Chapter 1
Tuples, Points, and Vectors
A sphere sits alone in a room with checkered walls and floor. It reflects light from a bulb somewhere above it. In fact, it reflects just about everything: the checkered wall behind the camera, the ceiling above, and even (if you look closely) its own shadow.
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
A D 1897 (Zanzibar) Abolition of slavery
Under pressure from the British government, the Sultan of Zanzibar issued a decree, on the 6th or April, 1897, terminating the legal status of slavery, with compensation to be awarded on proof of consequent loss.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (Zululand). Annexation to Natal
By act of the Natal Parliament in December, 1897, Zululand (with Amatongaland already joined to it) was annexed to Natal Colony, and Dinizulu, son of the last Zulu king, was brought from captivity in St. Helena and reinstated.
AFRICA: A. D. 1897-1898 (Sudan). Completion of the Anglo-Egyptian conquest
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A. D. 1897-1898.
AFRICA: A D 1897-1898 (Uganda) Native insurrections and mutiny of Sudanese troops in Uganda
See (in this volume)
UGANDA: A D 1897-1898
AFRICA: A D 1898 (Abyssinia) Treaty of King Menelek with Great Britain.
See (in this volume)
ABYSSINIA: A D 1898
AFRICA: A D 1898 (British South Africa Company) Reorganization.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (RHODESIA): A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY).
AFRICA: A. D. 1898 (Egypt). The Nile question between England and France Marchand's expedition at Fashoda.
See (in this volume)
EGYPT: A D 1898 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER)
AFRICA: A D 1898 (Nigeria and the French Sudan) Definition of French and English possessions in West and North Africa
See (in this volume)
NIGERIA: A D 1882-1899
AFRICA: A D 1898 (Rhodesia)
Reorganization of the British South Africa Company and the administration of its territories
See (in this volume) SOUTH AFRICA (RHODESIA AND THE BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY): A. D. 1898 (FEBRUARY).
AFRICA: A. D. 1898 (Tunis). Results of the French Protectorate
See (in this volume) TUNIS: A. D. 1881-1898.
AFRICA: A. D. 1899. Railway development
"Railroad development in Africa has been rapid in the past few years and seems but the beginning of a great system which must contribute to the rapid development, civilization, and enlightenment of the Dark Continent. Already railroads run northwardly from Cape Colony about 1,400 miles, and southwardly from Cairo about 1,100 miles, thus making 2,500 miles of the 'Cape to Cairo' railroad complete, while the intermediate distance is about 3,000 miles Mr Rhodes, whose recent visit to England and Germany in the interest of the proposed through line from the Cape to Cairo is a matter of record, and whose visit to Germany was made necessary by the fact that in order to pass from the southern chain of British territory to the northern chain he must cross German or Belgian territory, is reported as confident that the through line will be completed by the year 1910. Certainly it may reasonably be assumed that a continuous railway line will be in operation from the southern to the northern end of Africa in the early years of the twentieth century Toward this line, present and prospective, which is to stretch through the eastern part of the continent, lateral lines from either coast are beginning to make their way. A line has already been constructed from Natal on the southeast coast: another from Lourenço Marquez in Portuguese territory and the gold and diamond fields: another from Beira, also in Portuguese territory, but considerably farther north, and destined to extend to Salisbury in Rhodesia, where it will form a junction with the 'Cape to Cairo' road; still another is projected from Zanzibar to Lake Victoria Nyanza, to connect, probably, at Tabora, with the transcontinental line; another line is under actual construction westward from Pangani just north of Zanzibar, both of these being in German East Africa; another line is being constructed northwestwardly from Mombasa, in British territory, toward Lake Victoria Nyanza, and is completed more than half the distance, while at the entrance to the Red Sea a road is projected westwardly into Abyssinia, and is expected to pass farther toward the west and connect with the main line At Suakim, fronting on the Red Sea, a road is projected to Berber, the present terminus of the line
running southwardly from Cairo On the west of Africa lines have begun to penetrate inward, a short line in the French Sudan running from the head of navigation on the Senegal eastwardly toward the head of navigation on the Niger, with the ultimate purpose of connecting navigation on these two streams. In the Kongo Free State a railway connects the Upper Kongo with the Lower Kongo around Livingstone Falls; in Portuguese Angola a road extends eastwardly from Loanda, the capital, a considerable distance, and others are projected from Benguela and Mossamedes with the ultimate purpose of connecting with the 'Cape to Cairo' road and joining with the lines from Portuguese East Africa, which also touch that road, thus making a transcontinental line from east to west, with Portuguese territory at either terminus. Farther south on the western coast the Germans have projected a road from Walfisch Bay to Windhoek, the capital of German Southwest Africa, and this will probably be extended eastwardly until it connects with the great transcontinental line from 'Cape to Cairo,' which is to form the great nerve center of the system, to be contributed to and supported by these branches connecting it with either coast Another magnificent railway project, which was some years ago suggested by M. Leroy Beaulieu, has been recently revived, being no less than an east and west transcontinental line through the Sudan region, connecting the Senegal and Niger countries on the west with the Nile Valley and Red Sea on the east and penetrating a densely populated and extremely productive region of which less is now known, perhaps, than of any other part of Africa At the north numerous lines skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in the French territory of Algeria and in Tunis, where the length of railway is, in round numbers, 2,250 miles, while the Egyptian railroads are, including those now under construction, about 1,500 miles in length.
{4}
Those of Cape Colony and Natal are nearly 3,000 miles, and those of Portuguese East Africa and the South African Republic another thousand. Taking into consideration all of the roads now constructed, or under actual construction, their total length reaches nearly 10,000 miles, while there seems every reason to believe that the great through system connecting the rapidly developing mining regions of South Africa with the north of the continent and with Europe will soon be pushed to completion. A large proportion of the railways thus far constructed are owned by the several colonies or States which they traverse, about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony system belonging to the Government, while nearly all that of Egypt is owned and operated by the State."
United States Bureau of Statistics, Monthly Summary, August, 1899.
See, also, (in this volume), RAILWAY, CAPE TO CAIRO
AFRICA: A D 1899 (June)
International Convention respecting the liquor traffic.
Representatives of the governments of Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Spain, the Congo State, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey, assembled at Brussels, in June, 1899, with due authorization, and there concluded an international convention respecting the liquor traffic in Africa Subsequently the governments of Austria-Hungary, the United States of America, Liberia and Persia, gave their adhesion to the Convention, and ratifications were deposited at Brussels in June, 1900. The Convention is, in a measure, supplemental to what is known as "the General Act of Brussels," relative to the African slave trade, which was framed at a conference of the representatives of European, American, African, and Asiatic states, at Brussels The treaty known as the General Act of Brussels was signed July 2, 1890, but did not come into force until April 2, 1894 The text of it may be found in (United States) House Doc. Number 276, 56th Congress, 3d Session. The Convention of 1899 provides:
"Article I
From the coming into force of the present Convention, the import duty on spirituous liquors, as that duty is regulated by the General Act of Brussels, shall be raised throughout the zone where there does not exist the system of total prohibition provided by Article XCI, of the said General Act, to the rate of 70 fr the hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade, for a period of six years It may, exceptionally, be at the rate of 60 fr. only the hectolitre at 50 degrees centigrade in the Colony of Togo and in that of Dahomey The import duty shall be augmented proportionally for each degree above 50 degrees centigrade; It may be diminished proportionally for each degree below 50 degrees centigrade. At the end of the above-mentioned period of six years, the import duty shall be submitted to revision, taking as a basis the results produced by the preceding rate The Powers retain the right of maintaining and increasing the duty beyond the minimum fixed by the present Article in the regions where they now possess that right.
Article II.
In accordance with Article XCIII of the General Act of Brussels, distilled drinks made in the regions mentioned in Article XCII of the said General Act, and intended for consumption, shall pay an excise duty. This excise duty, the collection of which the Powers undertake to insure as far as possible, shall not be lower than the minimum import duty fixed by Article I of the present Convention
Article III
It is understood that the Powers who signed the General Act of Brussels, or who have acceded to it, and who are not represented at the present Conference, preserve the right of acceding to the present Convention."
Great Britain, Parliamentary Publication.
(Papers by Command: Treaty Series, Number 13, 1900).
AFRICA: A. D. 1899. Progress of the Telegraph line from the Cape to Cairo
See (in this volume) TELEGRAPH, CAPE TO CAIRO.
AFRICA: A. D. 1899 (German Colonies). Cost to Germany, trade, etc
See (in this volume) GERMANY: A. D. 1899 (JUNE).
AFRICA: A. D. 1899 (Nigeria). Transfer of territory to the British Crown
See (in this volume) NIGERIA: A D 1899
AFRICA: A D 1899 (Orange Free State) Treaty of alliance with the Transvaal Making common cause
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (ORANGE FREE STATE): A D 1897 (APRIL); and 1899 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER)
AFRICA: A D 1899 (The Sudan) Anglo-Egyptian Condominium established.
See (in this volume) EGYPT: A D 1899 (JANUARY)
AFRICA: A D 1899 (Transvaal and Orange Free State) Outbreak of war with Great Britain.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (TRANSVAAL AND ORANGE FREE STATE): A. D. 1899 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
AFRICA: A D 1899 (West Africa) Definition of British and German frontiers
See (in this volume) SAMOAN ISLANDS
AFRICA: A D 1899 (Zanzibar) Renunciation of rights of extra-territoriality by Germany.
See (in this volume) SAMOAN ISLANDS
AFRICA: A D 1899-1900 Summary of the partition of the Continent.
"Seven European nations, as before remarked, now control territories in Africa, two of them having areas equal in each case to about the entire land area of the United States, while a few small territories remain as independent States
Beginning at the northeast, Egypt and Tripoli are nominally at least tributaries of Turkey, though the Egyptian Government, which was given large latitude by that of Turkey, has of late years formed such relations with Great Britain that, in financial matters at least, her guidance is recognized; next west, Algeria, French; then Morocco on the extreme northwest, an independent Government and an absolute despotism; next on the south, Spain's territory of Rio de Oro; then the Senegal territories, belonging to the French, and connecting through the desert of Sahara with her Algeria; then a group of small divisions controlled by England, along the Gulf of Guinea; then Liberia, the black Republic; Togoland, controlled by the Germans; Dahomey, a French protectorate; the Niger territory, one-third the size of the United States, controlled by England; Kamerun, controlled by Germany; French Kongo; then the Kongo Free State, under the auspices of the King of Belgium, and occupying the very heart of equatorial Africa; then Portuguese Angola; next, German South west Africa; and finally in the march down the Atlantic side, Cape Colony, British {5}
Following up the eastern side comes the British colony of Natal; then just inland from this the two Boer Republics, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic, both of which are entirely in the interior, without ocean frontage; next, Portuguese Africa, and west of this the great territory known as 'Rhodesia'; then German Africa, which extends almost to the equator; north of these, British East Africa, fronting on the Indian Ocean, and merging northwardly with the Egyptian Sudan, which was recently recovered from the Mahdi by the joint operation of British and Egyptian troops, and the British flag placed side by side with that of Egypt; next north, upon the coast, Italian territory and a small tract opposite the entrance to the Red Sea controlled by England; and a few hundred miles west of the entrance to the Red Sea, the independent Kingdom of Abyssinia This division of African territory, nearly all of it made within the memory of the present generation, forms the present political map of Africa With England and France controlling an area equal in each case to that of the United States; Germany, a territory one-third the size of the United States; Portugal, with an area somewhat less; the Kongo Free State in the great equatorial basin, but having a frontage upon the Atlantic with an area nearly one-third that of the United States; Italy and Spain, each with a comparatively small area of territory; Egypt, with relations quite as much British as Turkish; Tripoli, Turkish, and the five independent States of Morocco, Liberia, Abyssinia, and the two Boer Republics nothing remains unclaimed, even in the desert wastes, while in the high altitudes and subtropical climate of southeast Africa civilization and progress are making rapid advancement "
United States Bureau of Statistics, Monthly Summary, August, 1899.
The following table, given in an article in "The Forum," December, 1899, by Mr O P Austin, Chief of the United States Bureau of Statistics, shows the area, total population, foreign population, and imports and exports of the territory in Africa held by each European Government and by the independent States of that continent, at the time of its compilation so far as could be ascertained; but the statistics of area and population, especially the latter, are in many cases necessarily estimates:
$70,116,000 $69,354,000
131,835,000
54,091,000 62,548,000
4,993,000 2,349,000
4,522,000 3,309,000
11,863,000 6,730,000
Independent States. Morocco.
6,402,000 6,261,000
53,532,000
8,712,000
1,217,000 1,034,000
$395,299,000 $345,714,000
According to a statistical table in the twentieth volume of Meyer's Konversations-Lexicon (third annual supplement), based upon the latest data furnished by the boundary treaties between the Powers, it would appear that all but about one-seventh of the African continent is now (A. D. 1900) included in some "protectorate" or "sphere of influence " The French sphere is the largest, comprising about 3,700,000 square miles (about the extent of Europe) out of a total area of 11,600,000. England comes next with 2,400,000 (including the Boer territories) Then follow in order Germany, Belgium (Congo Free State), and Portugal, each with somewhat less than a million square miles The Egyptian sphere (about 400,000 square miles) may properly be regarded as part of the British. The extent of the French sphere will appear less imposing on consulting the map of Africa here given, which shows that it takes in the greater part of the sands of the Sahara The British sphere (including Egypt and her dependencies) is estimated to contain in round numbers about 50,000,000 souls; the French, 35,000,000; the Belgian, 17,000,000; the German, 9,000,000; the Portuguese, 8,000,000
AFRICA: A D 1900 (Ashanti) Revolt of the tribes Siege and relief of Kumasai
See (in this volume) ASHANTI
AFRICA: A D 1900 (Togoland and Gold Coast) Demarcation of the Hinterland.
Late in November it was announced from Berlin that conferences regarding the British and German boundaries in West Africa were then in progress in the Colonial Department of the German Foreign Office, their principal object being the demarcation of the Hinterland of Togoland and of the Gold Coast, and in particular the partition of the neutral zone of Salaga as arranged in Article 5 of the Samoa Agreement between Great Britain and Germany
See (in this volume) SAMOAN ISLANDS.
AFRIDIS, British Indian war with the.
See (in this volume) INDIA: A D 1897-1898
AFRIKANDER BUND, The
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE, COLONY): A. D. 1881-1888; 1898; and 1898 (MARCH-OCTOBER).
AFRIKANDER CONGRESS.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (Cape Colony): A D 1900 (DECEMBER)
AFRIKANDERS:
Joining the invading Boers.
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE FIELD OF WAR): A. D. 1899 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER.).
AFRIKANDERS: Opposition to the annexation of the Boer Republics
See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1900 (MAY).
{6}
AGRARIAN PROTECTIONISTS, The German.
See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A D 1895-1898; 1899 (AUGUST); and 1901 (FEBRUARY)
AGRICULTURAL LAND BILL, The
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A D 1896
AGUINALDO y FAMY, Emilio First appearance in the Filipino insurrection. His treaty with the Spaniards and departure from the Islands
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1896-1898.
AGUINALDO y FAMY, Emilio. Circumstances in which he went to Manila to co-operate with American forces.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-MAY: PHILIPPINES).
AGUINALDO y FAMY, Emilio. Arrival at Manila, May 19, 1898 His organization of insurgent forces. His relations with Admiral Dewey
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A D 1898 (APRIL-JULY)
AGUINALDO y FAMY, Emilio Correspondence with General Anderson.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A D 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: PHILIPPINES)
AGUINALDO y FAMY, Emilio
Relations with American commander at Manila Declared President of the Philippine Republic.
See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
AGUINALDO y FAMY, Emilio. Conflict of his army with American forces
See (in this volume)
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A D 1898 (AUGUST-DECEMBER), and after
ALABAMA: A D 1899 Dispensary Laws.
Acts applying the South Carolina "dispensary" system of regulation for the liquor traffic to seventeen counties, but not to the State at large, were passed by the Legislature
See, in this volume, SOUTH CAROLINA: A D 1892-1899
ALASKA: A. D. 1898-1899. Discovery of the Cape Nome gold mining region
"The Cape Nome mining region lies on the western coast of Alaska, just beyond the military reservation of St. Michael and about 120 miles south of the Arctic Circle It can be reached by an ocean voyage of ten or twelve days from Seattle. It has long been known that gold exists in the general vicinity of Cape Nome, and during the last five or six years a few adventurous miners have done more or less prospecting and claim staking throughout the district lying between Norton and Kotzebue sounds During the winter of 1898-99, a large number of miners entered the Kotzebue country, while others spent the season in the vicinity of Golofnin Bay" On the 15th of October, 1898, a party of seven men reached Snake River in a schooner "Between that date and the 18th a miners' meeting was held, the boundaries of a district 25 miles square were established, local mining regulations were formulated, and Dr Kittleson was elected recorder for a term of two years. After organizing the district natives were hired to do the necessary packing, and a camp was established on Anvil Creek The prospecting outfits were quickly brought into service In one afternoon $76 was panned out on Snow Creek Encouraged by this showing lumber was carried up from the schooner and two rockers were constructed In four or five days over $1,800 was cleaned up with these two rockers. … The weather turned cold and the water was frozen up As it was impossible to do any more work with the rockers the party broke camp on the 3d
of November and returned to the schooner, which they found frozen solid in 2 feet of ice They then made their way in a small boat to an Indian village, near Cape Nome, where they obtained dogs and sleds, and a little farther on they were met by reindeer from the Swedish Mission, with which they returned to Golofnin Bay.
"The lucky miners had agreed among themselves that their discovery should be held secret, but the news was too good to keep, and soon leaked out. A general stampede commenced at once and continued all winter Every available dog and reindeer was pressed into the service, and they were soon racing with each other for the valuable claims which had been left unstaked in the vicinity of Anvil Creek. As soon as that creek had been all taken up the stampede extended to the neighboring streams and gulches, and Glacier and Dexter creeks, as well as many others which have not proved equally valuable, were quickly staked and recorded. By the 25th of December a large party armed with numerous powers of attorney had entered the district, and as the local regulations allowed every man to stake on each creek one claim of the full legal dimensions (660 by 1,320 feet), it was not long until the whole district had been thoroughly covered, and nearly every stream had been staked with claims, which in some cases were 'jumped' and the right of possession disputed
"The news of a rich strike at Nome worked its way up the Yukon River during the winter, and as soon as the ice broke in June a large crowd came down from Rampart City, followed by a larger crowd from Dawson The 'Yukoners,' as these people were called, were already disgusted with the hardships, disappointments, and Canadian misgovernment which they had met with on the upper river. … Those to whom enough faith had been given to go over to Cape Nome were disgusted and angered to find that pretty much the whole district was already staked, and that the claims taken were two or three times as large as those commonly allowed on the upper river. Another grievance was the great abuse of the power of attorney, by means of which an immense number of claims had been taken up, so that in many cases (according to common report) single individuals held or controlled from 50 to 100 claims apiece. …
"A miners' meeting was called by the newcomers to remedy their grievances Resolutions were prepared, in which it was represented that the district had been illegally organized by men who were not citizens of the United States and who had not conformed with the law in properly defining the boundaries of the district with reference to natural objects, in enacting suitable and sufficient mining regulations, and in complying with any of the details of organization required by law It was intended by the promoters of this meeting to reorganize the district in such a way as would enable them to share the benefits of the discovery of a new gold field with the men who had entered it the previous winter, and, as they expressed it, 'gobbled up the whole country' It is, of course, impossible to say what would have been the result if their attempt had
not been interfered with On the 28th of June Lieutenant Spaulding and a detachment of 10 men from the Third Artillery had been ordered to the vicinity of Snake River, and on the 7th of July their numbers were increased by the addition of 15 more
{7}
As soon as it was proposed to throw open for restaking a large amount of land already staked and recorded an appeal was made to the United States troops to prevent this action by prohibiting the intended meeting, which was called to assemble July 10 It was represented to them that if the newcomers should attempt, under the quasi-legal guise of a miners' meeting, to take forcible possession of lands already claimed by others, the inevitable consequence would be a reign of disorder and violence, with the possibility of considerable bloodshed. On the strength of this representation and appeal the army officers decided to prevent the adoption of the proposed resolutions. The miners were allowed to call their meeting to order, but as soon as the resolutions were read Lieutenant Spaulding requested that they be withdrawn. He allowed two minutes for compliance with his request, the alternative being that he would clear the hall. The resolutions were not withdrawn, the troops were ordered to fix bayonets, and the hall was cleared quietly, without a conflict Such meetings as were subsequently attempted were quickly broken up by virtue of the same authority The light in which this action is regarded by the people at Nome depends, of course, upon the way in which their personal interests were affected. …
"The great discontent which actually did exist at this time found sudden and unexpected relief in the discovery of the beach diggings. It had long been known that there was more or less gold on the seashore, and before the middle of July it was discovered that good wages could be taken out of the sand with a rocker Even those who were on the ground could hardly believe the story at first, but its truth was quickly and easily demonstrated Before the month was over a great army of the unemployed was engaged in throwing up irregular intrenchments along the edge of the sea, and those who had just been driven nearly to the point of desperation by the exhaustion of all their resources were soon contentedly rocking out from $10 to $50 each per day and even more than that This discovery came like a godsend to many destitute men, and was a most fortunate development in the history of the camp
"Meantime the men who were in possession of claims on Anvil and Snow creeks were beginning to sluice their ground and getting good returns for their work, while others were actively making preparations to take out the gold which they knew they had discovered More sluice boxes were constructed and put into operation as rapidly as possible A town site was laid off at the mouth of Snake River, and on the 4th of July a post-office was established The town which has sprung so suddenly into existence is called 'Nome' by the Post-Office
Department, but at a miners' meeting held February 28, it was decided to call it 'Anvil City,' and this is generally done by the residents of the district, as well as in all official records At a meeting held in September, however, the name was again changed to 'Nome '"
United States, 56th Congress, 1st session, Senate Document Number 357, pages. 1-4.
"A year ago [that is, in the winter of 1898-1899] a few Eskimo huts and one or two sod houses of white men were the only human habitations along 60 miles of the present Nome coast Last June [1899] a dozen or score of tents contained the whole population By October a town of 5,000 inhabitants fronting the ocean was crowded for a mile or more along the beach Hundreds of galvanized-iron and wooden buildings were irregularly scattered along two or three thoroughfares, running parallel with the coast line There is every description of building, from the dens of the poor prospectors, built of driftwood, canvas, and sod, to the large companies' warehouses, stores, and the army barracks a city, as it were, sprung up in the night, built under the most adverse circumstances on the barren seacoast, a coast without harbor, all the supplies being landed through the surf The country contributes nothing toward the support of the population except a few fish and a limited supply of driftwood.
"The city is of the most cosmopolitan type and contains representatives of almost every nationality on the globe: Germans, Canadians, Frenchmen, Englishmen, Russians, Swedes, Norwegians, Poles, Chinese, negroes, Italians, Spaniards, Greeks, Jews, and Americans. The dominant type is the American, through whose efforts, with that inherent talent of the Anglo-Saxon race for self-government, this isolated community at once organized a city government Before the close of the summer Nome had a mayor, councilmen, a police force, a deputy United States marshal, a United States post-office, a fire department with town well, a board of health, a hospital corps, and charitable organizations A majority of the people consists of the shifting population of the Yukon country, which, upon hearing the news of the discovery of gold, poured itself into Nome Along with the shifting population of the Yukon from Dawson and other camps came also many would-be explorers, adventurers, and especially gamblers, but good order prevails throughout. Drunkenness, disorderly conduct, and theft are promptly tried before the police justice and punished by fine and imprisonment. Copies of the official rules and regulations are kept posted before the city hall and in other conspicuous places, as a warning to all: 'Ignorance of the law is no excuse ' Some of the well-known 'toughs' and most undesirable characters are reported to have been rounded up by the authorities late in the fall and exported to the States. … There are several printing presses and three newspapers the Nome News, Nome Herald, and Nome Gold Digger. … There are at least 2,500 people now [February, 1900]
wintering at Nome, and, by estimate, at least several thousand are on their way there by winter routes
"Since, according to the conservative estimate of those who are best situated to judge, it is believed that the Nome region will have a population of at least 30,000 or 40,000 people this year (1900), some public improvements there seem not only commendable but urgently necessary. Among these the most important are: Some municipal form of government, water supply, land-office service, and harbor facilities. As the General Government had never made provision for any form of municipal government in Alaska, the people of Nome, in response to the urgency of the hour, called a mass meeting, and organized the present government of Nome, with a complete corps of city officers, as aforesaid, though they were conscious at the time that it was without authority from the United States Government "
F. C. Schrader and A. H. Brooks,
Preliminary Report on the Cape Nome Gold Region, Alaska (United States Geological Survey), pages 45-47.
{8}
ALASKA: A D 1900 Civil Government.
Better provision for the civil government of Alaska was made by an Act which passed Congress after much debate and was approved by the President on the 6th of June, 1900 It constitutes Alaska a civil and judicial district, with a governor who has the duties and powers that pertain to the governor of a Territory, and a district court of general jurisdiction, civil and criminal, and in equity and admiralty, the court being in three divisions, each with a district judge The act provides a civil code for the district
ALASKA: A D 1900
Exploration of Seward peninsula.
See (in this volume) POLAR EXPLORATION, 1900
ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION, The
The boundary between Alaska, when it was Russian territory, and the British possessions on the western side of the American continent, was settled by an Anglo-Russian treaty in 1825. The treaty which ceded the Russian territory to the United States, in 1867, incorporated the definition of boundary given in Articles III. and IV. of the above-mentioned convention, which (translated from French to English) read as follows:
"III
The line of demarcation between the possessions of the High
Contracting Parties upon the Coasts of the Continent and the Islands of America to the North-West, shall be drawn in the following manner: Commencing from the southernmost point of the Island called Prince of Wales Island, which point lies in the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes, North Latitude, and between the 131st and 133d Degree of West Longitude (Meridian of Greenwich), the said line shall ascend to the North along the Channel called Portland Channel, as far as the Point of the Continent where it strikes the 56th Degree of North Latitude; from this last mentioned Point the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast, as far as the point of intersection of the 141st Degree of West Longitude (of the same meridian), and, finally, from the said point of intersection, the said Meridian Line of the 141st Degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean, shall form the limit between the Russian and British Possessions on the Continent of America to the North West.
"IV.
With reference to the line of demarcation laid down in the preceding Article, it is understood:
1st
That the Island called Prince of Wales Island shall belong wholly to Russia
2d
That wherever the summit of the mountains which extend in a direction parallel to the Coast, from the 56th Degree of North Latitude to the point of intersection of the 141st Degree of West Longitude, shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the Ocean, the limit between the British Possessions and the line of Coast which is to belong to Russia, as above mentioned, shall be formed by a line parallel to the windings of the Coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom."
When attempts to reduce this description in the treaty to an actually determined boundary-line were begun, disagreements arose between Canada and the United States, which became exceedingly troublesome after the Klondike gold discoveries had given a new importance to that region and to its communications with the outside world The Alaska boundary question proved, in fact, to be considerably the most difficult of settlement among all the many subjects of disagreement between the United States and Canada which a Joint High Commission was created in 1898 (see in this volume CANADA: A D 1898-1900) to adjust It was the one question on which no ground of compromise could then be found, and which compelled the Commission to adjourn in February, 1899, with its labors incomplete The disputable points in the definition of the boundary by the Anglo-Russian treaty of 1825 are explained as follows by Professor J. B. Moore, ex-Assistant Secretary of State, in an article contributed to the "North American Review" of October, 1899: "An examination
of the boundary defined in Articles III and IV of the convention of 1825 shows," says Professor Moore, "that it is scientifically divisible into two distinct sections, first, the line from the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island, through Portland Channel and along the summit of the mountains parallel to the coast, to the point of intersection of the 141st meridian of longitude; and, second, the line from this point to the Arctic Ocean. With the latter section, which is merely a meridian line, and as to which the United States and Canadian surveys exhibit no considerable difference, we are not now concerned The section as to which material differences have arisen is the first. The principal differences in this quarter are two in number, first, as to what channel is meant by Portland Channel (sometimes called Portland Canal); and, second, as to what is the extent of the line or strip of coast (la lisière de côte) which was assigned to Russia "
The following is an English statement of the situation of the controversy at the time the Joint High Commission adjourned: "The adjournment of the Commission with nothing accomplished is fresh in all our memories Nor is it easy to determine on whose shoulders lies the blame of this unfortunate break down. America has been blamed for her stubbornness in refusing to submit to an arbitration which should take into consideration the possession of the towns and settlements under the authority of the United States and at present under their jurisdiction; while they have also been charged with having made no concessions at all to Canada in the direction of allowing her free access to her Yukon possessions I am enabled to say, however, in this latter respect the Americans have not been so stiff-necked as has been made to appear Although it was not placed formally before the Commission, it was allowed clearly to be understood by the other side, that in regard to Skagway, America was prepared to make a very
Map of Alaska
liberal concession They were ready, that is, to allow of the joint administration of Skagway, the two flags flying side by side, and to allow of the denationalisation, or internationalisation as it might otherwise be termed, of the White Pass and the Yukon Railroad, now completed to Lake Bennett, and the only railroad which gives access to the Yukon They were even prepared to admit of the passage of troops and munitions of war over this road, thus doing away with the Canadian contention that, should a disturbance occur in the Yukon, they are at present debarred from taking efficient measures to quell it
{9}
This proposition, however, does not commend itself to the Canadians, whose main object, I think I am justified in saying, is to have a railroad route of their own from beginning to end, in their own territory, as far north as Dawson City At one time, owing to insufficient information and ignorance of the natural obstacles in the way, they thought they could accomplish this by what was known as the Stikine route. They even went so far as to make a contract with Messrs McKenzie and Mann to construct this road, the contractors receiving, as part of their payment, concessions and grants of territory in the Yukon, which would practically have given them the absolute and sole control of that district The value of this to the contractors can hardly be overestimated However, not only did the natural obstacles I have referred to lead to the abandonment of the scheme, but the Senate at Ottawa threw out the Bill which had passed through the Lower House, affording a striking proof that there are times when an Upper House has its distinct value in legislation. It has been suggested (though I am the last to confirm it) that it was the influence of the firm of railroad contractors, to whose lot it would probably fall to construct any new line of subsidised railway, which caused the Canadian Commission to reject the tentative American proposal regarding Skagway, and to put forward the counter claim to the possession of Pyramid Harbour (which lies lower down upon the west coast of the Lynn Canal), together with a two mile wide strip of territory reaching inland, containing the Chilcat Pass, and through it easy passage through the coast ranges, and so by a long line of railroad to Fort Selkirk, which lies on the Yukon River, to the south and east of Dawson City It is said also, though of this I have no direct evidence, that the Canadians included the right to fortify Pyramid Harbour It is not surprising that the Americans rejected this proposal, for they entered into the discussion convinced of the impossibility of accepting any arrangement which would involve the surrender of American settlements, and though it is not so large or important as Skagway or Dyea, Pyramid Harbour is nevertheless as much an American settlement as the two latter I am bound to point out that just as the Dominion of Canada, as a whole, has a keener interest in this dispute than has the Home Government, so the Government of British Columbia is more closely affected by any possible settlement than is the rest of the Dominion And British Columbia is as adverse to the Pyramid Harbour scheme as the United States
themselves This is due to the fact that when finished the Pyramid Harbour and Fort Selkirk railroad would afford no access to the British Columbia gold fields on Atlin Lake, which would still be reached only by way of Skagway and the White Pass, or by Dyea and the Chilcat Pass But quite apart from this view of the matter, we may take it for granted that the United States will never voluntarily surrender any of their tide-water settlements, while the Canadian Government, on the other hand, are no more disposed to accept any settlement based on the internationalisation of Skagway, their argument probably being that, save as a temporary 'modus vivendi,' this would be giving away their whole case to their opponents "
H. Townsend,
The Alaskan Boundary Question (Fortnightly Review, September, 1899).
Pending further negotiations on the subject, a "modus vivendi" between the United States and Great Britain, "fixing a provisional boundary line between the Territory of Alaska and the Dominion of Canada about the head of Lynn Canal," was concluded October 20, 1899, in the following terms:
"It is hereby agreed between the Governments of the United States and of Great Britain that the boundary line between Canada and the territory of Alaska in the region about the head of Lynn Canal shall be provisionally fixed as follows without prejudice to the claims of either party in the permanent adjustment of the international boundary: In the region of the Dalton Trail, a line beginning at the peak West of Porcupine Creek, marked on the map No 10 of the United States Commission, December 31, 1895, and on Sheet No 18 of the British Commission, December 31, 1895, with the number 6500; thence running to the Klehini (or Klaheela) River in the direction of the Peak north of that river, marked 5020 on the aforesaid United States map and 5025 on the aforesaid British map; thence following the high or right bank of the said Klehini river to the junction thereof with the Chilkat River, a mile and a half, more or less, north of Klukwan, provided that persons proceeding to or from Porcupine Creek shall be freely permitted to follow the trail between the said creek and the said junction of the rivers, into and across the territory on the Canadian side of the temporary line wherever the trail crosses to such side, and, subject to such reasonable regulations for the protection of the Revenue as the Canadian Government may prescribe, to carry with them over such part or parts of the trail between the said points as may lie on the Canadian side of the temporary line, such goods and articles as they desire, without being required to pay any customs duties on such goods and articles; and from said junction to the summit of the peak East of the Chilkat river, marked on the aforesaid map No 10 of the United States Commission with the number 5410 and on the map No 17 of the aforesaid British Commission with the number 5490 On the Dyea and Skagway Trails, the summits of the Chilcoot and White
Passes It is understood, as formerly set forth in communications of the Department of State of the United States, that the citizens or subjects of either Power, found by this arrangement within the temporary jurisdiction of the other, shall suffer no diminution of the rights and privileges which they now enjoy. The Government of the United States will at once appoint an officer or officers in conjunction with an officer or officers to be named by the Government of Her Britannic Majesty, to mark the temporary line agreed upon by the erection of posts, stakes, or other appropriate temporary marks "
In his Annual Message to Congress, December 3, 1900, the President of the United States stated the situation as follows:
"The work of marking certain provisional boundary points, for convenience of administration, around the head of Lynn Canal, in accordance with the temporary arrangement of October, 1899, was completed by a joint survey in July last.
{10}
The modus vivendi has so far worked without friction, and the Dominion Government has provided rules and regulations for securing to our citizens the benefit of the reciprocal stipulation that the citizens or subjects of either Power found by that arrangement within the temporary jurisdiction of the other shall suffer no diminution of the rights and privileges they have hitherto enjoyed But however necessary such an expedient may have been to tide over the grave emergencies of the situation, it is at best but an unsatisfactory makeshift, which should not be suffered to delay the speedy and complete establishment of the frontier line to which we are entitled under the Russo-American treaty for the cession of Alaska In this relation I may refer again to the need of definitely marking the Alaskan boundary where it follows the 141st meridian A convention to that end has been before the Senate for some two years, but as no action has been taken I contemplate negotiating a new convention for a joint determination of the meridian by telegraphic observations These, it is believed, will give more accurate and unquestionable results than the sidereal methods heretofore independently followed, which, as is known, proved discrepant at several points on the line, although not varying at any place more than seven hundred feet "
ALEXANDRIA: Discovery of the Serapeion.
See (in this volume)
ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: DISCOVERY OF THE SERAPEION
ALEXANDRIA: Patriarchate re-established.
See (in this volume)
PAPACY: A D 1896 (MARCH)
ALIENS IMMIGRATION LAW, The Transvaal
See (in this volume) SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A D 1896-1897 (MAY-APRIL)
ALPHABET, Light on the origin of the
See (in this volume) ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: CRETE.
AMATONGALAND:
Annexed, with Zululand, to Natal
See (in this volume) AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (ZULULAND).
AMERICA:
The Projected Intercontinental Railway
See (in this volume) RAILWAY, THE INTERCONTINENTAL
AMERICA, Central
See (in this volume) CENTRAL AMERICA.
AMERICAN ABORIGINES.
See (in this volume) INDIANS, AMERICAN
AMERICAN REPUBLICS, The Bureau of the
"The idea of the creation of an international bureau, or agency, representing the Republics of the Western Hemisphere, was suggested to the delegates accredited to the International American Conference held in Washington in 1889-90, by the conference held at Brussels in May, 1888, which planned for an international union for the publication of customs tariffs, etc On March 29, 1890, the International American Conference, by a unanimous vote of the delegates of the eighteen countries there represented, namely: The Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela, provided for the establishment of an association to be known as 'The International Union of American Republics for the Prompt Collection and Distribution of Commercial Information,' which should be represented at the capital of the United States by a Bureau, under the title of 'The Bureau of the American Republics ' This organ, so to speak, of the independent governments of the New World was placed under the
