so, it offers the reader a detailed look at the impact that magic had within medieval society, such as its relationship to gender roles, natural philosophy, and courtly culture. This is furthered by the book’s interdisciplinary approach, containing chapters dedicated to archaeology, literature, music, and visual culture, as well as texts and manuscripts.

The Routledge History of Medieval Magic also outlines how research on this subject could develop in the future, highlighting under-explored subjects, unpublished sources, and new approaches to the topic. it is t he ideal book for both established scholars and students of medieval magic.

Sophie Page is an a ssociate Professor in l ate Medieval h istory at ucl . she is working on medieval magic and astrology, especially in relation to religion, natural philosophy, medicine, and cosmology.

Catherine Rider is an a ssociate Professor in Medieval h istory at the university of e xeter, u K. her research focuses on the history of magic in the later Middle a ges, looking especially at the relationship between magic and the medieval church.

The Rou T ledge h is T o R ies

The Routledge Histories is a series of landmark books surveying some of the most important topics and themes in history today. edited and written by an international team of worldrenowned experts, they are the works against which all future books on their subjects will be judged.

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The RouTledge hisToRy of Medieval Magic

Edited by Sophie Page and Catherine Rider

The Rou T ledge

h is T o Ry of

Medieval

Ma gic

first published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park square, Milton Park, abingdon, oxon oX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 vanderbilt avenue, New york, Ny 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 selection and editorial matter, sophie Page and catherine Rider; individual chapters, the contributors

The right of sophie Page and catherine Rider to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the copyright, designs and Patents act 1988.

all rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

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isbN: 978-1-4724-4730-2 (hbk) isbN: 978-1-315-61319-2 (ebk)

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MaRTiNe osToReRo

35 Epilogue: Cosmology and magic – the angel of Mars in the Libro de astromagia

l is T of f igu R es

2.1 forms of superstition in the Summa Theologiae 30

6.1 The figura Almandal or Table of solomon in f lorence, biblioteca nazionale, ii. iii. 214 fol. 74v 80

6.2 The rings and sigils of the planets to be inscribed on talismans, in f lorence, biblioteca nazionale, ii. iii. 214 fol 49v 81

7.1 Traditions of magic in medieval europe 86

18.1 The Sigillum Salomonis, a sigil to be inscribed on parchment 242

18.2 The first and second hebrew tables 246

27.1 “asperges me” from the thirteenth century 373

27.2 cryptography using neumes: “didacus notuit” 379

28.1 silver brooch inscribed with the holy Name from West hartburn 386

28.2 sword with possible magical inscription of unknown meaning in Roman and lombardic lettering from the River Witham 387

28.3 deliberately damaged ampullae 391

28.4 location of stone axes from the workshops at san vincenzo Maggiore 393

28.5 lead spindle-whorl cast with reversed “Rho” 394

29.1 hostanes from the f lorentine Picture chronicle, british Museum 403

29.2 egyptian magicians with magic staffs from a thirteenth-century Parisian Bible moralisée. oxford, bodleian library, Ms bodley 270b, fol. 43v 405

29.3 cyprian as a magician from gregory Nazianzen, Homilies, Paris, bibliothèque nationale de france, Ms gr. 510, fol. 332v 407

29.4 “Philosophus” and “Magus”. sculptures on chartres cathedral 409

29.5 “Magus”. chartres cathedral (detail of fig. 29.4) 410

29.6 Nigromance from brunetto latini, Trésor, london, british library, additional Ms 30024, fol. 1v 411

29.7 Monk inside a magic circle, el escorial, Real biblioteca del Monasterio de san lorenzo, Ms T.i.1, fol. 177v 413

29.8 sorcerers with a clay magic figurine and the shepherd Menalcas, dijon, bibliothèque municipale, Ms 493 fol. 15v 415

29.9 her mes from the Florentine Picture Chronicle engraving attributed to baccio baldini or Maso finiguerra. british Museum 417

29.10 Tree with male sexual organs being harvested by women (Wunderbaum). Mural painting set in the wall of the fountain of abundance, Massa Marittima (italy) 420

30.1 a lamina for a difficult birth and an abraham’s eye experiment, london, Wellcome Ms 517, fol. 67r 434

30.2 a silver pendant with an image of venus and the venus magic square. british Museum 437

30.3 a silver pendant with an image of venus and the venus magic square (reverse) 437

30.4 a lamina for identifying a thief. oxford, bodleian library, Ms Rawlinson d 252, fol. 104v 438

30.5 seven circular magical figures, Paris, bibliothèque nationale de france, Ms lat. 3269, fol. 85r 439

30.6 The figure of st Michael. cambridge, university library, additional Ms 3544, p. 93v 441

30.7 Matrix of a magic seal found in devil’s dyke, cambridgeshire. oxford, Museum of the history of science 445

30.8 composite magic circle with the names and characters of each planet, london, Wellcome, Ms 517, fol. 234v 447

30.9 The pilgrim and the student of necromancy from John lydgate’s Pilgrimage of Man. london, british library, Ms cotton Tiberius avii, fol. 44r 448

30.10 a magic circle from an experiment for love, f lorence, biblioteca Medicea laurenziana, Ms Plut. 18 sup. 38, fol. 286r 450

30.11 a magic circle from an experiment for love. Munich, bayerische staatsbibliothek, Ms clm 849, fol. 10r 451

35.1 angels rotating the universe from a french translation of bartholomeus anglicus, bibliothèque sainte-geneviève, Paris, Ms 1029, fol. 108 526

35.2 The creation of the universe, dome of the chigi chapel, santa Maria del Popolo (Rome) 527

35.3 Pietro facchetti (after Raphael’s drawings for the chigi capel), the angel of Mars guiding his planet. Museo Nacional del Prado 527

a c KN o W ledge M e NT s

This book has taken several years to put together, and we would first like to thank the chapter authors for their hard work and patience. Tom gray at ashgate and then Morwenna scott at Routledge offered a great deal of advice and support as the volume took shape and moved through the publication process. The anonymous reviewers gave invaluable feedback on our original proposal. We are grateful to ucl for paying for the translation of chapters by Julien véronèse and Martine ostorero, and we would also like to thank the translators, alex lee and victoria blud, for their hard work. another thank you goes to Jeremy yapp, who copy-edited several chapters. finally, we would like to thank our families – Jeremy, clancy and Wolfie, and laurence and stephanie – for their interest and encouragement.

sophie Page and catherine Rider london and exeter, July 2018

l is T of c o NTR ibu T o R s

Michael D. Bailey is a Professor of history at iowa state university. he has published widely on magic and superstition, both within the medieval period and beyond. among his books are Battling Demons: Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages and Magic and Superstition in Europe: A Concise History from Antiquity to the Present. More recently, he has published Fearful Spirits, Reasoned Follies: The Boundaries of Superstition in Late Medieval Europe (2013) and Magic: The Basics (2018).

Jean-Patrice Boudet is a Professor of Medieval history at the university of orléans (france) and an honorary member of the institut universitaire de france. his book, Entre science et nigromance. Astrologie, divination et magie dans l’Occident médiéval (xiie -xv e siècle), 2006, received the first Gobert Prize of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 2007.

Charles Burnett, Ma, Phd, fba, lgsM, is a Professor of the history of arabic/islamic influences in europe at the Warburg institute, university of london. his research centres on the transmission of texts, techniques, and artefacts from the arab world to the West, especially in the Middle ages. he has documented this transmission by editing and translating several texts that were first translated from arabic into latin, and also by describing the historical and cultural context of these translations. Throughout his research and publications, he has aimed to document the extent to which arabic authorities and texts translated from arabic have shaped european learning, in the universities, in medical schools and in esoteric circles. among his books in this subject area are The Introduction of Arabic Learning into England (1997), Arabic into Latin in the Middle Ages: The Translators and Their Intellectual and Social Context (2009) and Numerals and Arithmetic in the Middle Ages (2010).

David J. Collins, s.J.,  is an associate Professor of history at georgetown university in Washington, dc he has written extensively on the medieval cult of the saints, Renaissance humanism and early modern history writing, especially in ger many. his current research focuses on scholastic attitudes towards magic, especially those inspired by the work of albertus Magnus. he recently served as the editor of and a contributor to the Cambridge History of Magic and Witchcraft in the West: From Antiquity to the Present (2015).

David L. d’avray has been at university college london since 1977 as a lecturer, Reader and then Professor of Medieval history. he is a fellow of the british academy and corresponding fellow of the Medieval academy of america.

Isabelle Draelants is the director of Research at the centre national de la recherche scientifique, in the Institut de recherche et d’histoire des textes in Paris she is interested in the textual sources of medieval natural philosophy. she completed her Ph.d. in 2001 at the université catholique de louvain-la-Neuve and defended her habilitation thesis at Paris-sorbonne university (Paris iv) in 2008. from 2009 to 2013, she ran a research laboratory, the Centre de médiévistique JeanSchneider in Nancy, france. since 2003, she has been responsible for the Atelier Vincent de Beauvais, which specializes in the study of medieval encyclopaedism; she has also led a project called SourcEncyMe (sources of medieval encyclopedias), aimed at developing an annotated online corpus of medieval encyclopaedic texts. she has published several works on the transmission of knowledge, natura rerum and experimental science, including Le Liber de virtutibus herbarum, lapidum et animalium (Liber aggregationis), Un texte à succès attribué à Albert le Grand (2007) and with Th. bénatouïl, expertus sum. L’expérience par les sens dans la philosophie naturelle médiévale (2011).

Claire Fanger teaches in the Religion department at Rice university in houston, Texas. her research focuses on christian latin writing in late medieval europe, with special attention to magic texts, especially angel magic in a christian context. she has edited two essay collections on this topic (Conjuring Spirits [1998] and Invoking Angels [2012]) and has a body of work on the writings of the magically literate fourteenth-century benedictine John of Morigny, whose magnum opus, The Flowers of Heavenly Teaching, she edited with Nicholas Watson. she discusses the implication of John’s f lowers in another book, Rewriting Magic (both published in 2015).

alejandro García avilés is a Professor of Medieval art and director of the center of visual studies (visuM), university of Murcia. formerly, he was a frances yates fellow (Warburg institute), Postdoctoral Research fellow (getty grant Program) and Maître de conferences associé (école des hautes études en sciences sociales). he is serving as an associate to the board of directors of the international center of Medieval art (New york). his publications in the field of the iconography of magic and astrology include articles in the Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Kritische Berichte, Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, etc., and books like El tiempo y los astros (2001) his forthcoming books are Images magiques: la culture visuel de la magie au Moyen Âge (Paris: arkhè), The Iconography of Alfonso X’s Book of Astromagic (Turnhout: brepols) and El arte de fabricar dioses (Madrid: akal).

Damaris aschera Gehr studied Philosophy and latin at the university caʼ foscari in venice, where she completed a dissertation on late medieval learned magic. since 2007, she has been a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Warburg institute and the british library; the swiss institute in Rome and the vatican library; the staatsbibliothek in berlin; the ber noulli-euler Zentrum at basel university and the herzog august bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel. since 2017, she has been an editor at the Rudolf steiner archiv in dornach, switzerland. her main fields of study include medieval learned magic literature, especially as transmitted in unpublished latin and vernacular manuscripts from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries, and its reception in modern and contemporary esotericism, literature and art.

Roberta Gilchrist is a Professor of archaeology and Research dean at the university of Reading. her research focuses on the archaeology of later medieval religion and belief and their intersection with gender, magic, and the life course. she has published pioneering works

on medieval nunneries (1994), hospitals (1995), burial practices (2005), magic (2008) and the life course (2012), as well as major studies on glastonbury abbey (2015) and Norwich cathedral close (2005). she is an elected fellow of the british academy, a trustee of Antiquity and former president of the society for Medieval archaeology.

Sebastià Giralt is a senior lecturer in classics (latin) at the universitat autònoma de barcelona. his research primarily focuses on medieval medicine, magic and astrology. he has studied and edited a number of latin works on practical medicine and the occult arts attributed to arnau de vilanova. he has also studied the survival of arnau’s corpus and figure in the early Modern age. his research has approached the scholastic reception of magic and divination, as well as some magical and astrological texts in Romance languages. in addition, he has extensive experience in digital humanities for teaching and research purposes.

Robert Goulding is an associate Professor in the Program of liberal arts and the Program in history and Philosophy of science at the university of Notre dame. he specializes in the history of Renaissance science and the history of magic. his publications include Defending Hypatia: Ramus, Savile, and the Renaissance Rediscovery of Mathematical History (2010).

John Haines is a Professor of Music and Medieval studies at the university of Toronto. he has published on medieval and Renaissance music and its modern reception in a variety of journals, both musicological, from Earl y Music History to Popular Music, and nonmusicological, from Romania to Scriptorium his recent books are Music in Films on the Middle Ages: Authenticity vs. Fantasy (2014), The Notory Art of Shorthand: A Curious Chapter in the History of Writing in the West (2014).

Peter Murray Jones is fellow librarian of King’s college, cambridge. he has published studies of medieval medicine and surgery, and also written on medieval amulets and charms (with lea T. olsan).

Kathleen Kamerick is a retired lecturer in history at the center for the book, university of iowa. her research interests include late medieval piety and material culture, literacy and the history of the book and magic. she has written articles on prayer books, superstition and magic, and is the author of Popular Piety and Art in the Late Middle Ages her current research on magic and sexuality in late medieval england focuses on the life and trial of eleanor cobham.

Richard Kieckhefer teaches at Northwestern university (evanston, illinois) in the departments of Religious studies and history. he has worked mainly on late medieval religious culture, including the history of witchcraft and magic. his books include Magic in the Middle Ages (1989), Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer’s Manual of the Fifteenth Century (1998), and Hazards of the Dark Arts: Advice for Medieval Princes on Witchcraft and Magic (2017).

Frank Klaassen is an associate Professor of history in the department of history at the university of saskatchewan. his publications include The Transformations of Magic: Illicit Learned Magic in the Later Middle Ages and Renaissance (2013) and Making Magic in Elizabethan England (forthcoming).

Benedek Láng is a Professor and head of the Philosophy and history of science department at the budapest university of Technology and economics. he has published Unlocked Books, Manuscripts of Learned Magic in the Medieval Libraries of Central Europe (2008) and articles on the history of cryptography in Cryptologia (2010 and 2015) and The Sixteenth Century Journal (2014). currently, he is working on the english edition of two of his formerly published hungarian books: Ciphers in Early Modern Hungary: Secrecy and the Social History of Cryptography and The Rohonc Code

Jean-Marc Mandosio is maître de conférences at the école Pratique des hautes études in Paris. he specializes in the late medieval and early modern history of science and philosophy.

Steven P. Marrone is a Professor of history at Tufts university. his latest book is A History of Science, Magic and Belief from Medieval to Early Modern Europe

Katelyn Mesler is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Westfälische Wilhelms-universität in Münster, where she is engaged in the project “The visual in the Medieval Jewish World.” she is an editor, along with elisheva baumgarten and Ruth Mazo Karras, of the volume Entangled Histories: Knowledge, Authority, and Jewish Culture in the Thirteenth Century (2017).

Stephen a. Mitchell is a Professor of scandinavian and folklore at harvard university. for his research on scandinavian traditions of magic and witchcraft, he was awarded the dag strömbäck Prize from The Royal gustav adolf academy (2007) and was named a Walter channing cabot fellow for his monograph, Witchcraft and Magic in the Nordic Middle Ages (2011). he is a former fellow of the Radcliffe institute for advanced study, the swedish collegium for advanced study and the centre for viking and Mediaeval studies at aarhus university.

Lea t. Olsan is a Professor emerita of english and foreign languages at the university of louisiana at Monroe. she now resides in cambridge, uK. she has published articles on charms, amulets and rituals. Recently, she has published on the circulation of performative rituals in medieval medicine (with Peter Murray Jones), on images and texts found on medieval prayer rolls and on correspondences between artisanal and medicinal recipes.

Martine Ostorero is an associate Professor of Medieval history at the university of lausanne (switzerland). her research focuses on the history of the repression of witchcraft (Western switzerland and the alpine region) and demonological literature at the end of the Middle ages. she has published in particular Le diable au sabbat. Littérature démonologique et sorcellerie (f lorence, Micrologus ’library, 38, 2011) and L’énigme de la Vauderie de Lyon. Enquête sur l’essor de la chasse aux sorcières entre France et Empire (1430–1480), with franck Mercier (f lorence, Micrologus’ library, 72, 2015).

Bernd-Christian Otto is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Max Weber centre for advanced cultural and social studies at the university of erfurt, ger many. his research focuses on the conceptual and ritual history of “magic” and on new ways to deal with the problems of that category. his book publications include Magie. Rezeptions- und diskursgeschichtliche Analysen von der Antike bis zur Neuzeit (berlin 2011), and, as co-editor, Defining Magic: A Reader

(london 2013), and History and Religion: Narrating a Religious Past (berlin 2015); his most recent book is a monograph co-authored with daniel belling radt entitled Magical Manuscripts in Early Modern Europe: The Clandestine Trade with Illegal Book Collections (basingstoke 2017).

Sophie Page is an associate Professor in Medieval history at university college london, uK. her research focuses on medieval magic and astrology, especially in relation to religion, medicine, cosmology, and the history of animals. her publications include Magic in the Cloister: Pious Motives, Illicit Interests, and Occult Approaches to the Medieval Universe (2013) and an edited collection, The Unorthodox Imagination in Late Medieval Britain (2010).

Catherine Rider is an associate Professor in Medieval history at the university of exeter, uK. her research focuses on the history of magic, and the church’s attitude to magic, in the Middle ages, and on the history of popular religion, pastoral care, as well as sex and reproduction. her publications include Magic and Religion in Medieval England (london, 2012) and Magic and Impotence in the Middle Ages (oxford, 2006) and she is co-editor, with siam bhayro, of Demons and Illness from Antiquity to the Early Modern Period (leiden, 2017).

antonella Sannino is a Professor of history of Medieval Philosophy (M-fil/08) at the università degli studi di Napoli “l’orientale” (uNo). she has been a visiting Professor at hill Museum Monastic library collegeville, Minnesota (2015) and the frances a. yates fellow at the Warburg institute, university of london. she received a postdoctoral grant from herzog august bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel. at present, she is a board member of società italiana per lo studio del pensiero medieval (sisPM) and the société internationale pour l’étude de la philosophie médiévale (siePM). she is a chief editor of review “studi filosofici” and director of “bibliotheca Philosophica virtualis” (www.bph.eu). her research focuses on the appeal of the her metic and Neoplatonic tradition in the latin Middle ages. she has also produced critical editions of some important hermetic texts and the famous magic text De mirabilibus mundi.

Corinne Saunders is a Professor of english and co-director of the centre for Medical humanities at durham university, uK. she specializes in medieval literature and the history of ideas, and is co-investigator on the Hearing the Voice project and collaborator on the Life of Breath project, both funded by the Wellcome Trust. her third monograph, Magic and the Supernatural in Medieval English Romance, was published in 2010. her co-edited books include (with Jane Macnaughton and david fuller) The Recovery of Beauty: Arts, Culture, Medicine (2015) and (with carolyne larrington and frank brandsma) Emotions in Medieval Arthurian Literature: Body, Mind, Voice (2015).

Julien Véronèse is a senior lecturer in Medieval history at the university of orléans (france) and a specialist in medieval ritual magic. Within the framework of the project Salomon Latinus (f lorence), he published various studies (with editions) on traditions of learned magic such as the Ars notoria (2007), the Almandal (2012), and the Vinculum Salomonis (2015). he is also interested in divinatory arts and in theological and legal discourses against magic and divination, for instance studying some important unpublished treatises by the famous dominican inquisitor of aragon, Nicholas eymerich.

Nicholas Watson teaches in the department of english and the program in Medieval studies at harvard university. his main areas of interest include visionary and mystical writing of the later Middle ages and the history of medieval vernacular religious writing, especially in england and france. he is a co-editor, with claire fanger, of an edition and commentary of John of Morigny’s Flowers of Heavenly Teaching (2015); co-editor with Jacqueline Jenkins of the writings of Julian of Norwich (2006); and has written or edited several other books and more than fifty articles. at present, he is finishing a monograph entitled Balaam’s Ass: Vernacular Theology Before the English Reformation

Nicolas Weill-Parot is a Professor at the école Pratique des hautes études (section des sciences historiques et philologiques) and chair of “history of science in Medieval latin West”. his research deals with scientific rationality confronted with external challenges (magic, especially astral magic) and internal challenges (occult properties, magnetic attraction, abhorrence of a vacuum). he has published notably Les “Images astrologiques” au Moyen Âge et à la Renaissance Spéculations intellectuelles et pratiques magiques (xiie -xv e siècle) (Paris, 2002); an edition of Jérôme Torrella (Hieronymus Torrella), Opus praeclarum de imaginibus astrologicis, (Florence, 2008); and Points aveugles de la nature: la rationalité scientifique médiévale face à l’occulte, l’attraction magnétique et l’horreur du vide (xiiie-milieu du xv e siècle) (Paris, 2013).

Mark Williams studied classics and english before undertaking graduate work in celtic studies at Jesus college, oxford. he is a darby fellow and Tutor in english at lincoln college, oxford, and currently works in the department of anglo-saxon, Norse, and celtic at cambridge, where he teaches medieval irish. he is the author of Fiery Shapes: Celestial Portents and Astrology in Ireland and Wales, 700–1700 (2010), and Ireland’s Immortals: A History of the Gods of Irish Myth (2016). he is currently working on a monograph on magic in medieval irish and Welsh literature.

iNTR oduc T io N

The study of medieval magic has seen a great deal of important work in recent decades. since the 1990s, scholars have demonstrated that a wide range of people were engaged in magical activities from all groups in society, and that a great variety of magical texts were in circulation. in addition to this, they have continued to explore topics that have long attracted attention, such as the relationship between medieval magic and the witch trials of the early modern period. it has become clear from this recent scholarship that magic was not a marginal area of medieval culture but intersected with many larger and more conventional historical topics. Taking a lead from Richard Kieckhefer, who in an influential 1989 book described magic as a “kind of crossroads where different pathways in medieval culture converge”,1 historians have explored the ways in which magic interacted with mainstream religion, medicine and science, law, and the culture and politics of royal and aristocratic courts, to name but a few areas. The resulting publications are spread widely across academic publishers and journals – another sign that medieval magic is no longer regarded as a marginal topic – but the subject has found a place particularly in Pennsylvania state university Press’s Magic in History series and sisMel’s Micrologus Library series.

This Routledge h istory therefore has two aims. f ir st, it offers an overview of the work that has been done since the 1990s, exploring historiographical trends and the lively debates that now exist in many areas of medieval magic studies. s econd, it aims to act as a guide for future research, setting out what still needs to be done, highlighting manuscripts and texts that would benefit from further study, and discussing topics that remain underresearched. it is not primarily intended to act as an overview of the history of medieval magic as there are other publications that offer this, some focusing purely on the Middle a ges and others covering a longer chronological span. 2 Rather, it aims to move beyond these surveys to set a research agenda.

The book looks primarily at the period from the twelfth to fifteenth centuries, which have been the focus of most of the recent work on magic by medievalists. 3 i n several respects, these centuries can be seen as a distinct period in the history of magic.4 This is not to say that the twelfth century marked a complete break from what had gone before, and important points of continuity with magic in the earlier Middle a ges are discussed in this volume. one of these was the influence of aug ustine (d. 430), who laid the foundation for much of the medieval theorization and critique of magic. a nother was the nature and use of texts and objects that were accessible to the illiterate. 5 These practices, which Richard Kieckhefer termed the “common tradition” of magic, saw a high degree of continuity from the early Middle a ges into the early modern period and beyond.6

Nevertheless, the twelfth century saw the beginning of two developments that had profound implications for the ways in which magic was understood and practised in later centuries, as well as how it was viewed by the secular and ecclesiastical authorities. The first of these was the appearance in l at in of magical texts translated mostly from a rabic but also, to a lesser extent, from greek and hebrew.7 This was part of a much broader translation movement that took place in the l at in West in the central Middle a ges. b eg inning in the late eleventh century and continuing into the thirteenth, numerous philosophical, scientific and medical works were translated into l at in from these languages. The translations from a rabic were made in the areas of europe that had Muslim and Jewish populations most notably spa in, southern ita ly and sic ily. Their impact has been well documented by historians of medicine, science and philosophy but they had an equally profound effect on magic, because a significant number of magical texts were translated alongside other works. i ndeed, magical works were often closely related to scientific and philosophical knowledge.

s cholars such as dav id Pingree and cha rles bur nett have outlined some of the routes by which a rabic, greek and hebrew magical texts entered the l at in West and were disseminated but much remains to be discovered. 8 a lthough these magical texts were at first only accessible to the small minority of the medieval population that was literate in l at in and able to gain access to sometimes rare manuscripts, they offered to intellectuals new techniques for doing magic such as the creation of images or talismans linked to celestial influences. They also sometimes sought to justify the place of magic in wider schemes of learning, for example by presenting it as one of the seven liberal arts. 9 by the mid-thirteenth century, however, learned magic texts were beginning to circulate in court circles and in the vernacular, reaching new audiences such as the nobility and the urban elites.10

The second development that shaped the history of magic after 1100 was the establishment of universities and the emergence of a class of educated clerics who studied there. a ga in, the development of universities, from the informal schools of early twelfth-century fra nce to the carefully organized and powerful corporations of the thirteenth century and later, has been well studied. s o too has their impact on later medieval society. however, the rise of universities had several implications for the history of magic in particular. They provided one setting in which magical texts circulated: for example William of auvergne, bishop of Paris (d. 1249), claimed to have read magical texts as a student. Perhaps more importantly, the university disciplines of canon law and theology shaped later medieval thought about magic by offering systematic, detailed discussions of what magic was, how it worked, and which aspects of it were, or were not, legitimate. canonists sought to clarify which ritual practices should be categorized as magic and prohibited by the chu rch.11 Theologians and natural philosophers explored the place of magic in the universe, including such issues as the role of demons in magic and their relationship with human magicians, as well as the question of why magic was wrong.12 a nd sometimes why it was right. s ome thinkers approved of the use of the term “natural magic” to refer to the production of marvellous but natural effects, argued that the science of images was based on natural forces a nd used the vocabulary of experiment or empirical knowledge to explain the effects of occult properties in the natural world that magic texts utilized.13

When they considered these issues, medieval canonists and theologians drew on earlier chr istian writers (particularly aug ustine) but from the twelfth century onwards their discussions were far more detailed and covered a wider range of practices. They also engaged w ith texts, such as works of astrological image magic or the Ars Notoria, which had not existed in aug ustine’s time but were circulating in later medieval universities. The legal

and theological frameworks that resulted shaped educated churchmen’s attitudes to magic throughout the late Middle a ges and also informed the laws that were made against it and the activities of secular and ecclesiastical courts and inquisitors.

This volume ends in the fifteenth century, which again marks a transitional period in the history of magic. it saw the beginning of two developments in particular which continued to the early modern period. The first was a growing fear of magic, and with this a growing emphasis on the relationship between demons and magical practitioners. superstitions were being demonized more strongly than before, and clearly defined and gendered mythologies of witchcraft were emerging. This was also the period which saw the increasing numbers of trials for witchcraft.14 This increased readiness to demonize magic and put practitioners on trial was far from universal in fifteenth-century europe but nonetheless it marked a change from earlier centuries. for much of the Middle a ges, although churchmen had repeatedly condemned magic as demonic, trials of magic workers (or alleged magic workers) seem to have been comparatively rare.15 d uring the fifteenth century, this began to change. T he 1430s–1440s saw the emergence of a new mythology of diabolical witchcraft in the a lpine areas of modern switzerland, austria and ita ly. This new mythology encompassed a cluster of characteristics. b esides being a practitioner of harmful magic, the witch came to be seen as a member of a devil-worshipping sect that engaged in a variety of antisocial activities. The nature of the witch and her (or, less often, his) practice varied according to different trials and areas, but key to the stereotype of diabolical witchcraft (at least in the l ausanne region) was that witches attended secret meetings known as “sabbaths”, at which they worshipped the devil and engaged in orgies, cannibalism and child murder as well as harmful magic. according to some sources, they also flew to these sabbaths. at t he same time, some regional authorities, clerics and secular elites became convinced of the existence of sects of devil worshipers and initiated trials. The number of witch trials and witchcraft treatises really only intensified after 1560 (although scholars of early modern witchcraft now emphasize that even then many suspected witches were never prosecuted and peaks in witch-hunting were often short-lived and localized)16; nevertheless the fifteenth century laid the conceptual and legal foundations for these later prosecutions. however, the fifteenth century also saw a second important development: the emergence of less fearful and more confident attitudes to learned magic which continued into later centuries. Magic texts were reaching ever wider audiences through vernacular translations, with learned magic appealing to readers from the court to the cloister.17 i n fifteenth-century ita ly, a new intellectual climate allowed authors of learned magic texts to underpin their writings with Neoplatonic, her metic and humanist currents of thought. The translation of Neoplatonic texts from greek gave educated writers such as Marsilio f ic ino (1433–1499) new ways to conceptualize magic and develop philosophical justifications for the human capacity to manipulate the forces of the universe.

Scope of this book

This companion to medieval magic’s history begins by discussing the conceptual issues involved in studying medieval magic, focusing on the difficult question of definition. scholars working on many different societies – historical and modern – have long debated how to define magic and how magic relates to religion on the one hand, and science on the other. This issue is intimately bound up with practical questions about how medievalists should approach magic: Which practices and ideas fit into a history of “magic”? What questions

should scholars ask? and what methodologies should they use? The four short pieces in the first section of the book offer different approaches to this problem. Richard Kieckhefer argues that “magic” is too general and ambiguous a term to allow for rigorous analysis, and instead suggests that scholars focus on “constitutive terms”, that is, subcategories such as “conjuration”. These constitutive terms refer to individual elements of the broader phenomenon of magic that may, or may not, be combined and are, he argues, precise enough to allow for meaningful analysis. claire fanger, from a different perspective, argues that scholars should not be afraid to use the term “magic” (or other large, ambiguous terms) as the focus for analysis. instead, she suggests that we acknowledge the term’s ambiguity and view it not as a single entity but as denoting “a particular kind of problem” in medieval thought: the problem of how to deal with phenomena (positive or negative) whose causes were mysterious or opaque. viewed in this way, medieval anti-magical and pro-magical arguments are part of the same conversation rather than simply opposing views of particular practices.

b er nd- chr istian otto agrees with Kieckhefer that a generalized or universal definition of magic is not precise enough for scholarly analysis. focusing on learned magic in particular, he argues for the importance of understanding the “insider discourse” of magic, as a r ticulated by its medieval practitioners. f inally, in contrast to otto, dav id l . d’avr ay argues that we cannot just focus on the categories used by medieval writers themselves, either t he “insider” categories used by those who practised magic, or the categories of churchmen who condemned magic. he suggests that scholars need to find their own modern, scholarly terms for the phenomena they study. These will allow analyses of medieval magic which distinguish between different phenomena that medieval writers may group together, or conversely highlight the similarities between phenomena which medieval writers regarded as distinct. he goes on to suggest some possible categories that can be used to analyse different aspects of the relationship between magic and religion.

T hese four pieces highlight different, often contrasting, approaches to how scholars can or should define magic; whether the term “magic” is useful for scholarly analysis at all; whose definitions scholars should use (medieval or modern, insider or outsider); and the ways in which different definitions allow us to ask different questions about medieval magic or focus on different aspects of the topic. The responses – in which Kieckhefer, fanger, otto and d’avray discuss aspects of each other’s chapters – show just how much scope for debate there is. Taken together, this section demonstrates that there is no single “right” way to define or approach magic, in the Middle a ges or in any other period. however, it also underlines the importance of thinking carefully about the concepts and definitions one plans to use, however one plans to approach the history of a particular aspect of medieval magic. defi nitions are tools that can be used to serve a variety of purposes, and the ones that scholars choose will direct them towards particular questions and problems in the history of magic.

The other sections of the book cover the major areas where research into medieval magic has occurred in the last twenty years. “ l anguages and d issemination” examines the dissemination and impact of magic as it acquired distinctive identities in different parts of europe. it focuses first on the reception into europe and later influence of the magic texts from the a rabic and Jewish traditions, which transformed the status of late medieval learned magic from an illicit activity into a branch of knowledge. l ater chapters examine the geographical spread of these works into central and eastern europe; their dissemination in the vernacular; and the ways in which Western european magic interacted with existing magical traditions in two areas of europe where these are especially well documented: s candinavia and the celtic lands.

“Key g en res and f ig ures” examines one of the most significant research areas in the recent historiography of late medieval magic: learned magic texts. These texts circulated in manuscripts, described complex rituals and often drew on the same cosmological concepts as more scientific works such as ideas about the influence of the stars on earth, or the nature and powers of spirits. More than one hundred distinct texts and several hundred surviving manuscripts with magical contents have now been identified by scholars, although ma ny remain hardly studied and new copies of magic texts are frequently being identified. i n the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, some authors of magical texts also, for the first time, allowed their works to circulate under their own name rather than ascribing them to legendary figures such as her mes or s olomon. since theological condemnation made it dangerous to claim authorship of a magical text, the fact that authors were becoming confident enough to put their real names to works of magic is a striking development, and is evidence of a gradual shift towards more positive attitudes towards certain magical texts and ideas in Western europe. The second half of this section examines the work that has been done on these important “author-magicians”.

The fourth section, “Themes”, looks beyond the traditions, genres and authors of medieval magic to explore the ways in which magic interacted with other aspects of medieval cu lture. s everal of the chapters in this section highlight areas that have seen exciting scholarship in recent years such as Jean-Patrice b oudet’s chapter on magic at court, or Peter Murray Jones and l ea T ol san’s chapter on magic and medicine. o thers discuss important issues that would benefit from more research, for example Robert g ou lding’s chapter on conjuring and illusion, and cat herine Rider’s chapter on magic and gender (a topic that has received more systematic attention from early modernists than from medievalists). The final chapters in this section explore the relationship between magic and other media and disciplines: visual and material sources for magic; magic in medieval literature; and the role of music in magic rituals. These chapters are intended on the one hand to highlight sources that have been underexploited by scholars and on the other to bring expertise from other disciplines to bear on the history of magic.

The final section of the book surveys the key ways in which medieval writers – often, but not always, clergy – tried to categorize magic and discourage people from practising it. The sources left by condemnations and trials provide much of the surviving evidence for medieval magic and for ecclesiastical concerns about illicit rituals. They range from the sophisticated critiques of magic made by highly trained theologians in medieval universities, d iscussed by dav id J. col lins, to simpler works aimed at a wider audience of clergy and laity, as discussed by Kathleen Kamerick. Michael d bai ley’s chapter examines negative medieval attitudes towards popular “superstitions”, exploring how by the fifteenth century churchmen were increasingly concerned with “elite” as well as common superstitions, and how they were diabolizing common practices and associating superstitious error increasingly with women. The chapter on Witchcraft by Martine ostorero brings this section together and concludes the volume by examining the early witch trials, drawing on the large a mount of important work done by swiss scholars in recent decades which is discussed in more detail below. finally, a short piece by a lejandro garcía-avi les concludes the book by analysing the cover image in detail and the cosmological ideas that lie behind it. it is a helpful illustration of the ways in which visual and textual sources can be brought together to shed light on medieval ideas about magic and is an example of the kind of work this book hopes to stimulate, which combines the approaches of different disciplines to shed new light on medieval magic.

Recent developments in the history of medieval magic

The individual chapters in this volume discuss, and draw on, several major developments in the historiography of medieval magic that have taken place since the 1990s. The most important of these is the discovery and detailed study of surviving magical texts, which has revealed the extraordinary cosmologies of learned magic texts originating in diverse arabic, Jewish, greco-Roman traditions, their successive christianization through processes of translation, adaptation and dissemination, and the richness of the imaginative worlds that their readers subsequently had access to.18 in the exotic rituals of occult texts translated and disseminated in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, christian authors found arabic and Jewish spirit hierarchies, images and characters, lists of occult properties in natural objects and correspondences between heaven and earth. Perhaps surprisingly, they interpreted these as viable instruments for achieving goals that ranged from the pious seeking of the vision of god to the transgressive pursuit of knowledge from demons.19 significant work in this field has investigated the hermetic roots of ritual magic, and more recent scholarship has focused on unpacking the “solomonic” tradition and its influence.20 i n addition to discovering and editing learned magic texts, historians in this field have begun exploring their readership and circulation among physicians and in the clerical underworld, competitive court circles and the monastic cloister. 21 o ur knowledge of the routes of transmission of magic texts is still patchy, and it is hard to bring individual practitioners to rounded life based on the surviving sources, but it has become increasingly c lear that manuals of ritual magic were tailored to the individual interests of their owners, whether this was talking to spirits or having success in love. 22 The circulation of ritual magic texts among physicians and in universities is less well studied, and research into the vernacularization of magic texts from the mid-thirteenth century onwards is at a very early stage. 23 i n addition, few links have yet been made between this process of vernacularizat ion and the “common tradition” of magic, although historians have long acknowledged t hat many collectors of learned magic texts were also interested in charms, recipes and textual amulets and that non-literate practitioners were influenced by the ritual magic tradition. 24 Whether this frequent (if not typical) combination of interests influenced the increasing condemnation of popular practices as superstitious in the fifteenth century has not yet been explored. but historians have recently revealed vibrant and inflammatory links between ritual magic and other parts of mainstream religious practice such as mystical texts and exorcism. 25

a s noted above, historians generally agree that there was a shift towards positive attitudes to learned magic in the late Middle a ges, despite increasing concerns about witchcraft. 26 This means that the strategies with which the authors of learned magic texts appealed to the intellectual curiosity and the spiritual thirst of medieval men and women were to a large extent successful and flourished even in the difficult conditions of the late Middle a ges. h istorians have begun to explore one of the reasons for this success: the fact that the theology of witchcraft shifted the authorities’ gaze onto female popular practitioners and away from the male practitioners of learned magic. 27 a nother contributing factor to the late medieval success of ritual magic was the ways in which texts were stored, annotated and rewritten to avoid censorship and reflect the creative choices of scribes. s ome strategies are well known such as the concealment of occult texts owned by the cleric, surgeon a nd writer Richard de fou rnival (c.1201–c.1260) in a secret room to which only he had access, and the compilation of magic texts with more acceptable genres such as astronomy,

medicine, devotional literature and natural philosophy. s ome readers took the view that a pious vocation enabled them to safely handle suspicious texts and even draw out useful things from them, while powerful secular rulers did not necessarily need to conceal their occult interests. 28 f inally, in manuscripts themselves, tactics to evade suspicion took the form of cautionary marginalia or even notices condemning magic, which allowed the piety of the owner to be expressed while the usability of a ritual was unaffected. The general history of the censorship (and self-censorship) of magical texts, of rituals being cut out of manuscripts, names erased, magical characters being altered to turn them into crosses and books being revised and burnt has yet to be written. When it is explored more fully, it is likely that further lines of comparison and influence will be opened up with contemporary attitudes to heresy and witchcraft.

i mportant work has also been done on other kinds of source material. s ome of this has sought to shed new light on genres of source which scholars have known about for a long time. for example, texts produced as part of the activities of the medieval church have long played a central role in the history of medieval magic. e cclesiastical sources have been especially crucial to studies that focus on tracing the earlier medieval origins of fifteenthcentury ideas about diabolical witchcraft. since, as Norman coh n argued in the 1970s, these ideas seem largely to have originated among the educated, 29 the writings produced by educated clergy are one obvious place to look for evidence. c oh n himself used inquisitorial manuals and theological treatises, alongside other kinds of source material, to analyse changing stereotypes of magical practitioners and the relationship of those stereotypes to early modern witchcraft. 30 a number of more recent studies have continued this line of investigation, including Michael d. bai ley’s 2001 discussion of changing clerical attitudes to magic (which used the fourteenth-century inquisitorial manuals of b er nard gui a nd Nicholas eymeric) and Jean-Patrice b oudet’s important book on magic and astrology in the medieval West, which included substantial discussion of ecclesiastical condemnations of magic, among many other sources. 31 New studies have also analysed individual genres of source in depth such as Patrick her sperger’s survey of magic in the commentaries on the twelfth-century canon law textbook, gratian’s Decretum. 32 even with ecclesiastical sources, however, in recent decades the focus has broadened to i nclude a wider range of texts. for example, a la in b ou reau has published and analysed a document from 1320 (first rediscovered in 1952) in which Pope John XX ii i consulted a series of theologians and canon lawyers about ritual magic. 33 a nother broader kind of source material that has attracted renewed attention is the literature of pastoral care, including sermons, preaching materials and treatises on confession. 34 These sources, often structured around mnemonic schemes such as the Ten com mandments or s even deadly sins, were intended to help clergy in their dealings with the laity, and so often focus on the sins and problems that priests might encounter on the ground. They frequently included some discussion of magic and “superstition”, although these particular sins were not the first concern of most preachers or authors of confessors’ manuals. Related to these general works on pastoral care are treatises that focus on the sin of superstition. These were primarily a product of the fifteenth century and scholars such as Karin bau mann, Michael d. bai ley and Kathleen Kamerick have investigated what concerns they express about magic and why, as well as their relationship to emerging ideas about diabolical witchcraft. 35 s ome of t his work intersects with a wider scholarly discussion of “superstition” in other periods. 36 These genres of source were not completely neglected by earlier scholars (coh n, for example, uses the thirteenth-century exempla of caesarius of heisterbach and a pioneering article

published by g R o wst in 1957 considered magic in medieval e nglish sermons)37 but recent scholarship has investigated this material in far greater depth.

l ooking across these different forms of ecclesiastical text, we now have a much more diverse view of medieval churchmen and their attitude to magic. aut hors of canon law texts, pastoral care literature and treatises on superstition were always influenced by a core of authoritative texts and ideas but within these general parameters there was a considerable amount of variation. aut hors differed as to which practices they discussed, with some describing activities they claimed happened in their own regions. We can also see varying levels of concern. Much of the confession and preaching literature of medieval e ngland, for example, devoted a relatively small amount of space to magic and superstition. 38 by cont rast, authors of fifteenth-century superstition treatises were clearly more concerned about t hese issues, but even then there were differences. s ome worried about any unofficial ritual practice that might be defined as superstition or magic, while others identified genuine (if sometimes muddled) expressions of lay piety or legitimate protective practices that could be employed against maleficent witchcraft. 39

a further important development links to the work on fifteenth-century superstition tr eatises. This is a renewed interest in the fifteenth-century sources that describe the new crime of diabolical witchcraft. a t the heart of this is a large project centred on the university of l au sanne, which since 1989 has published and analysed many of the earliest witch trials and witchcraft treatises.40 The many scholars involved in this project have made these previously understudied sources available in modern editions and translations (usually into french, sometimes g er man) as well as studying the trial procedures, defendants and evidence for witchcraft. o ne focus of their research has been a register of twenty-seven fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century trial records which was probably put together in the early twentieth century, but the team has also published an important anthology of the earliest treatises which described devil-worshipping witches.41 More recently, some of the scholars involved in this project have published detailed studies that d i scuss demonology (Martine o storero) and the relationship between fifteenth-century witchcraft and heresy (Kathrin utz Tremp).42 Taken together, these studies have emphasized the importance of understanding the local factors and local judicial systems t h at lay behind individual trials. They have also underlined the continuity between earlier persecutions of heretics and fifteenth-century witchcraft trials, at least in Western swit zerland.43 i n addition, this work has given us a far more nuanced understanding of t he intellectual debates surrounding the new stereotype of the witch, and has led several scholars to suggest that ideas about witchcraft were less homogeneous than earlier studies often suggested.44

f inally, scholars have turned to sources that did not set out to discuss magic but often mentioned it within their scope. Medical and scientific texts often include information that could be categorized as magical. Their authors discussed (sometimes in great detail) how astrological forces or powerful words could affect the human body; treatises on the properties of stones, plants and animals list the marvellous effects these objects could have; and medical texts included remedies for illness which involved the speaking of charms or the wearing of amulets.45 The power of words – both written and spoken – has received particular attention.46 Meanwhile, Michael Mcvaugh, and l ea T. ol san and Peter Murray Jones have focused on incantations and charms, examining their relationship with other aspects of medieval medicine and the ways in which medical writers presented them, as well as how these rituals might have been performed.47 don c skemer has investigated the

related area of textual amulets – powerful words and symbols that were written down and worn on the body, focusing in particular on their relationship to mainstream religion.48 Much of this research has emphasized that many so-called “magical” cures in fact held an accepted, if marginal place in medieval culture. other significant sources for understanding late medieval magic are the visual and material culture of magic and literary instances of spells and enchantment. The former is very u nderresearched, a situation that three chapters in this book, respectively on the iconography of magic and magicians, magical diagrams and the material culture of magic, address. v isual sources in particular allow us to track transformations in the perceptions of magic and its relationship with mainstream religion and science (as garcía-avi les does in his discussion of the cover image), and to note the appearance of late medieval chr istian innovations such as the magic circle. The rich evidence of literary magic is explored in chapters by M a rk Williams and cor inne sau nders, who ask questions that reveal fruitful contrasts to current understandings of medieval magic and complicate our view of it: “Where does magical power come from? What are the imaginative conventions which govern its representation? What are the range of attitudes to its use, and how do they differ by genre?”49 one of the aims of this volume is to set these analyses of diverse genres side by side so that new connections can be revealed. The richly imagined vision of a pre- chr istian world in medieval i rish literature, with magical immortals and fantastic sequences of enchantment, complicates the chr istian understanding of the cosmos in an appealing and provocative way that is comparable to the syncretic cosmological frameworks of learned magic texts. a nother example of similar connections being made in different genres is the close relationship between necromancy and natural magic, and of both to the theory and practice of medicine. This is discussed by cor inne sau nders in the context of medieval romance and by i sabelle draelants in her chapter on natural philosophical texts. We hope that our readers will notice further connections.

Conclusion

The study of medieval magic is developing in many exciting ways. as the footnotes to this introduction make clear, a great deal of work has been published in recent decades by scholars from many countries including the usa, canada, france, spain, italy, germany, switzerland, hungary and britain. although much remains to be done, our understanding of certain areas – in particular the contents and readers of magical texts – is now much clearer than it was three decades ago. one result of this is that the field is now so large and lively that even scholars who research medieval magic struggle to keep up with all the new work being published, in several languages. it is therefore a good moment to take stock, to summarize new developments for the benefit of scholars in the field as well as other medievalists and to consider where to go next. This Routledge history is designed to showcase the new research that has been carried out in recent years and is still ongoing, with contributions from both established scholars in the field and recent Ph.ds however, many sources, in a range of genres, are still unpublished and little studied. for this reason, the book sets out some of the directions that the field could take in the future. it discusses areas that would benefit from more research; questions that remain unanswered or only partially answered; and authors and texts that need more in-depth study.

The chapters in the book were chosen to reflect the vitality of medieval magic studies at this point in time. They also reflect its diversity. a s ed itors, we gave all the authors featured

here a similar remit: to outline the most important developments in their field and discuss future directions for research. They have responded admirably. Within this general framework, however, we have tried to preserve the different approaches and styles employed by scholars who work in different places, different languages and different scholarly disciplines. We hope that the results will inspire scholars in the field and in related areas, as well a s students who are embarking on their studies of medieval magic.

Notes

1 Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages (cambridge: cambridge university Press, 1989), 1.

2 for surveys of medieval magic, see Jean-Patrice boudet, Entre Science et Nigromance: Astrologie, divination et magie dans l’Occident médiéval (Paris: Publications de la sorbonne, 2006); Karen Jolly, catharina Raudvere and ed ward Peters, Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages (london: athlone, 2002); Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages is still a useful and accessible overview. Recent works with a longer span which cover the Middle ages include The Cambridge History of Magic and Witchcraft in the West, ed. david J. collins (cambridge: cambridge university Press, 2015) and The Oxford Illustrated History of Witchcraft and Magic, ed. owen davies (oxford: oxford university Press, 2017).

3 The most recent book to survey magic across the early medieval period remains valerie f lint, T he Rise of Magic in Early Medieval Europe (oxford: clarendon Press, 1990), although many aspects of f lint’s interpretation have been debated. for a recent discussion, see yitzak hen, “The early Medieval West,” in The Cambridge History of Magic, ed. collins, 183–206.

4 Michael d bailey, “The age of Magicians: Periodization in the history of european Magic,” Magic, Ritual and Witchcraft 3 (2008): 9–17 also views the twelfth to fifteenth centuries as distinct, although he emphasizes (p. 17) that the fifteenth century should be seen as a period of transition rather than an end point.

5 on augustine, see especially the chapters in this volume by claire fanger, Robert goulding and david J. collins on continuities in the use of magical and ritual elements in medicine and apotropaic objects, see the chapters by lea olsan and Peter Jones, and Roberta gilchrist.

6 Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages, 56–94.

7 for an overview of this, see sophie Page, “Medieval Magic,” in Oxford Illustrated History, ed. davies, 32–44. at least two greek works were translated in the early Middle ages; see charles bur nett, “late antique and Medieval latin Translations of greek Texts on astrology and Magic,” in The Occult Sciences in Byzantium, ed. Maria Mavroudi and Paul Magdalino (Paris: la Pomme d’or, 2007), 325–59. although several magic texts claimed to have hebrew origins, the Book of Raziel represents the only confirmed translation of learned magic from hebrew into latin during the Middle ages; see Katelyn Mesler’s chapter in this volume.

8 see charles bur nett’s chapter in this volume. see also david Pingree, “The diffusion of arabic Magical Texts in Western europe,” in La diffusione delle scienze islamiche nel Medio Evo Europeo (Roma, 2–4 ottobre 1984) (Roma: accademia dei lincei, 1987), 57–102; “learned Magic in the Time of frederick ii,” Micrologus 2 (1994): 39–56; boudet, Entre science et nigromance; charles bur nett, Magic and Divination in the Middle Ages: Texts and Techniques in the Islamic and Christian Worlds (aldershot: ashgate, 1996).

9 charles bur nett, “Talismans: Magic as science? Necromancy among the seven liberal arts,” in bur nett, Magic and Divination, 1–15.

10 on magic at court, see the chapter by Jean-Patrice boudet. on vernacularization, see the chapter by sebastià giralt.

11 see ed ward Peters’s pioneering, The Magician, the Witch and the Law (Philadelphia: university of Pennsylvania Press, 1978), 63–108. for more recent studies of magic and canon law, see Patrick hersperger, Kirche, Magie und “Aberglaube”. Superstitio in der Kanonistik des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts (cologne: böhlau, 2010); catherine Rider, Magic and Impotence in the Middle Ages (oxford: oxford university Press, 2006), 113–34.

12 see david J. collins’ chapter in this volume; alain boureau, Le pape et les sorciers: une consultation de Jean XXII sur la magie en 1320 (Rome: ecole française de Rome, 2003); alain boureau, Satan hérétique: Naissance de la démonologie dans l’Occident médiéval (1280–1330) (Paris: odile Jacob, 2004), chs. 1 and 2.

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ces robustes bœufs, ces vaches pleines dans ces opulentes prairies. Les pommiers en ordre plantés aux favorables penchants des collines annonçaient cet été des récoltes superbes ; je rêvais sous quelle riche charge de fruits allaient bientôt ployer leurs branches. De cette abondance ordonnée, de cet asservissement joyeux, de ces souriantes cultures, une harmonie s’établissait, non plus fortuite, mais dictée, un rythme, une beauté tout à la fois humaine et naturelle, où l’on ne savait plus ce que l’on admirait, tant étaient confondus en une très parfaite entente l’éclatement fécond de la libre nature, l’effort savant de l’homme pour la régler. Que serait cet effort, pensais-je, sans la puissante sauvagerie qu’il domine ? Que serait le sauvage élan de cette sève débordante sans l’intelligent effort qui l’endigue et l’amène en riant au luxe ? — Et je me laissais rêver à telles terres où toutes forces fussent si bien réglées, toutes dépenses si compensées, tous échanges si stricts, que le moindre déchet devînt sensible ; puis, appliquant mon rêve à la vie, je me construisais une éthique qui devenait une science de la parfaite utilisation de soi par une intelligente contrainte.

Où s’enfonçaient, où se cachaient alors mes turbulences de la veille ? Il semblait, tant j’étais calme, qu’elles n’eussent jamais existé. Le flot de mon amour les avait recouvertes toutes.

Cependant le vieux Bocage autour de nous faisait du zèle ; il dirigeait, surveillait, conseillait ; on sentait à l’excès son besoin de se paraître indispensable. Pour ne pas le désobliger, il fallut examiner ses comptes, écouter tout au long ses explications infinies. Cela même ne lui suffit point ; je dus l’accompagner sur les terres. Sa sentencieuse prud’homie, ses continuels discours, l’évidente satisfaction de lui-même, la montre qu’il faisait de son honnêteté, au bout de peu de temps m’exaspérèrent ; il devenait de plus en plus pressant, et tous moyens m’eussent parus bons, pour reconquérir mes aises — lorsqu’un événement inattendu vint donner à mes relations avec lui un caractère différent : Bocage, un certain soir, m’annonça qu’il attendait pour le lendemain son fils Charles.

Je dis : ah ! presque indifférent, ne m’étant, jusqu’alors, pas beaucoup soucié des enfants que pouvait bien avoir Bocage ; puis,

voyant que mon indifférence l’affectait, qu’il attendait de moi quelque marque d’intérêt et de surprise :

— Où donc était-il à présent ? demandai-je.

— Dans une ferme modèle, près d’Alençon, répondit Bocage.

— Il doit bien avoir à présent près de… continuai-je, supputant l’âge de ce fils dont j’avais ignoré jusqu’alors l’existence, et parlant assez lentement pour lui laisser le temps de m’interrompre.

— Dix-sept ans passés, reprit Bocage. Il n’avait pas beaucoup plus de quatre ans quand Madame votre mère est morte. Ah ! c’est un grand gars maintenant ; bientôt il en saura plus que son père. Et Bocage une fois lancé, rien ne pouvait plus l’arrêter, si apparente que pût être ma lassitude.

Le lendemain, je ne pensais plus à cela, quand Charles, vers la fin du jour, frais arrivé, vint présenter à Marceline et à moi ses respects. C’était un beau gaillard, si riche de santé, si souple, si bien fait, que les affreux habits de ville qu’il avait mis en notre honneur ne parvenaient pas à le rendre trop ridicule ; à peine sa timidité ajoutaitelle encore à sa belle rougeur naturelle. Il semblait n’avoir que quinze ans, tant la couleur de son regard était demeurée enfantine ; il s’exprimait bien clairement, sans fausse honte, et, contrairement à son père, ne parlait pas pour ne rien dire. Je ne sais plus quels propos nous échangeâmes ce premier soir ; occupé de le regarder, je ne trouvais rien à lui dire et laissais Marceline lui parler. Mais le jour suivant, pour la première fois je n’attendis pas que le vieux Bocage vînt me prendre pour monter sur la ferme, où je savais qu’étaient commencés les travaux.

Il s’agissait de réparer une mare. Cette mare, grande comme un étang, fuyait ; on connaissait le lieu de cette fuite et l’on devait le cimenter. Il fallait pour cela commencer par vider la mare, ce que l’on n’avait pas fait depuis quinze ans. Carpes et tanches y abondaient, quelques-unes très grosses, qui ne quittaient plus les bas-fonds. J’étais désireux d’en acclimater dans les eaux des douves et d’en donner aux ouvriers, de sorte que la partie de plaisir d’une pêche s’ajoutait cette fois au travail, ainsi que l’annonçait l’extraordinaire

animation de la ferme ; quelques enfants des environs étaient venus, s’étaient mêlés aux travailleurs. Marceline elle-même devait un peu plus tard nous rejoindre.

L’eau baissait depuis longtemps déjà quand j’arrivai. Parfois un grand frémissement en ridait soudain la surface, et les dos bruns des poissons inquiets transparaissaient. Dans les flaques du bord, des enfants pataugeurs capturaient un fretin brillant qu’ils jetaient dans des seaux pleins d’eau claire. L’eau de la mare, que l’émoi des poissons achevait de troubler, était terreuse et d’instant en instant plus opaque.

Les poissons abondaient au-delà de toute espérance ; quatre valets de ferme en ramenaient en plongeant la main au hasard. Je regrettais que Marceline se fît attendre et je me décidais à courir la chercher lorsque quelques cris annoncèrent les premières anguilles. On ne réussissait pas à les prendre ; elles glissaient entre les doigts. Charles, qui jusqu’alors était resté près de son père sur la rive, n’y tint plus ; il ôta brusquement ses souliers, ses chaussettes, mit bas sa veste et son gilet, puis, relevant très haut son pantalon et les manches de sa chemise, il entra dans la vase résolument. Tout aussitôt je l’imitai.

— Eh bien ! Charles ! criai-je, avez-vous bien fait de revenir hier ?

Il ne répondit rien, mais me regarda tout riant, déjà fort occupé à sa pêche. Je l’appelai bientôt pour m’aider à cerner une grosse anguille ; nous unissions nos mains pour la saisir. Puis, après cellelà, ce fut une autre ; la vase nous éclaboussait au visage ; parfois on enfonçait brusquement et l’eau nous montait jusqu’aux cuisses ; nous fûmes bientôt tout trempés. A peine, dans l’ardeur du jeu, échangions-nous quelques cris, quelques phrases ; mais, à la fin du jour, je m’aperçus que je tutoyais Charles, sans bien savoir quand j’avais commencé. Cette action commune nous en avait appris plus l’un sur l’autre que n’aurait pu le faire une longue conversation. Marceline n’était pas encore venue et ne vint pas, mais déjà je ne regrettais plus son absence ; il me semblait qu’elle eût un peu gêné notre joie.

Dès le lendemain, je sortis retrouver Charles sur la ferme. Nous nous dirigeâmes tous deux vers les bois.

Moi qui connaissais mal mes terres et m’inquiétais peu de les mieux connaître, je fus fort étonné de voir que Charles les connaissait fort bien, ainsi que les répartitions des fermages ; il m’apprit, ce dont je me doutais à peine, que j’avais six fermiers, que j’eusse pu toucher seize à dix-huit mille francs des fermages, et que si j’en touchais à grand’peine la moitié, c’est que presque tout s’absorbait en réparations de toutes sortes et en paiement d’intermédiaires. Certains sourires qu’il avait en examinant les cultures me firent bientôt douter que l’exploitation de mes terres fût aussi excellente que j’avais pu le croire d’abord et que me le donnait à entendre Bocage ; je poussai Charles sur ce sujet, et cette intelligence toute pratique, qui m’exaspérait en Bocage, en cet enfant sut m’amuser. Nous reprîmes jour après jour nos promenades ; la propriété était vaste, et quand nous eûmes bien fouillé tous les coins, nous recommençâmes avec plus de méthode. Charles ne me dissimula point l’irritation que lui causait la vue de certains champs mal cultivés, d’espaces encombrés de genêts, de chardons, d’herbes sures ; il sut me faire partager cette haine pour la jachère et rêver avec lui de cultures mieux ordonnées.

— Mais, lui disais-je d’abord, de ce médiocre entretien, qui en souffre ? Le fermier tout seul, n’est-ce pas ? Le rapport de sa ferme, s’il varie, ne fait pas varier le prix d’affermage.

Et Charles s’irritait un peu : — Vous n’y connaissez rien, se permettait-il de répondre — et je souriais aussitôt. — Ne considérant que le revenu, vous ne voulez pas remarquer que le capital se détériore. Vos terres, à être imparfaitement cultivées, perdent lentement leur valeur.

— Si elles pouvaient, mieux cultivées, rapporter plus, je doute que le fermier ne s’y attelle ; je le sais trop intéressé pour ne pas récolter tant qu’il peut.

— Vous comptez, continuait Charles, sans l’augmentation de main-d’œuvre. Ces terres sont parfois loin des fermes. A être

cultivées, elles ne rapporteraient rien ou presque, mais au moins ne s’abîmeraient pas.

Et la conversation continuait. Parfois, pendant une heure et tout en arpentant les champs, nous semblions ressasser les mêmes choses : mais j’écoutais et, petit à petit, m’instruisais.

— Après tout, cela regarde ton père, lui dis-je un jour, impatienté. Charles rougit un peu :

— Mon père est vieux, dit-il ; il a déjà beaucoup à faire de veiller à l’exécution des baux, à l’entretien des bâtiments, à la bonne rentrée des fermages. Sa mission ici n’est pas de réformer.

— Quelles réformes proposerais-tu, toi ? continuai-je. Mais alors il se dérobait, prétendait ne pas s’y connaître ; ce n’est qu’à force d’insistances que je le contraignais à s’expliquer :

— Enlever aux fermiers toutes terres qu’ils laissent incultivées, finissait-il par conseiller. Si les fermiers laissent une partie de leurs champs en jachère, c’est preuve qu’ils ont trop du tout pour vous payer ; ou, s’ils prétendent garder tout, hausser le prix de leurs fermages. — Ils sont tous paresseux, dans ce pays, ajoutait-il.

Des six fermes que je me trouvais avoir, celle où je me rendais le plus volontiers était située sur la colline qui dominait la Morinière ; on l’appelait la Valterie ; le fermier qui l’occupait n’était pas déplaisant ; je causais avec lui volontiers. Plus près de la Morinière, une ferme dite « la ferme du Château » était louée à demi par un système de demi-métayage qui laissait Bocage, à défaut du propriétaire absent, possesseur d’une partie du bétail. A présent que la défiance était née, je commençais à soupçonner l’honnête Bocage lui-même, sinon de me duper, du moins de me laisser duper par plusieurs. On me réservait, il est vrai, une écurie et une étable, mais il me parut bientôt qu’elles n’étaient inventées que pour permettre au fermier de nourrir ses vaches et ses chevaux avec mon avoine et mon foin. J’avais écouté bénévolement jusqu’alors les plus invraisemblables nouvelles que Bocage, de temps à autre, m’en donnait : mortalités, malformations et maladies, j’acceptais tout. Qu’il suffît qu’une des vaches du fermier tombât malade pour devenir une de mes vaches,

je n’avais pas encore pensé que cela fût possible ; ni qu’il suffît qu’une de mes vaches allât très bien pour devenir vache du fermier ; cependant quelques remarques imprudentes de Charles, quelques observations personnelles commencèrent à m’éclairer ; mon esprit une fois averti alla vite.

Marceline, avertie par moi, vérifia minutieusement tous les comptes, mais n’y put relever aucune erreur ; l’honnêteté de Bocage s’y réfugiait. — Que faire ? — Laisser faire. — Mais au moins, sourdement irrité, surveillai-je à présent les bêtes, sans pourtant trop le laisser voir.

J’avais quatre chevaux et dix vaches ; c’était assez pour bien me tourmenter. De mes quatre chevaux, il en était un qu’on nommait encore le « poulain », bien qu’il eût trois ans passés ; on s’occupait alors de le dresser ; je commençais à m’y intéresser, lorsqu’un beau jour on vint me déclarer qu’il était parfaitement intraitable, qu’on n’en pourrait jamais rien faire et que le mieux était de m’en débarrasser. Comme si j’en eusse voulu douter, on l’avait fait briser le devant d’une petite charrette et s’y ensanglanter les jarrets.

J’eus, ce jour-là, peine à garder mon calme, et ce qui me retint, ce fut la gêne de Bocage. Après tout, il y avait chez lui plus de faiblesse que de mauvais vouloir, pensai-je, la faute est aux serviteurs ; mais ils ne se sentent pas dirigés.

Je sortis dans la cour, voir le poulain. Dès qu’il m’entendit approcher, un serviteur qui le frappait le caressa ; je fis comme si je n’avais rien vu. Je ne connaissais pas grand’chose aux chevaux, mais ce poulain me semblait beau ; c’était un demi-sang bai clair, aux formes remarquablement élancées ; il avait l’œil très vif, la crinière ainsi que la queue presque blondes. Je m’assurai qu’il n’était pas blessé, exigeai qu’on pansât ses écorchures et repartis sans ajouter un mot.

Le soir, dès que je revis Charles, je tâchai de savoir ce que lui pensait du poulain.

— Je le crois très doux, me dit-il ; mais ils ne savent pas s’y prendre ; ils vous le rendront enragé.

— Comment t’y prendrais-tu, toi ?

— Monsieur veut-il me le confier pour huit jours ? J’en réponds.

— Et que lui feras-tu ?

— Vous verrez.

Le lendemain, Charles emmena le poulain dans un recoin de prairie qu’ombrageait un noyer superbe et que contournait la rivière ; je m’y rendis accompagné de Marceline. C’est un de mes plus vifs souvenirs. Charles avait attaché le poulain, par une corde de quelques mètres, à un pieu solidement fiché dans le sol. Le poulain, trop nerveux, s’était, paraît-il, fougueusement débattu quelque temps ; à présent, assagi, lassé, il tournait en rond d’une façon plus calme ; son trot, d’une élasticité surprenante, était aimable à regarder et séduisait comme une danse. Charles, au centre du cercle, évitant à chaque tour la corde d’un saut brusque, l’excitait ou le calmait de la parole ; il tenait à la main un grand fouet, mais je ne le vis pas s’en servir. Tout, dans son air et dans ses gestes, par sa jeunesse et par sa joie, donnait à ce travail le bel aspect fervent du plaisir Brusquement et je ne sais comment il enfourcha la bête ; elle avait ralenti son allure, puis s’était arrêtée ; il l’avait caressée un peu, puis soudain je le vis à cheval, sûr de lui, se maintenant à peine à sa crinière, riant, penché, prolongeant sa caresse. A peine le poulain avait-il un instant regimbé ; à présent il reprenait son trot égal, si beau, si souple, que j’enviais Charles et le lui dis.

— Encore quelques jours de dressage et la selle ne le chatouillera plus ; dans deux semaines, Madame elle-même osera le monter : il sera doux comme une agnelle.

Il disait vrai ; quelques jours après, le cheval se laissa caresser, habiller, mener, sans défiance ; et Marceline même l’eût monté si son état lui eût permis cet exercice.

— Monsieur devrait bien l’essayer, me dit Charles.

C’est ce que je n’eusse jamais fait seul ; mais Charles proposa de seller pour lui-même un autre cheval de la ferme ; le plaisir de l’accompagner m’emporta.

Que je fus reconnaissant à ma mère de m’avoir conduit au manège durant ma première jeunesse ! Le lointain souvenir de ces premières leçons me servit. Je ne me sentis pas trop étonné d’être à cheval ; au bout de peu d’instants, j’étais sans crainte aucune et à mon aise. Le cheval que montait Charles était plus lourd, sans race, mais point désagréable à voir ; surtout, Charles le montait bien. Nous prîmes l’habitude de sortir un peu chaque jour ; de préférence, nous partions de grand matin, dans l’herbe claire de rosée ; nous gagnions la limite des bois ; des coudres ruisselants, secoués au passage, nous trempaient ; l’horizon tout à coup s’ouvrait ; c’était la vaste vallée d’Auge ; au loin on soupçonnait la mer. Nous restions un instant, sans descendre ; le soleil naissant colorait, écartait, dispersait les brumes ; puis nous repartions au grand trot ; nous nous attardions sur la ferme ; le travail commençait à peine ; nous savourions cette joie fière, de devancer et de dominer les travailleurs ; puis brusquement nous les quittions ; je rentrais à la Morinière, au moment que Marceline se levait.

Je rentrais ivre d’air, étourdi de vitesse, les membres engourdis d’un peu de voluptueuse lassitude, l’esprit plein de santé, d’appétit, de fraîcheur. Marceline approuvait, encourageait ma fantaisie. En rentrant, encore tout guêtré, j’apportais vers le lit où elle s’attardait à m’attendre, une odeur de feuilles mouillées qui lui plaisait, me disaitelle. Et elle m’écoutait raconter notre course, l’éveil des champs, le recommencement du travail. Elle prenait autant de joie, semblait-il, à me sentir vivre, qu’à vivre. — Bientôt de cette joie aussi j’abusai ; nos promenades s’allongèrent, et parfois je ne rentrais plus que vers midi.

Cependant je réservais de mon mieux la fin du jour et la soirée à la préparation de mon cours. Mon travail avançait ; j’en étais satisfait et ne considérais pas comme impossible qu’il valût la peine plus tard de réunir mes leçons en volume. Par une sorte de réaction naturelle, tandis que ma vie s’ordonnait, se réglait et que je me plaisais autour de moi à régler et à ordonner toutes choses, je m’éprenais de plus en plus de l’éthique fruste des Goths, et tandis qu’au long de mon cours je m’occupais, avec une hardiesse que l’on me reprocha

suffisamment dans la suite, d’exalter l’inculture et d’en dresser l’apologie, je m’ingéniais laborieusement à dominer sinon à supprimer tout ce qui la pouvait rappeler autour de moi comme en moi-même. Cette sagesse, ou bien cette folie, jusqu’où ne la poussai-je pas ?

Deux de mes fermiers, dont le bail expirait à la Noël, désireux de le renouveler, vinrent me trouver ; il s’agissait de signer, selon l’usage, la feuille dite « promesse de bail ». Fort des assurances de Charles, excité par ses conversations quotidiennes, j’attendais résolument les fermiers. Eux, forts de ce qu’un fermier se remplace malaisément, réclamèrent d’abord une diminution de loyer. Leur stupeur fut d’autant plus grande lorsque je leur lus les « promesses » que j’avais rédigées moi-même, où non seulement je me refusais à baisser le prix des fermages, mais encore leur retirais certaines pièces de terre dont j’avais vu qu’ils ne faisaient aucun usage. Ils feignirent d’abord de le prendre en riant : Je plaisantais. Qu’avais-je à faire de ces terres ? Elles ne valaient rien ; et s’ils n’en faisaient rien, c’était qu’on n’en pouvait rien faire… Puis, voyant mon sérieux, ils s’obstinèrent ; je m’obstinai de mon côté. Ils crurent m’effrayer en me menaçant de partir. Moi qui n’attendais que ce mot : — Eh ! partez donc si vous voulez ! Je ne vous retiens pas, leur dis-je. Je pris les promesses de bail et les déchirai devant eux.

Je restai donc avec plus de cent hectares sur les bras. Depuis quelque temps déjà, je projetais d’en confier la haute direction à Bocage, pensant bien qu’indirectement c’est à Charles que je la donnais ; je prétendais aussi m’en occuper beaucoup moi-même ; d’ailleurs je ne réfléchis guère : le risque même de l’entreprise me tentait. Les fermiers ne délogeaient qu’à la Noël ; d’ici là nous pouvions bien nous retourner. Je prévins Charles ; sa joie aussitôt me déplut ; il ne put la dissimuler ; elle me fit sentir encore plus sa beaucoup trop grande jeunesse. Le temps pressait déjà ; nous étions à cette époque de l’année où les premières récoltes laissent libres les champs pour les premiers labours. Par une convention établie, les travaux du fermier sortant et ceux du nouveau se côtoient, le premier abandonnant son bien pièce après pièce et sitôt

les moissons rentrées. Je redoutais, comme une sorte de vengeance, l’animosité des deux fermiers congédiés ; il leur plut au contraire de feindre à mon égard une parfaite complaisance (je ne sus que plus tard l’avantage qu’ils y trouvaient). J’en profitai pour courir le matin et le soir sur leurs terres qui devaient donc me revenir bientôt. L’automne commençait ; il fallut embaucher plus d’hommes pour hâter les labours, les semailles ; nous avions acheté herses, rouleaux, charrues : je me promenais à cheval, surveillant, dirigeant les travaux, prenant plaisir à commander.

Cependant, dans les prés voisins, les fermiers récoltaient les pommes ; elles tombaient, roulaient dans l’herbe épaisse, abondantes comme à nulle autre année ; les travailleurs n’y pouvaient point suffire ; il en venait des villages voisins ; on les embauchait pour huit jours ; Charles et moi, parfois, nous amusions à les aider. Les uns gaulaient les branches pour en faire tomber les fruits tardifs ; on récoltait à part les fruits tombés d’eux-mêmes, trop mûrs, souvent talés, écrasés dans les hautes herbes ; on ne pouvait marcher sans en fouler L’odeur montant du pré était âcre et douceâtre et se mêlait à celle des labours.

L’automne s’avançait. Les matins des derniers beaux jours sont les plus frais, les plus limpides. Parfois l’atmosphère mouillée bleuissait les lointains, les reculait encore, faisait d’une promenade un voyage ; le pays semblait agrandi ; parfois, au contraire, la transparence anormale de l’air rendait les horizons tout proches ; on les eût atteints d’un coup d’aile ; et je ne sais ce qui des deux emplissait de plus de langueur. Mon travail était à peu près achevé ; du moins je le disais afin d’oser mieux m’en distraire. Le temps que je ne passais plus à la ferme, je le passais auprès de Marceline. Ensemble nous sortions dans le jardin ; nous marchions lentement, elle languissamment et pesant à mon bras ; nous allions nous asseoir sur un banc, d’où l’on dominait le vallon que le soir emplissait de lumière. Elle avait une tendre façon de s’appuyer sur mon épaule ; et nous restions ainsi jusqu’au soir, sentant fondre en nous la journée, sans gestes, sans paroles.

Comme un souffle parfois plisse une eau très tranquille, la plus légère émotion sur son front se laissait lire ; en elle, mystérieusement, elle écoutait frémir une nouvelle vie ; je me penchais sur elle comme sur une profonde eau pure, où, si loin qu’on voyait, on ne voyait que de l’amour. Ah ! si c’était encore le bonheur, je sais que j’ai voulu dès lors le retenir, comme on veut retenir dans ses mains rapprochées, en vain, une eau fuyante ; mais déjà je sentais, à côté du bonheur, quelque autre chose que le bonheur, qui colorait bien mon amour, mais comme colore l’automne.

L’automne s’avançait. L’herbe, chaque matin plus trempée, ne séchait plus au revers de l’orée ; à la fine aube elle était blanche. Les canards, sur l’eau des douves, battaient de l’aile ; ils s’agitaient sauvagement ; on les voyait parfois se soulever, faire avec de grands cris, dans un vol tapageur, tout le tour de la Morinière. Un matin nous ne les vîmes plus ; Bocage les avait enfermés. Charles me dit qu’on les enferme ainsi chaque automne, à l’époque de la migration. Et, peu de jours après, le temps changea. Ce fut, un soir, tout à coup, un grand souffle, une haleine de mer, forte, non divisée, amenant le nord et la pluie, emportant les oiseaux nomades. Déjà l’état de Marceline, les soins d’une installation nouvelle, les premiers soucis de mon cours nous eussent rappelés en ville. La mauvaise saison, qui commençait tôt, nous chassa.

Les travaux de la ferme, il est vrai, devaient me rappeler en novembre. J’avais été fort dépité d’apprendre les dispositions de Bocage pour l’hiver ; il me déclara son désir de renvoyer Charles sur la ferme modèle, où il avait, prétendait-il, encore passablement à apprendre ; je causai longuement, employai tous les arguments que je trouvai, mais ne pus le faire céder ; tout au plus, accepta-t-il d’écourter un peu ces études pour permettre à Charles de revenir un peu plus tôt. Bocage ne me dissimulait pas que l’exploitation des deux fermes ne se ferait pas sans grand’peine ; mais il avait en vue, m’apprit-il, deux paysans très sûrs qu’il comptait prendre sous ses ordres ; ce seraient presque des fermiers, presque des métayers, presque des serviteurs ; la chose était, pour le pays, trop nouvelle

pour qu’il en augurât rien de bon ; mais c’était, disait-il, moi qui l’avais voulu. — Cette conversation avait lieu vers la fin d’octobre. Aux premiers jours de novembre, nous rentrions à Paris.

II

Ce fut dans la rue S***, près de Passy, que nous nous installâmes. L’appartement que nous avait indiqué un des frères de Marceline, et que nous avions pu visiter lors de notre dernier passage à Paris, était beaucoup plus grand que celui que m’avait laissé mon père, et Marceline put s’inquiéter quelque peu, non point seulement du loyer plus élevé, mais aussi de toutes les dépenses auxquelles nous allions nous laisser entraîner. A toutes ses craintes j’opposais une factice horreur du provisoire ; je me forçais moi-même d’y croire et l’exagérais à dessein. Certainement les divers frais d’installation excéderaient nos revenus cette année, mais notre fortune déjà belle devait s’embellir encore ; je comptais pour cela sur mon cours, sur la publication de mon livre et même, avec quelle folie ! sur les nouveaux rendements de mes fermes. Je ne m’arrêtai donc devant aucune dépense, me disant à chacune que je me liais d’autant plus, et prétendant supprimer du même coup toute humeur vagabonde que je pouvais sentir, ou craindre de sentir en moi.

Les premiers jours, et du matin au soir, notre temps se passa en courses ; et bien que le frère de Marceline, très obligeamment, s’offrît ensuite pour nous en épargner plusieurs, Marceline ne tarda pas à se sentir très fatiguée. Puis, au lieu du repos qui lui eût été nécessaire, il lui fallut, aussitôt installée, recevoir visites sur visites ; l’éloignement où nous avions vécu jusqu’alors les faisait à présent affluer, et Marceline, déshabituée du monde, ni ne savait les abréger, ni n’osait condamner sa porte ; je la trouvais, le soir, exténuée ; et si je ne m’inquiétai pas d’une fatigue dont je savais la cause naturelle, du moins m’ingéniai-je à la diminuer, recevant souvent à sa place, ce qui ne m’amusait guère, et parfois rendant les visites, ce qui m’amusait moins encore.

Je n’ai jamais été brillant causeur ; la frivolité des salons, leur esprit, est chose à quoi je ne pouvais me plaire ; j’en avais pourtant bien fréquenté quelques-uns naguère ; mais que ce temps était donc loin ! Que s’était-il passé depuis ? Je me sentais, auprès des autres, terne, triste, fâcheux, à la fois gênant et gêné. Par une singulière malchance, vous, que je considérais déjà comme mes seuls amis véritables, n’étiez pas à Paris et n’y deviez pas revenir de longtemps. Eussé-je pu mieux vous parler ? M’eussiez-vous peutêtre compris mieux que je ne faisais moi-même ? Mais de tout ce qui grandissait en moi et que je vous dis aujourd’hui, que savais-je ? L’avenir m’apparaissait tout sûr, et jamais je ne m’en étais cru plus maître.

Et quand bien même j’eusse été plus perspicace, quel recours contre moi-même pouvais-je trouver en Hubert, Didier, Maurice, en tant d’autres, que vous connaissez et jugez comme moi. Je reconnus bien vite, hélas ! l’impossibilité de me faire entendre d’eux. Dès les premières causeries que nous eûmes, je me vis comme contraint par eux de jouer un faux personnage, de ressembler à celui qu’ils croyaient que j’étais resté, sous peine de paraître feindre ; et, pour plus de commodité, je feignis donc d’avoir les pensées et les goûts qu’on me prêtait. On ne peut à la fois être sincère et le paraître.

Je revis un peu plus volontiers les gens de ma partie, archéologues et philologues, mais ne trouvai, à causer avec eux, guère plus de plaisir et pas plus d’émotion qu’à feuilleter de bons dictionnaires d’histoire. Tout d’abord je pus espérer trouver une compréhension un peu plus directe de la vie chez quelques romanciers et chez quelques poètes ; mais s’ils l’avaient, cette compréhension, il faut avouer qu’ils ne la montraient guère ; il me parut que la plupart ne vivaient point, se contentaient de paraître vivre et, pour un peu, eussent considéré la vie comme un fâcheux empêchement d’écrire. Et je ne pouvais pas les en blâmer ; et je n’affirme pas que l’erreur ne vînt pas de moi… D’ailleurs qu’entendais-je par : vivre ? — C’est précisément ce que j’eusse

voulu qu’on m’apprît. — Les uns et les autres causaient habilement des divers événements de la vie, jamais de ce qui les motive.

Quant aux quelques philosophes, dont le rôle eût été de me renseigner, je savais depuis longtemps ce qu’il fallait attendre d’eux ; mathématiciens ou néocriticistes, ils se tenaient aussi loin que possible de la troublante réalité et ne s’en occupaient pas plus que l’algébriste de l’existence des quantités qu’il mesure.

De retour près de Marceline, je ne lui cachais point l’ennui que ces fréquentations me causaient.

— Ils se ressemblent tous, lui disais-je. Chacun fait double emploi. Quand je parle à l’un d’eux, il me semble que je parle à plusieurs.

— Mais, mon ami, répondait Marceline, vous ne pouvez demander à chacun de différer de tous les autres.

— Plus ils se ressemblent entre eux et plus ils diffèrent de moi.

Et puis je reprenais plus tristement :

— Aucun n’a su être malade. Ils vivent, ont l’air de vivre et de ne pas savoir qu’ils vivent. D’ailleurs, moi-même, depuis que je suis auprès d’eux, je ne vis plus. Entre autres jours, aujourd’hui, qu’ai-je fait ? J’ai dû vous quitter dès 9 heures : à peine, avant de partir, ai-je eu le temps de lire un peu ; c’est le seul bon moment du jour. Votre frère m’attendait chez le notaire, et après le notaire il ne m’a pas lâché ; j’ai dû voir avec lui le tapissier ; il m’a gêné chez l’ébéniste et je ne l’ai laissé que chez Gaston ; j’ai déjeuné dans le quartier avec Philippe, puis j’ai retrouvé Louis qui m’attendait au café : entendu avec lui l’absurde cours de Théodore que j’ai complimenté à la sortie ; pour refuser son invitation du dimanche, j’ai dû l’accompagner chez Arthur ; avec Arthur, été voir une exposition d’aquarelles ; été déposer des cartes chez Albertine et chez Julie. Exténué, je rentre et vous trouve aussi fatiguée que moi-même, ayant vu Adeline, Marthe, Jeanne, Sophie. Et quand le soir, maintenant, je repasse toutes ces occupations du jour, je sens ma journée si vaine et elle me paraît si vide, que je voudrais la ressaisir

au vol, la recommencer heure après heure et que je suis triste à pleurer.

Pourtant je n’aurais pas su dire ni ce que j’entendais par vivre, ni si le goût que j’avais pris d’une vie plus spacieuse et aérée, moins contrainte et moins soucieuse d’autrui, n’était pas le secret très simple de ma gêne ; ce secret me semblait bien plus mystérieux : un secret de ressuscité, pensais-je, car je restais un étranger parmi les autres, comme quelqu’un qui revient de chez les morts. Et d’abord je ne ressentis qu’un assez douloureux désarroi ; mais bientôt un sentiment très neuf se fit jour. Je n’avais éprouvé nul orgueil, je l’affirme, lors de la publication des travaux qui me valurent tant d’éloges. Était-ce de l’orgueil, à présent ? Peut-être ; mais du moins aucune nuance de vanité ne s’y mêlait. C’était, pour la première fois, la conscience de ma valeur propre : ce qui me séparait, me distinguait des autres, importait ; ce que personne d’autre que moi ne disait ni ne pouvait dire, c’était ce que j’avais à dire.

Mon cours commença tôt après ; le sujet m’y portant, je gonflai ma première leçon de toute ma passion nouvelle. A propos de l’extrême civilisation latine, je peignais la culture artistique, montant à fleur de peuple, à la manière d’une sécrétion, qui d’abord indique pléthore, surabondance de santé, puis aussitôt se fige, durcit, s’oppose à tout parfait contact de l’esprit avec la nature, cache sous l’apparence persistante de la vie la diminution de la vie, forme gaine où l’esprit gêné languit et bientôt s’étiole, puis meurt. Enfin, poussant à bout ma pensée, je disais la Culture, née de la vie, tuant la vie.

Les historiens blâmèrent une tendance, dirent-ils, aux généralisations trop rapides. D’autres blâmèrent ma méthode ; et ceux qui me complimentèrent furent ceux qui m’avaient le moins compris.

Ce fut à la sortie de mon cours que je revis pour la première fois Ménalque. Je ne l’avais jamais beaucoup fréquenté, et, peu de temps avant mon mariage, il était reparti pour une de ces explorations lointaines qui nous privaient de lui parfois plus d’une

année. Jadis il ne me plaisait guère ; il semblait fier et ne s’intéressait pas à ma vie. Je fus donc étonné de le voir à ma première leçon. Son insolence même, qui m’écartait de lui d’abord, me plut, et le sourire qu’il me fit me parut plus charmant de ce que je le savais plus rare. Récemment un absurde, un honteux procès à scandale avait été pour les journaux une commode occasion de le salir ; ceux que son dédain et sa supériorité blessaient s’emparèrent de ce prétexte à leur vengeance ; et ce qui les irritait le plus, c’est qu’il n’en parût pas affecté.

— Il faut, répondait-il aux insultes, laisser les autres avoir raison, puisque cela les console de n’avoir pas autre chose.

Mais « la bonne société » s’indigna et ceux qui, comme l’on dit, « se respectent » crurent devoir se détourner de lui et lui rendre ainsi son mépris. Ce me fut une raison de plus : attiré vers lui par une secrète influence, je m’approchai et l’embrassai amicalement devant tous.

Voyant avec qui je causais, les derniers importuns se retirèrent ; je restai seul avec Ménalque.

Après les irritantes critiques et les ineptes compliments, ses quelques paroles au sujet de mon cours me reposèrent.

— Vous brûlez ce que vous adoriez, dit-il. Cela est bien. Vous vous y prenez tard ; mais la flamme est d’autant plus nourrie. Je ne sais encore si je vous entends bien ; vous m’intriguez. Je ne cause pas volontiers, mais voudrais causer avec vous. Dînez donc avec moi ce soir.

— Cher Ménalque, lui répondis-je, vous semblez oublier que je suis marié.

— Oui, c’est vrai, reprit-il ; à voir la cordiale franchise avec laquelle vous osiez m’aborder, j’avais pu vous croire plus libre.

Je craignis de l’avoir blessé ; plus encore de paraître faible, et lui dis que je le rejoindrais après dîner.

A Paris, toujours en passage, Ménalque logeait à l’hôtel ; il s’y était, pour ce séjour, fait aménager plusieurs pièces en manière d’appartement ; il avait là ses domestiques, mangeait à part, vivait à part, avait étendu sur les murs, sur les meubles dont la banale laideur l’offusquait, quelques étoffes qu’il avait rapportées du Népal et qu’il achevait, disait-il, de salir avant de les offrir à un musée. Ma hâte à le rejoindre avait été si grande que je le surpris encore à table quand j’entrai ; et comme je m’excusais de troubler son repas :

— Mais, me dit-il, je n’ai pas l’intention de l’interrompre et compte bien que vous me le laisserez achever. Si vous étiez venu dîner, je vous aurais offert du Chiraz, de ce vin que chantait Hafiz, mais il est trop tard à présent ; il faut être à jeun pour le boire ; prendrez-vous du moins des liqueurs ?

J’acceptai, pensant qu’il en prendrait aussi ; puis, voyant qu’on n’apportait qu’un verre, je m’étonnai :

— Excusez-moi, dit-il, mais je n’en bois presque jamais.

— Craindriez-vous de vous griser ?

— Oh ! répondit-il, au contraire ! Mais je tiens la sobriété pour une plus puissante ivresse ; j’y garde ma lucidité.

— Et vous versez à boire aux autres. Il sourit.

— Je ne peux, dit-il, exiger de chacun mes vertus. C’est déjà beau si je retrouve en eux mes vices.

— Du moins fumez-vous ?

— Pas davantage. C’est une ivresse impersonnelle, négative, et de trop facile conquête ; je cherche dans l’ivresse une exaltation et non une diminution de la vie. Laissons cela. Savez-vous d’où je viens ? De Biskra. Ayant appris que vous veniez d’y passer, j’ai voulu rechercher vos traces. Qu’était-il donc venu faire à Biskra, cet aveugle érudit, ce liseur ? Je n’ai coutume d’être discret que pour ce qu’on me confie ; pour ce que j’apprends par moi-même, ma curiosité, je l’avoue, est sans bornes. J’ai donc cherché, fouillé, questionné, partout où j’ai pu. Mon indiscrétion m’a servi, puisqu’elle

m’a donné désir de vous revoir ; puisqu’au lieu du savant routinier que je voyais en vous naguère, je sais que je dois voir à présent… c’est à vous de m’expliquer quoi.

Je sentis que je rougissais.

— Qu’avez-vous donc appris sur moi, Ménalque ?

— Vous voulez le savoir ? Mais n’ayez donc pas peur ! Vous connaissez assez vos amis et les miens pour savoir que je ne peux parler de vous à personne. Vous avez vu si votre cours était compris !

— Mais, dis-je avec une légère impatience, rien ne me montre encore que je puisse vous parler plus qu’aux autres. Allons ! qu’estce que vous avez appris sur moi ?

— D’abord, que vous aviez été malade.

— Mais cela n’a rien de…

— Oh ! c’est déjà très important. Puis on m’a dit que vous sortiez volontiers seul, sans livre (et c’est là que j’ai commencé d’admirer), ou, lorsque vous n’étiez plus seul, accompagné moins volontiers de votre femme que d’enfants. Ne rougissez donc pas, ou je ne vous dis pas la suite.

— Racontez sans me regarder.

— Un des enfants — il avait nom Moktir s’il m’en souvient — beau comme peu, voleur et pipeur comme aucun, me parut en avoir long à dire ; j’attirai, j’achetai sa confiance, ce qui, vous le savez, n’est pas facile, car je crois qu’il mentait encore en disant qu’il ne mentait plus… Ce qu’il m’a raconté de vous, dites-moi donc si c’est véritable.

Ménalque cependant s’était levé et avait sorti d’un tiroir une petite boîte qu’il ouvrit.

— Ces ciseaux étaient-ils à vous ? dit-il en me tendant quelque chose d’informe, de rouillé, d’épointé, de faussé ; je n’eus pas grand’peine pourtant à reconnaître là les petits ciseaux que m’avait escamotés Moktir

— Oui ; ce sont eux, c’étaient ceux de ma femme.

— Il prétend vous les avoir pris pendant que vous tourniez la tête, un jour que vous étiez seul avec lui dans une chambre ; mais l’intéressant n’est pas là ; il prétend qu’à l’instant qu’il les cachait dans son burnous, il a compris que vous le surveilliez dans une glace et surpris le reflet de votre regard l’épier. Vous aviez vu le vol et vous n’avez rien dit ! Moktir s’est montré fort surpris de ce silence… moi aussi.

— Je ne le suis pas moins de ce que vous me dites : comment ! il savait donc que je l’avais surpris !

— Là n’est pas l’important ; vous jouiez au plus fin ; à ce jeu, ces enfants nous rouleront toujours. Vous pensiez le tenir et c’était lui qui vous tenait… Là n’est pas l’important. Expliquez-moi votre silence.

— Je voudrais qu’on me l’expliquât.

Nous restâmes pendant quelque temps sans parler. Ménalque, qui marchait de long en large dans la pièce, alluma distraitement une cigarette, puis tout aussitôt la jeta.

— Il y a là, reprit-il, un « sens », comme disent les autres, un « sens » qui semble vous manquer, cher Michel.

— Le « sens moral », peut-être, dis-je en m’efforçant de sourire.

— Oh ! simplement celui de la propriété.

— Il ne me paraît pas que vous l’ayez beaucoup vous-même.

— Je l’ai si peu qu’ici, voyez, rien n’est à moi ; pas même ou surtout pas le lit où je me couche. J’ai l’horreur du repos ; la possession y encourage et dans la sécurité l’on s’endort ; j’aime assez vivre pour prétendre vivre éveillé, et maintiens donc, au sein de mes richesses mêmes, ce sentiment d’état précaire par quoi j’exaspère, ou du moins j’exalte ma vie. Je ne peux pas dire que j’aime le danger, mais j’aime la vie hasardeuse et veux qu’elle exige de moi, à chaque instant, tout mon courage, tout mon bonheur et toute ma santé.

— Alors que me reprochez-vous ? interrompis-je.

— Oh ! que vous me comprenez mal, cher Michel ; pour un coup que je fais la sottise d’essayer de professer ma foi !… Si je me

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