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Nowinitsthirdedition,butwithahistorystretchingbackto1894, TheNew PalgraveDictionaryofEconomics hasbeenthego-toreferenceworkfor generationsofeconomists.
Sincethepublicationofthesecondedition10yearsago,muchhashappenedintheworldandineconomics,inparticularthetumultuousyearsofthe financialcrisisanditsaftermath.AsGarettJones’sprefaceillustrates,the currenteditionincludessubstantialnewcontentcoveringtheseeventsalongsideentriesreviewinggrowingareasofresearchwhichwillbeofinterestto readersandresearchersacrossthespectrumofeconomicenquiry.Inaddition, andinkeepingwithPalgravetradition,classicentriesofperennialimportance aremaintained.Whethersummarizingtheeconomicsbehindtheheadlinesor asanentrypointintoanestablishedtopic,thereadercanbeassuredthatthe Dictionaryprovidesreliable,vettedcontentthatisauthoritativeand informative.
Over1,700authors,including36NobelLaureates,havecontributedtothis thirdeditionwhichincludesmorethan3,000chaptersandninemillionwords makingthisthemostcomprehensiveeconomicreferenceresourceavailable andonethatweareproudtopublish.
Theprimaryobjectofthe DictionaryofPoliticalEconomy istoprovidethe studentwithsuchassistanceasmayenablehimtounderstandthepositionof economicthoughtatthepresenttime,andtopursuesuchbranchesofinquiry asmaybenecessaryforthatend.Thetableofthecontentsoftheworkshows howlargeistherangeofinvestigationwhichthestudentmustfollowatthe presenttime.Duringrecentyears,thecourseofeconomicstudyhasextended sowidelythatitwasobviouslyimpossibletorestricttheworktotheoldand formerlywell-recognizedboundaries.Thedevelopmentofthehistorical schoolhasopenedoutnewandfertile fields,whilethewantsofthosewho followthemathematicalmethodofstudyhavealsotobeconsidered.These twomainlinesoftreatmentareherebutmentionedasexamples.Theyarefar fromexhaustingthecountlessrami ficationsofinquirynowrightlythought necessaryforthecompleteinvestigationofastudyboundedonlybythe requirementsofhumanlifeineverysocialrelation.Inmakingtheselection necessitatedbythelimitsofspace,therequirementsofdifferentclassesof studentshavethroughoutbeenborneinmind.Ontheonesidepurelybusiness matters,suchasbanking,theforeignexchangesandtheoperationsofthemint, comein;ontheother,subjectsofaphilosophicalcharacterhavebeendealt with,suchasquestionsofethicsandmethodsofdefinition,analysisand reasoning,andthewaysinwhichdiagramsandmathematicalprocessesmay lendassistancetoeconomicinquiryhavealsobeendiscussed.Againthose interestedinhistoricalstudiesrequireanexplanationofwordsfoundinearly works,andthosederivedfromclassicalandmedievaltimes,alsooflegal phrases,nowarchaic,togetherwiththemoderncorrelativeterms,foronlythus canitbeunderstoodhowancientusagehasinfluencedpresenthabit.Lifeinthe presentday,eveninthemostmodernsettlementsintheUnitedStates,inour Britishcoloniesandinthenewcountriescomingintoexistenceindifferent partsoftheworld,isinfluencedlargelybythepast.Thestreamofexistence,if thesimilemaybepermitted,reachesusdeeplycolouredbythesoilofthe fields throughwhichithas flowedbythevariedstrataofthecliffs – someofthem underminedbyit – thathaveboundeditslonganddeviouscourse.Considerationsofspacehavenecessarilyconfinedthescopeoftheworkmainlytothe developmentsofeconomicstudyinEngland,theUnitedStatesandour English-speakingcolonies – and,inregardtothese,anendeavourhasbeen madetopresentunderallthesubjectstreatedanaccountofthebestandmost recentauthorities,whilsttheopinionsheldinothercountrieshavealso,asfar xvii
astherequiredlimitsallowed,beenconsideredandmentioned.Thebiographiesintroducedhavebeenselectedwiththesameend.Theyshowwhathas actuallybeenwritteninformertimes,andhencewillenablethereadertotrace theprogressofeconomicthought.Muchattentionhasbeengiventothelessknownwriters.Itisdifficultforthestudentunderordinarycircumstancesto traceoutwhensuchauthorslived,thesurroundingswhichinfluencedtheir livesandtheopinionstheyheld.Whiletheoversightsinsciencearesometimes asremarkableasthediscoveries,theseearlierlabourershavenotunfrequently beentheprecursorsofotherandbetter-knownmen,andhavesometimes anticipatedopinionsthathaveheldswayforlongperiodsafterthem.The differenteconomicschoolsintheprincipalcountriesoftheworldarealso described.Thus,thisvolumecontainsnoticesoftheAmerican,Austrian, DutchandEnglishschools,andtheFrench,German,ItalianandSpanish schoolswillfollowinduecourse.Aworkextendingoversowidearangeof subjectsis,necessarily,theproductionofmanyminds,ofwriterswhose pursuits,occupationsandstudiesareverydiverseandvaried.Idesiretorecord mywarmthankstothecontributorstothebook,whichis,Ithink,initselfan almostuniqueexampleofeconomicco-operation.Whereallhaveassistedso heartily,itislesseasytoselectindividualnames;butIwishtobeallowedto expressmyspecialthankstoProfessorDunbar,Dr.Keynes,Professor Marshall,ProfessorMontague,ProfessorNicholson,SignorM.Pantaleoni, Mr.L.R.Phelps,Mr.L.L.Price,Mr.E.Schuster,ProfessorH.Sidgwickand GeneralWalkerforvaluableassistanceindifferentdirections,andparticularly toDr.Bonar,ProfessorEdgeworth,Mr.HenryHiggsandMr.H.R.Tedder, whohavekindlyhelpedinthemorearduouslabourofthepreparationofthe workforthepress.Thisisbutanactofjustice,thatreadersmayknowtowhom theyarespeciallyindebted.
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AssociateEditors,SecondEdition
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FoundingEditorialAdvisoryBoard,Second Edition
KennethArrow EmeritusProfessorofEconomics,StanfordUniversity, Stanford,USA
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AAbbott,Edith(1876–1957)
P.Kerr
Socialreformer,economichistorianandapioneer inAmericaofthestudyoftheeconomicpositionof women,EdithAbbottwasbornon26September 1876inNebraska,andgraduatedfromtheUniversityofNebraskain1901.Sheenrolledinasummer sessionattheUniversityofChicagoin1902, attractingtheattentionofJamesLawrenceLaughlinandThorsteinVeblen,andontheirrecommendationreturnedtoChicagoin1903onafellowship inpoliticaleconomy,takingherPhDin1905witha dissertationonthewagesofunskilledlabourinthe USAbetween1850and1900(Abbott1905).Itwas duringthisperiodatChicagothatshemet SophonisbaBreckinridgewhobecamehermentor andlifelongfriend.In1906,onaCarnegieFellowship,shewenttotheLSEtocarryoutresearchon womeninindustry.InLondonshewasinfluenced bythesocialreformersoftheday,including CharlesBoothandSydneyandBeatriceWebb. ShereturnedtotheUSAin1907andtaughtpoliticaleconomyatWellesley.In1908Breckinridge, nowDirectorofResearchatthenewlyestablished ChicagoSchoolofCivicsandPhilanthropy,invited hertobecomeherassistant.
Abbott’sworkthereinvolvedherdirectlyin actionfortheprotectionandeducationof juvenilesandimmigrants,forimprovementsin
housing,andforthereformofcorrectionalinstitutions.Shealsoworkedtowardswomen’ssuffrage,the10-hlawtoprotectwomenin employment,andtheadmissionofwomeninto tradesunions.Inthe1930sshewastobecomea staunchadvocateofsocialinsurancemeasures andthewelfarestate.Althoughsympatheticto theNewDeal,shefeltittobeentirelyinadequate whenitcametowelfarepolicies.
Herpublicationsrangedoveranumberofareas insocialandpublicpolicy,andwithBreckinridge, shewasaninfluentialproponentoftheroleofthe stateasthekeyelementinanyextensiveprogrammeofsocialwelfare.Thejournaltheyjointly establishedin1927, SocialScienceReview,was immediatelyrecognizedasahighlyesteemedprofessionaljournal.Hermainwritingsoneconomics werecollectedinher WomeninIndustry (1910), wherearecurringthemewasthedistinction betweentheprogressof ‘professional’ women (andthewomen’smovementswithwhichthey wereassociated)andtherelativelyunchanged positionofworking-classwomen.
After1920,althoughsocialworkcame increasinglytodominatehertime,Abbottcontinuedherroleasanappliedeconomist.Shewasa memberoftheadvisorycommitteeoftheILOon immigration,andsucceededBreckinridgeas DeanoftheSchoolofSocialStudiesAdministrationatChicago.Sheremainedinthepostuntil 1942,andcontinuededitingthe SocialScience Review until1953.Shediedattheageof80at herfamilyhomeinGrandIsland.
# MacmillanPublishersLtd2018 MacmillanPublishersLtd(ed.), TheNewPalgraveDictionaryofEconomics, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95189-5
SelectedWorks
1905.WagesofunskilledlabourintheUnited States,1850–1900. JournalofPoliticalEconomy 13:321–67.
1906.Industrialemploymentofwomeninthe UnitedStates. JournalofPoliticalEconomy 14:461–501.
1908.Studyofearlyhistoryofchildlabourin America. AmericanJournalofSociology 14: 15–37.
1910. Womeninindustry:AstudyinAmerican economichistory.London:Appleton&Co; lastreprintedin1970.
1915.Aforgottenminimumwagebill. Lifeand Labour 5:13–16.
Abramovitz,Moses(1912–2000)
RichardA.Easterlin
Keywords
Abramovitz,M.;Aggregatedemandtheory; Businesscycles;Economicgrowthinthevery longrun;Inventories;Kuznetscycles
JELClassifications
B31
BorninBrooklyn,NewYork,Abramovitzwas educatedatHarvard(AB,1932)andColumbia (Ph.D.,1939).Heheldfacultyappointmentsat Columbia(l940–2,1946–8)andStanfordUniversity(1948–77)andwasamemberoftheresearch staffoftheNationalBureauofEconomic Researchfrom1938to1969.From1942to1946 heworkedasaneconomistforseveralorganizationswithintheUnitedStatesgovernment.He waselectedpresidentoftheAmericanEconomic Associationin1979–80.
Abramovitz’swork,whichwasparticularly influencedbyWesleyC.MitchellandSimon Kuznets,centresonthestudyoflong-term
economicgrowthand fluctuationsinindustrialized marketeconomies.His firstmajorcontributionwas anempiricalstudyofbusinessinventoriesthat demonstratedtheimportanceofinventorychange intheshorterswingsofthebusinesscycle,and showedhowtheclassificationofinventoriesby stageofprocessingaidedintheexplanationof theirbehaviour(Abramovitz1950).Fromthis, Abramovitzwentontothestudyoflonger-term fluctuations,Kuznetscyclesof15to20yearsduration,andformulatedthemostwidelyaccepted interpretationofthesecycles.UsingKeynesian aggregatedemandtheory,Abramovitzdeveloped amodellinkingKuznetscyclestolongswingsin buildingcyclesanddemographicvariables,andto shorter-termbusinesscycles(Abramovitz1959a, 1961,1964,1968).
Contemporaneouslywithhisworkon fluctuations,Abramovitzmadeimportantcontributions tolong-termeconomicgrowth.Hewasoneofthe firsttodemonstratethatonlyasmallshareoflongtermoutputgrowthintheUnitedStateswas explainedbyfactorinputs(Abramovitz1956). Hedocumentedandanalysedtheincreasingrole ofgovernmentduringlong-termeconomicgrowth (Abramovitz1957,1981)anddirectedandcoordinatedacomparativestudyofthepost-wareconomicgrowthofanumberofindustrialized marketnations(Abramovitz1979b,1986).Finally, hechallengedincharacteristicallyperceptivefashionthefacilelinkagemadebymanyeconomists betweeneconomicgrowthandimprovinghuman welfare(Abramovitz1959b,1979a,1982).
SelectedWorks
1950. Inventoriesandbusinesscycles. NewYork:NBER.
1956.ResourceandoutputtrendsintheUnited Statessince1870. AmericanEconomicReview, PapersandProceedings 46(2):5–23.
1957.(WithV.Eliasberg.) Thegrowthofpublic employmentinGreatBritain. Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress.
1959a.LongswingsinU.S.economicgrowth. Statementpresentedtojointeconomiccommitteeofthecongress.Hearingsbeforejoint
economiccommitteeofthecongressofthe U.S.on Employment,GrowthandPrice Levels, Part2,11–66,10April.
1959b.Thewelfareinterpretationofseculartrends innationalincomeandproduction.In Theallocationofeconomicresources: Essaysinhonor ofBernardF.Haley,ed.M.Abramovitzetal. Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.
1961.ThenatureandsignificanceofKuznets cycles. EconomicDevelopmentandCultural Change 9:225–248.
1964. Evidenceoflongswingsinaggregateconstructionsincethecivilwar. Occasionalpaper no.90.NewYork:NBER.
1968.ThepassingoftheKuznetscycle. Economica 349–367.
1979a.Economicgrowthanditsdiscontents.In Economicsandhumanwelfare: Essaysin honorofTiborScitovsky, ed.M.Boskin. NewYork:AcademicPress.
1979b.Rapidgrowthpotentialanditsrealization: Theexperienceofcapitalisteconomiesinthe postwarperiod.In Economicgrowthand resources.Proceedingsofthe fifthworldcongressoftheinternationaleconomicassociation, vol.1.London/NewYork:Macmillan.
1981.Welfarequandariesandproductivityconcerns.PresidentialaddresstotheAmerican economicassociation. AmericanEconomic Review 71:1–17.
1982.Theretreatfromeconomicadvance.In Progressanditsdiscontents, ed.G.A.Almond, M.Chodorow,andR.H.Pearce.Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
1986.Catchingup,forgingaheadandfalling behind. JournalofEconomicHistory 46: 385–406.
estate,or(2)fromhiscountry;ormoregenerally (3)anyunproductiveconsumerwholivesoutof thecountryfromwhichhederiveshisincome.
Examplesofthesespeciesare(1)aseigneur underthe ancienrégime livinginParisatadistancefromhisestates;(2)anIrishlandlord residentabroad;(3)anAnglo-Indianex-official residentinEnglandanddrawingapensionfrom India.Inwritingbrieflyontheevilsofabsenteeismitisdifficulttousegeneraltermsappropriate toallthedefinitions;butconsiderationsprimarily relatingtosomeonedefinitionmayeasilybe adaptedtoanotherbythereader.
Itisusefultoconsiderseparatelytheeffectsof theabsenteeproprietor ’sconsumptionuponthe wealthofhiscountrymen;andthemoral,aswell aseconomicaleffectsofothercircumstances.
Absentee
F.Y.Edgeworth
Anabsenteemaybevariouslydefined(1)asa landedproprietorwhoresidesawayfromhis
I.Themoreabstractquestionturnsuponthefact thattheincomeofanabsenteeismostlyremittedbymeansofexports. ‘Thetribute,subsidy, orremittanceisalwaysingoods unlessthe countrypossessesminesofthepreciousmetals’ (Mill).Sofarastheproprietor,ifresidentat home,wouldconsumeforeignproduce,his absence,notincreasingexports,doesnotaffect localindustry.Sofarastheproprietor ’sabsence causesmanufacturestobeexported,hiscountrymenarenotprejudiced.Fortheymayhave asprofitableemploymentinmanufacturing thoseexportsas,iftheproprietorhadresided athome,theywouldhavehadinsupplying manufacturedcommoditiesorservicesforhis use.Butiftheproprietorbyhisabsencecauses rawmaterialstobeexported,whileifpresent hewouldhaveusednativemanufacturesand services,hisabsencetendstodeprivehiscountrymenofemployment,todiminishtheir prosperity,andperhapstheirnumbers.This reasoningisbasedonSenior ’s Lecturesonthe RateofWages (LectureII),and PoliticalEconomy (pp.155–61).Senior ’spositionisinajust meanbetweentwoextremes – thepopularfallacyandtheparadoxofMcCulloch.Ontheone handitisassertedthatbetweenthepaymentof adebttoanabsenteeandaresidentthereisthe samedifferenceasbetweenthepaymentand non-paymentofatributetoaforeigncountry.
Ontheotherhanditisdeniedthatthereisany differenceatall.Thegrosserformofthevulgar error,theconceptionthattheincomeofthe absenteeisdrawnfromthetributarycountry inspecie,isexemplifiedinThomasPrior ’s ListofAbsentees (1727).McCulloch’sargumentsarestatedintheessayon ‘Absenteeism’ inhis TreatisesandEssaysonMoney,etc.,and intheevidencegivenbyhimbeforesomeofthe parliamentarycommissionswhicharereferred tobelow.Asked ‘Doyouseeanydifference betweenrawproduceandmanufactured goods’,McCullochreplies, ‘Idonotthinkit makesanydifference ’ (compare Treatisesand Essays,p.232).Heappealstoobservation,and findsthatthetenantsofabsenteelandlordsare ‘subjectedtoless fleecingandextortionthan thoseofresidents ’
J.S.Millattributestoabsenteeismatendency tolowerthelevelofpricesinthecountryfrom whichtheabsenteedrawsanincome;withthe consequencethattheinhabitantsofthatcountry obtaintheirimportsatanincreasedcostofeffort andsacrifice(UnsettledQuestions,Essayi,p.43). Mill’smeaningmaybemadeclearerbyastudyof therestoftheessaywhichhasbeencited,andof theparallelpassageinhis PoliticalEconomy (Bookv,ch.iv,§6),wherehearguesthatan inequalitybetweenexportsandimportsresultsin an ‘effluxofmoney’ fromonecountrytoanother. UponlessdistinctgroundsQuesnayconnects absenteeismwithadevelopmentoftradeand industryinanunhealthydirection(Oeuvres,ed. Oncken,p.189).Amongreconditeconsiderations whichmaybearonthesubjectshouldbementionedCantillon’stheoryconcerningtheeffectof theconsumptionoftherichonthegrowthofpopulation(Essai,pt.i,ch.xv).
II.Othereconomicaladvantageslostbyabsenteeismarethosewhichspringfromtheinterest whicharesidentisapttotakeinthethingsand personsabouthim.Thushemaybeprompted toinvestcapitalinlocalimprovements,orto actasanemployerofworkmen. ‘Itisnotthe simpleamountoftherentalbeingremittedto anothercountry’,saysArthurYoung, ‘butthe
damponallsortsofimprovements’ D’Argensoninhis Considérationssurle gouvernementancienetprésentdelaFrance (1765,p.183),attributesgreatimportanceto themaster ’seye.
Thegoodfeelingwhichisapttogrowup betweenaresidentlandlordandhistenantryhas materialaswellasmoralresults,whicharegenerallybeneficial.Theabsenteeislesslikelytotake accountofcircumstances(e.g.,tenant’simprovements),whichrenderrack-rentingunjust.Heis lesslikelytomakeallowanceforcalamitieswhich renderpunctualpaymentdifficult. ‘Miseriesof whichhecanseenothing,andprobablyhearas littleof,canmakenoimpression’ (A.Young).He isgladtogetridofresponsibilitybydealingwitha ‘middleman’,orintermediatetenant – anadditionalwheelinthemachineryofexaction,calculatedtogrindrelentlesslythoseplacedunderneath it.Withoutthesofteninginfluenceofpersonal communicationbetweentheownerandthecultivatorofthesoil,the ‘cashnexus’ isliabletobe strainedbeyondthelimitofhumanpatience,and toburstviolently.Therecanbelittledoubtbutthat absenteeismhasbeenonepotentcauseofthe miseryanddisturbancesinIreland.Thesame causehasproducedlikeeffectsincaseswidely differentinotherrespects.ThecruellestoppressorsoftheFrenchpeasantrybeforetheRevolution werethe fermiers,whopurchasedforanannual sumtherighttocollecttheduesofabsenteeseigneurs.TheviolenceoftheGrangerRailwaylegislationinthewesternstatesofAmericais attributedtothefactthattheshareholdersdamnifiedwereabsenteeproprietors(Seligman, Journal ofPoliticalScience,1888).
Therearealsothemoraladvantagesduetothe influenceandexampleofacultivatedupperclass. Theextentofthisbenefitwillvaryaccordingto thecharacteroftheproprietorsandthepeople.In somecasesitmaybe,asAdamSmithsays,that ‘theinhabitantsofalargevillage,afterhaving madeconsiderableprogressinmanufactures, havebecomeidleinconsequenceofagreat lordhavingtakenuphisresidenceintheir neighbourhood’.Theoppositeview,presented byMissEdgeworthinher Absentee,maybetrue
inotherstatesofcivilization.Perhapsthesafest generalizationisthatmadebySeniorthat ‘in generalthepresenceofmenoflargefortuneis morallydetrimental,andthatofmenofmoderate fortunemorallybeneficial,totheirimmediate neighbourhood’ .
Reprintedfrom Palgrave’sDictionaryofPoliticalEconomy.
References
Brodrick,G.C.1881. EnglishlandandEnglishlandlords. London.
Carey,H.1835. Essayontherateofwages.Philadelphia: Carey,Lea&Blanchard. deLavergne,L.1860. EconomieruraledelaFrance depuis1789.Paris:Guillamin. Levasseur,E.1885.Asummaryoftheresultsoftherecent ItalianCommission. JournaldesEconomistes Levasseur,E.1889. LapopulationFrançaise. Paris. Montchrétien.1615. L’économiepolitiquepatronale. Traictédel’oekonomiepolitique,ed.Th.FunckBretano.Paris,1889. Smith,A.1776. Aninquiryintothenatureandcausesof thewealthofnations.London:W.Strahan&T.Cadell. Taine,H.1876. L’ancienrégime. Paris. Tocqueville,A.deClerel.1856. L’ancienrégimeetla révolution,3rdedn.Paris,1857. Wakefield,E.1812. AnaccountofIreland,statisticaland political.London. Young,A.1780. AtourinIreland.London:T.Cannell& J.Dodsley.
AbsoluteandExchangeableValue
JohnEatwell
Abstract
Thenotionofabsolute(asdistinctfrom exchangeableorrelative)valuearisesinclassicaleconomicsfromtheimageofagiven magnitudeofoutputbeingdistributedbetween thesocialclasses.Ricardopositedthatthe valueofthesocialsurpluscouldbeexpressed intermsoflabourregardlessofhowthesurplus wasdistributed.Butsincechangesindistributionaffectexchangeablevalue,thevalueofthe
surpluswilltypicallyvaryasdistribution varies,eventhoughitsphysicalmagnitude remainsunchanged.In1823Ricardoconcludedthat ‘thereisnosuchthinginnatureas aperfectmeasureofvalue’ .
Keywords
Absoluteandexchangeablevalue;Cairnes, F.E.;Cairnes,J.E.;Class;Classicaleconomics;Invariablestandardofvalue;Labourtheoryofvalue;Marx,K.H.;Rateofprofit; Ricardo,D.;Sraffa,P.;Surplus
JELClassifications
Noonecandoubtthatitwouldbeagreatdesideratuminpoliticaleconomytohavesuchameasureofabsolutevalueinordertoenableusto know,whencommoditiesalteredinrelative value,inwhichthealterationinvaluehadtaken place(DavidRicardo 1823,p.399n).
Theideathatchangesintherelativeor exchangeablevalueofapairofcommodities mightusefullybeattributedtoalterationsinthe ‘absolutevalue’ ofoneortheotherofthemwill appearratheroddtoanyoneaccustomedtothinkingofthebasicproblemofpricetheoryasbeing thedeterminationofsetsofrelativeprices,with anyconsiderationof ‘absolute’ valuebeingconfinedtoproblemsinmonetarytheoryandthe determinationoftheoverallpricelevel.Sincein neoclassicaltheoryitisthe relative scarcityof commodities,orofthefactorserviceswhichare usedtoproducethem,whichisthekeytorelative priceformation,noconceptionof ‘absolute’ value,thatis,apriceassociatedwiththeconditionsofproductionofasinglecommodity,is eitherrelevantornecessary.
Yetthenotionofabsolutevaluearosenaturally withinRicardo’sanalysisofvalueanddistribution.Thecentralproblemofclassicaltheoryisto relatethephysicalmagnitudeofsurplus(defined asthesocialoutput minus thereplacementof materialsusedinitsproductionandthewage goodspaidtothelabourersemployed)tothe generalrateofprofitandtherentsintermsof
whichthesurplusisdistributed.Thekeyimageis thedistributionofagivenmagnitudeofoutput betweentheclassesofthesociety. ‘Afterall’,as Ricardoputit, ‘thegreatquestionsofRent,Wages andProfitsmustbeexplainedbytheproportions inwhichthewholeproduceisdividedbetween landlords,capitalists,andlabourers,andwhich arenotessentiallyconnectedwiththedoctrineof value’ (1820,p.194).Ricardowasabletosustain this ‘material’ viewofdistributiononlyinthe EssayonProfits, andonlytherebytheimplicit deviceofasectorinwhichallinputsandalloutput consistofthesamecommodity,corn,whichis alsousedtopaywagesintheothersectorsofthe economy.Inthecornsectorthedivisionofthe productmaybeexpressedinphysicalterms,and therateofprofitexpressedasaratioofphysical magnitudes.
Thisclearanddirectanalysisisnolongerpossibleoncethestrongassumptionofaselfreproducingsectorisdropped.
Theneedtoexpressheterogeneoussurplus(net ofrent)andheterogeneouscapitalashomogeneousmagnitudesinordertodeterminetherate ofprofitcreatedtheneedforatheoryofvalue. Ricardo’smaterialistapproachledhimtothe labourtheoryofvalue.Thequantityoflabour embodieddirectlyandindirectlyintheproduction ofacommodityisdeterminedbytheconditionsof productionofthatcommodity,orasRicardoputit, bythedifficultyorfacilityofproduction,andwill changeonlywhenthetechniquechanges.Hence theaggregatesofsocialsurplusandcapital advancedmaybeexpressedasquantitiesof labour,thesequantitiesbeinginvarianttochanges inthedistributionofsocialproduct.Sotherateof profitisdeterminedastheratioofsurplus(onthe landlastbroughtintouse)tothemeansofproduction,includingwages.
Once,however,theimpactofchangesindistributiononexchangeablevalueistakeninto accountthepictureisfarlessclear.Thevalueof socialoutput,andofthesurplus,measuredinany givenstandard,willtypicallynowvaryasdistributionvaries,eventhoughthephysicalmagnitude ofsocialoutputremainsunchanged.Thedirect deductiverelationshipbetweenwages,surplus, andhence,therateofprofit,isnolonger
self-evident,orindeed,evidentatall.Itwas Ricardo’sdesiretorestoreclaritytohisanalysis whichledtohissearchforaninvariablestandard ofvalue(astandardintermsofwhichthesizeof theaggregatewouldnotvaryasdistributionwas changed)andforwhatSraffadescribesas ‘for Ricardoitsnecessarycomplement’,absolute value(Sraffa 1951,p.xlvi).
Theterm ‘absolutevalue’ wasusedbyRicardo butonceinthe firsteditionofthe Principles and occasionallyinletters.Itwasclari fiedinthe paperson ‘AbsoluteValueandExchangeable Value’,writtenin1823inthelastfewyearsof hislife.Thesewerediscoveredinalockedboxat thehomeofF.E.Cairnes,thesonoftheeconomist JohnElliotCairnes,in1943,andpublishedforthe firsttimeinSraffa’seditionofRicardo’sWorks andCorrespondence.
Therearetwoversionsoftheessay.One,a roughdraft,iswrittenonoddpiecesofpaper, someofthemthecoversoflettersaddressedto Ricardo.Theotherisascarcelycorrecteddraft, writtenonuniformsheetsofpaper.Thisclean draftbreaksoff,unfinished.
Theimportanceoftheessayderivesfromthe reinforcementitprovidestothatinterpretationof Ricardo’stheoryofvalueanddistributionwhich suggeststhattheproblemofthedeterminationof therelativevaluesofcommoditiesstemmedfrom Ricardo’sdesiretorelatehisimageofthedivision ofsocialproductasaphysicalmagnitudetothe wages,rents,andrateofprofitofamarketeconomy.Ricardowasnotinterestedforitsown sakeintheproblemofwhytwocommodities producedbythesamequantitiesoflabourare notofthesameexchangeablevalue.Hewas, rather,concernedbythefactthatasdistribution ofsocialoutput changes exchangeablevalue changes, disruptingandobscuringanotherwise clearvision.Itwasthisemphasisonthefact that changes indistributionleadtochangesin exchangeablevalue,eventhoughthequantityof socialoutputandthemethodbywhichitisproducedareunchanged,whichledRicardointothe intellectualcul-de-sacofthesearchforaninvariablestandardofvalue.
Theabsolutevalueofacommodityisthevalue ofthatcommoditymeasuredintermsofan
invariablestandard.Aninvariablestandardof valuemaybefound
...ifpreciselythesamelengthoftimeandneither morenorlesswerenecessarytotheproductionof allcommodities.Commoditieswouldthenhavean absolutevaluedirectlyinproportiontothequantity oflabourembodiedinthem.(Ricardo 1823,p.382.
Changesintheabsolutevaluesofcommodities couldthenderiveonlyfromchangesinthe amountoflabourembodiedinthem,andthe valueofsocialoutputwouldbeinvariatetoits distribution.
Yetpreciselybecauseallcommoditiesarenot producedunderthesamecircumstances, ‘difficultyorfacilityofproductionisnotabsolutely theonlycauseofvariationinvalue,thereisone other,theriseorfallofwages’ sincecommodities cannot ‘beproducedandbroughttomarketin preciselythesametime’ (1823,p.368).Hence Ricardomustconclude,rathersadly,that ‘thereis nosuchthinginnatureasaperfectmeasureof value’ (1823,p.404) – thereisnosuchthingasan invariablestandardofvalue.
Marx(1883),whocouldnot,ofcourse,have seenthepapersonAbsoluteandExchangeable Value,wascriticalofRicardo’sabsorptionwith thesearchforaninvariablestandard.Thefocuson changesinrelativevalueobscuredthefactthat commoditiesdonotexchangeatratesproportionaltotheirlabourvalues(labourembodied). YetMarx’sattempttorestoreclaritytotheanalysisofdistributionby firstdeterminingtherate ofprofitastheratioofquantitiesoflabour,and then ‘transforming’ labourvaluesintopricesof production,encountersdifficultieswhichderive fromexactlythesamesourceasthosewhich bedevilledRicardo – thedifferenceinproduction conditionsor ‘organiccompositionofcapital’ of commodities.
Thedataofclassicaltheorycanbeusedto determinetherateofprofit,asSraffa(1960) hasshown.Butthedeterminationcannotbe ‘sequential’– firstspecifyingatheoryofvalue andthenevaluatingtheratioofsurplustocapital advancedbymeansofthatpredeterminedtheory ofvalue.Rathertherateofprofitandtheratesat whichcommoditiesexchangemustbedetermined simultaneously.
SeeAlso
▶ Ricardo,David(1772–1823)
Bibliography
Marx,K.1883. Capital.Vol.3.London:Lawrenceand Wishart.1976.
Ricardo,D.1820.LettertoJ.R.McCulloch,13June1820. In WorksandcorrespondenceofDavidRicardo. Vol.8, ed.P.Sraffa.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 1953.
Ricardo,D.1823.Paperon ‘Absoluteandexchangeable value’ (roughdraft,andunfinishedcleanversion).In WorksandcorrespondenceofDavidRicardo. Vol.4, ed.P.Sraffa.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 1951.
Sraffa,P.1951. Introductiontoworksandcorrespondence ofDavidRicardo.Vol.1.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Sraffa,P.1960. Productionofcommoditiesbymeansof commodities.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
AbsoluteRent
EdnaldoAraquemdaSilva
Marx’sworkonrentwasbasedonhisstudiesof thestatisticalreportspublishedaftertheRussian AgrarianReformof1861.Theimportanceofthe RussiancaseonMarx’sthinkingishighlightedin Engels’‘Preface ’ tothethirdvolumeofMarx’s Capital,whichdrawsaparallelbetweentheinfluenceofRussia’sdiverselandtenuresystemon Marx’sanalysisofrentandtheroleofEngland onhisanalysisofindustrialwage-labour. Althoughtheeconomicsurplusnormallytakes theformofprofitsinthecapitalistsystem,Marx gaveconsiderableattentiontorent.Inchapter XLVofthethirdvolumeof Capital (1894),and inhiscriticalcommentsonRicardo’stheoryof rent,publishedin TheoriesofSurplus-Value (1905),Marxintroducedtheconceptofabsolute rentastherentpaidbycapitalisttenantfarmersto landowners,regardlessofthefertilityofthe rentedland.
Marx(1894,pp.760,771;1905,pp.244,392) definedabsoluterentasthedifferencebetween thevalueoftheagriculturalproductoftheleast productivelandandthe general production price, P(g).Absoluterentcanabsorbtheentire [value–P(g)]differenceoraproportionofthis difference.Incontrast,differentialrentisdefined asthedifferencebetweenthegeneralproduction priceandthe individual productionprice, P(i). TheseconceptsaredepictedinFig. 1.Bydefinition,absoluterentispositiveevenontheworst cultivatedland,A,whereasdifferentialrentiszero onA,butthenbecomespositiveandincreases withimprovedlandfertility,B,C,andD.
Marx’sconceptofabsoluterentisbasedontwo assumptions:(1)theagriculturalorganiccompositionofcapitalislowerthantheaverageofagricultureandindustry;and(2)landiscultivatedby capitalisttenantfarmers.Assumption(1)implies thatthevalueofanagriculturalcommoditywillbe above itsproductionprice;underassumption(2), landownerswillleaselandonlytothosecapitalist tenantswhocanpayabsoluterentevenontheworst qualityandmostinconvenientlylocatedland.
Incontrasttoothercommoditieswhose organiccompositionofcapitalislowerthanthe averageofagricultureandindustry,andthushave theirvaluesabovetheirproductionprices,competitionamongcapitalistproducersdoesnot
reducethevaluesoftheagriculturalproductsto theirproductionprices.Theseparationoflandownersfromtenantoperatorspreventstheequalizationofprofitratesinagriculturewiththesingle rateprevailinginindustry.Landownersarethereforeabletoseizeexcessoraboveaverageagriculturalprofitsandpreventthemfromenteringthe processbywhichtheaverageprofitrateisformed (seeMarx1905,p.37;Murray1977).
UnderMarx’sassumptions,themarketpriceof anagriculturalproductwillincludetheabsolute rentabovethegeneralproductionprice.
Iftheworstsoilcannotbecultivated – althoughits cultivationwouldyieldthepriceofproduction – until itproducessomethinginexcessofthepriceof production,[absolute]rent,thenlandedproperty isthecreativecauseof this riseinprice(Marx 1894 ,p.755).
Therehasbeensomeconfusionastowhether theupperlimitofthemarketpriceofanagricultural productwouldbesetbyitsindividualvalueonthe worstcultivatedland.Marx(1905,p.332)himself asked: ‘Iflandedpropertygivesthepowertosell theproductaboveits[productionprice], at its value,whydoesitnotequallywellgivethe powertoselltheproduct above itsvalue,atan arbitrarymonopolyprice?’ EchoingMarx, Bortkiewicz(1911)and,muchlater,Emmanuel (1972)havealsoquestionedwhylandlordslimit
Increasinglandfertility
AbsoluteRent,
Fig.1 Marx’sconceptof
absoluterenttotheexcessofvalueovertheproductionpriceontheworstcultivatedland.They suggestthatsincelandownershavethepowerto withdrawlandfromcultivationuntilthemarket pricecoversboththeabsoluterentandtheproductionpriceofthehighest-costproducer,theycould alsochargearentinexcessofthecorresponding value.Incapitalistagriculture,absoluterenthasa negativeimpactbecauseitpreventsagricultural pricesfromfalling,andbecauseitremovesabove averageprofits,amajorsourceofcapitalisttechnicalinnovation(seeLenin 1901,pp.119–29).
DespitesomeambiguityinMarx’sformulation ofabsoluterent,hisargumentispersuasive:
Althoughlandedpropertymaydrivethepriceof agriculturalproduceaboveitspriceofproduction,it doesnotdependonthis,butratheronthegeneral stateofthemarket,towhatdegreemarket-price exceedsthepriceofproductionandapproaches thevalue(Marx, 1894,p.764,seealsop.762; Murray1977;Flichman 1977).
AccordingtoMarx(1894,pp.760,765;1905, pp.244,393),thelowercompositionofagriculturalcapitalcomparedtothatofindustry ‘is a historical differenceandcanthereforedisappear ’,andsoabsoluterentwouldalsotendto disappearastheproductivityofagricultural labourapproachesthatofindustry.Inthiscase, theproductionpriceofanagriculturalproduct wouldapproachitsvalueandanyrentpaidby thecapitalisttenantswouldconstituteamonopoly rent.Themonopolyrentispaidabovethevalueof theagriculturalproduct,anditwouldthusbe limitednotbyvalue,asinthecaseofabsolute rent,butbyforeignagriculturaltrade,competition amonglandowners,andtheconsumersbudget (seeMarx 1894,pp.758,805,810;1905,p.332).
Marx’stheoryofabsoluterenthasbeen by-passedbythecontroversyoverthetransformationofvaluesintoproductionprices,andhasbeen littleusedasaconceptualdevicetoanalysethe effectoflandownershiponcapitalistinvestment inagricultureortheeffectoflandownershipon agriculturalprices.Unfortunately,absoluterent hasbeenneglectedbyMarxisteconomists,while itseemstobeafavourite bêtenoire amongsympatheticcriticsofMarx,suchasBortkiewicz (1911)andEmmanuel(1972).Asaresult,
absoluterenthasanuncertainfutureasauseful theoreticaldevice,despitethefactthatinmany countriescapitalistagriculturestilllargelyconformstothetwobasicassumptionsmadeby Marxmorethanahundredyearsago.
SeeAlso
▶ LandRent
▶ Marx,KarlHeinrich(1818–1883)
▶ Rent
▶ UnequalExchange
Bibliography
Bortkiewicz,L.1911.Lateoriadellarenditafondiariadi RodbertuseladottrinadiMarxsullarenditafondiaria assoluta.In LaTeoriaEconomicadiMarxealtrisaggi suBöhm-Bawerk,WalrasePareto. Turin:Einaudi, 1971.
Emmanuel,A.1972. Unequalexchange.NewYork: MonthlyReviewPress. Flichman,G.1977. LaRentadelSueloyelDesarrollo AgrarioArgentino.BuenosAires:SigloVeintiuno Editores.
Lenin,V.I.1901.Theagrarianquestionandthe ‘criticsof Marx’.In Collectedworks,Vol.V,ed.V.I.Lenin.Moscow:ProgressPublishers,1973.
Marx,K.1894. Capital,Vol.III.Moscow:ProgressPublishers,1971.
.1905. Theoriesofsurplusvalue,PartII.Moscow: ProgressPublishers,1968.Murray,R.1977.Valueand thetheoryofrent:I. Capital&Class 1(3):100–122.
AbsorptionApproachtotheBalance ofPayments
DavidVines JELClassifications E0
Theabsorptionapproachtothebalanceofpaymentsstatesthatacountry’sbalanceoftradewill onlyimproveifthecountry’soutputofgoodsand
servicesincreasesbymorethanitsabsorption, wheretheterm ‘absorption’ meansexpenditure bydomesticresidentsongoodsandservices. Thisapproachwas firstputforwardbyAlexander (1952, 1959).
Thenoveltyofthisapproachmaybeappreciatedbyconsideringtheparticularquestion ‘willa devaluationimproveacountry’sbalanceof trade?’ Theelasticitiesapproach,popularwhen Alexanderwaswriting,answersthisquestionby focusingonthepriceelasticitiesofsupplyand demandforexportsandimports.Itholdsthatthe devaluationwillbesuccessfulifthepriceelasticitiesofdemandforexportsandimportsarelarge enoughsothattheincreaseinexportssoldto foreignersandthereductioninimportsbought bydomesticresidentstogethermorethanoffset thetermsoftradelosscausedbythedevaluation (Aspecialcaseofthisresultisformalizedinthe Marshall–Lernerconditions).Theabsorption approachargues,bycontrast,thatthedevaluation willonlybesuccessfulifitcausesthegapbetween domesticoutputanddomesticabsorptionto widen.IneffectAlexandercriticizestheelasticitiesapproachforfocusingonthemovementalong givensupplyanddemandcurvesintheparticular marketsforexportsandimports(amicroeconomicapproach),insteadoflookingattheproductionandspendingofthenationasawhole whichshiftthesecurves(amacroeconomic approach).
Alexander ’scriticismoftheelasticities approachisvalid.Butwithoutfurtherelaboration theabsorptionapproachisunhelpfulinrectifying theinadequacy.Thisisbecause,takenatface value,theabsorptionapproachmerelystatesan identity.Letthesymbols, Y, C, I, G, X and M stand foroutput,consumption,investment,government expenditure,exportsandimportsrespectively. ThentheKeynesianincome-expenditure identity statesthat
This identity statespreciselythatthetradebalance willimproveifoutput, Y,increasesbymorethan absorption(C + I + G).
Whatisneeded,andwhatAlexanderhelpedto provide,isananalysisofexactlyhowoutputand absorptionchange,inresponsetoadevaluation, andindeedinresponsetootherdevelopmentsin theeconomy.Suchagapwasalsobeing filledat thetimebyKeynesianwriters(Robinson 1937; Harrod 1939;Machlup 1943;Meade 1951; Harberger 1950;LaursenandMetzler 1950;see alsoSwan 1956).
AlloftheseauthorsgraftedtheKeynesian multiplierontotheelasticitiesapproach.The resultinghybridconstructcanbeusedtoanalyse theeffectsofadevaluationasfollows.Suppose thatthepriceelasticityeffectsdoimprovethe balanceoftrade, X–M,by ‘switching’ expenditurestowardsdomesticgoods.Thenthese ‘expenditure-switching’ effectsprovideapositive stimulustotheKeynesianmultiplierprocess,and driveupoutput Y andabsorption C + I + G.Let x betheexpenditure-switchingeffectsonthetrade balanceofadevaluationofthecurrencybyone unit,andlettheoveralleffectsofthisdevaluation onthetradebalancebe y.Letthepropensityto consumebe c,thetaxratebe t andthepropensity toimport m,sothattheKeynesianmultiplieris k = 1/[1 c(1 t)+ m].Theincreaseinoutput resultingfromthedevaluationis kx andthe increaseinabsorptionis c(1 t)kx.Andso
Ifthepropensitytoconsume c islessthanunity andthetaxrate t ispositivethenabsorption increasesbylessthanoutput,and,asEq.(3) showsthetradebalanceisimprovedbythedevaluation.TheabovesketchshowshowthecombinationoftheelasticitiesapproachandKeynesian theoryisabletoprovidetheneededanalysisof howoutputandabsorptionchangefollowing adevaluation.Andinsteadofdescribingthe outcomesintermsofoutputandabsorption,as Alexanderdid,itispossibletogiveamore conventionalKeynesiandescription,which wouldproceedasfollows.Sincethemultiplier
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