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Geology of Iberia: A Geodynamic Approach: Volume 5: Active Processes: Seismicity, Active Faulting and Relief

Cecilio Quesada

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Cecilio Quesada

José Tomás Oliveira

Editors

The Geology of Iberia: A Geodynamic Approach

Volume 5: Active Processes: Seismicity, Active Faulting and Relief

José Miguel Azañón · João Manuel Lopes Cardoso Cabral

Volume Coordinators

RegionalGeologyReviews

SeriesEditors

RolandOberhänsli,Potsdam,Brandenburg,Germany

MaartenJ.deWit,AEON-ESSRI,NelsonMandelaMetropolitanUniversity,PortElizabeth, SouthAfrica

FrançoisM.Roure,Rueil-Malmaison,France

TheGeologyof seriesseekstosystematicallypresentthegeologyofeachcountry,region andcontinentonEarth.Eachbookaimstoprovidethereaderwiththestate-of-the-art understandingofaregionsgeologywithsubsequentupdatededitionsappearingevery5to10 yearsandaccompaniedbyanonline “mustread” referencelist,whichwillbeupdatedeach year.Thebooksshouldformthebasisofunderstandingthatstudents,researchersand professionalgeologistsrequirewhenbeginninginvestigationsinaparticularareaandare encouragedtoincludeasmuchinformationaspossiblesuchas:MapsandCross-sections,Past andcurrentmodels,Geophysicalinvestigations,GeochemicalDatasets,EconomicGeology, Geotourism(Geoparksetc.),Geo-environmental/ecologicalconcerns,etc.

Moreinformationaboutthisseriesat http://www.springer.com/series/8643

CecilioQuesada JoséTomásOliveira Editors

TheGeologyofIberia: AGeodynamicApproach

Volume5:ActiveProcesses:Seismicity, ActiveFaultingandRelief

Editors

CecilioQuesada

InstitutoGeológicoyMinerodeEspaña(IGME) andFacultyofGeologicalSciences

UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid Madrid,Spain

Jos

é TomásOliveira LNEG Amadora,Portugal

ISSN2364-6438ISSN2364-6446(electronic)

RegionalGeologyReviews

ISBN978-3-030-10930-1ISBN978-3-030-10931-8(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10931-8

LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2018966121

Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialis concerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproduction onmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronic adaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnot imply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsand regulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse.

Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelieved tobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty, expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeen made.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutional afﬁliations.

Coverillustration:TheactiveNigüelas-PadulFaulttotheSWofSierraNevada.TheCaballoPeak(3011m)inthe backgroundandthevillageofDúrcalinthevalley.

PhotographbyJSanzdeGaldeano

ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland

AbouttheEditors

CecilioQuesada hasdevelopedhisentireprofessionalcareer atInstitutoGeológicoMinerodeEspaña(SpanishGeological Survey),fromwhereheretiredin2013.HeiscurrentlyHonour ProfessorattheFacultyofGeologicalSciences,Universidad Complutense,Madrid,wherehealsoservedtemporarilyas associateprofessor.Asa “surveyperson”,hisresearch interests,pastandpresent,includegeologicalmapping, regionalgeology,tectonicsandgeochronology,mainlyfocused ontheVariscanorogeninitsglobalcontext.Hehas participatedintenIGCPprojectssince1979,beingcurrently involvedinProject648:SupercontinentCycles&Global Geodynamics.

José TomásOliveira holdsPh.D.andAggregationby Portugueseuniversities,isGeologistandpresentlyCollaborator atLaboratorioNacionaldeEnergiaeGeologia,former GeologicalSurveyofPortugal,whereheactedalsoashead ofboththeGeologyandMineralResourcesdepartments.Asa surveygeologist,hismainactivityhasbeenconcentratedin regionalgeologicalmappinginPortugalandMozambique, withparticularinterestinstratigraphy,clasticsedimentology andbasinanalysis.Hewasaninvitedprofessoratuniversities ofPortugalandAngola,authorandeditorofseveralgeological maps,thelastoneasco-editoroftherecentlypublished GeologicalMapofPortugalandSpain,2015,scale 1:1,000,000.

AbouttheVolumeCoordinators

José MiguelAzañón isFullProfessorintheDepartmentof GeodynamicsattheUniversityofGranada,conducting researchandteachingonactivetectonics,naturalhazardsand engineeringgeology.Hehaspublishedover100international journalarticles.Hiscurrentresearchinterestsincludetectonic geomorphologyandactiveprocessesespeciallywithregardto theWesternMediterranean.

JoãoManuelLopesCardosoCabral isAssociateProfessor withAggregationattheGeologyDepartmentofFCUL, ResearcheroftheAssociateLaboratoryInstitutoD.Luiz (IDL)andformerCoordinatorofLATTEX Laboratoryof TectonophysicsandExperimentalTectonicsofthisfaculty.He hasperformedextensiveresearchontheneotectonicsand seismotectonicsofmainlandPortugal.Heisauthorofnumerousnationalandinternationalscienti ﬁcpublications,among whichtheNeotectonicMapofMainlandPortugal.

Contributors

PedroAlfaro DepartamentoCienciasdelaTierrayMedioAmbiente,UniversidaddeAlicante,Alicante,Spain

José MiguelAzañón InstitutoAndaluzdeCienciasdelaTierra(CSIC-UGR),Instituto AndaluzdeGeofísica,DepartamentodeGeodinámica,UniversidaddeGranada,Granada, Spain

TeresaBardají U.D.Geología,Dpto.Geología,GeografíayMedioAmbiente,Universidad deAlcalá,Alcalá deHenares,Madrid,Spain

JosepBatlló InstitutCartogr àﬁciGeològicdeCatalunya,Barcelona,Spain

AnaCabero FacultaddeCiencias,UNED,Madrid,Spain

JoãoCabral DepartamentodeGeologia,FaculdadedeCiências,InstitutoDomLuiz, UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,Portugal

CarolinaCanora DepartamentodeGeodinámica,FacultaddeCienciasGeológicas, UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid,Madrid,Spain

PedroP.Cunha MARE-MarineandEnvironmentalSciencesCentre,DepartmentofEarth Sciences,UniversityofCoimbra,Coimbra,Portugal

SusanaCustódio FaculdadedeCiências,InstitutoDomLuiz,UniversidadedeLisboa, Lisbon,Portugal

CristinoJ.Dabrio Dpto.deEstratigrafía,FacultaddeCC.Geológicas,UCM,Madrid,Spain

RuiManueldaSilvaFernandes UniversidadeDaBeiraInteriorandInstitutoDomLuiz, FaculdadedeCiências,UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,Portugal

MartaFerrater RISKNATGroupandGEOMODELS,DepartamentdeGeodinàmicai Geofísica,FacultatdeGeologia,UniversitatdeBarcelona,Barcelona,Spain

JorgePedroGalve DepartamentodeGeodinámica,UniversidaddeGranada,Granada,Spain

FranciscoJuanGarcíaTortosa DepartamentodeGeología,UniversidaddeJaén,Campus LasLagunillas,Jaén,Spain

JuliánGarcía-Mayordomo InstitutoGeológicoyMinerodeEspaña,Madrid,Spain

José LuisGoy Dpto.Geología,FacultaddeCiencias,UniversidaddeSalamanca,Salamanca, Spain

FranciscoJavierGraciaPrieto DepartamentodeCienciasdelMar,CampusUniversitario dePuertoReal,PuertoReal,Cádiz,Spain

EulàliaGràcia InstitutdeCiènciesdelMar CSIC,Barcelona,Spain

DiamantinoM.InsuaPereira InstituteofEarthSciences,PoleoftheUniversityofMinho, Braga,Portugal

JuanMiguelInsua-Arévalo DepartamentodeGeodinámica,FacultaddeCiencias Geológicas,UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid,Madrid,Spain

AntonioJabaloy DepartamentodeGeodinámica,UniversidaddeGranada,Granada,Spain

AlejandroJiménezBonilla DepartamentodeSistemasFísicos,QuímicosyNaturales, UniversidadPablodeOlavide,Seville,Spain

PierreGillesLacan CentrodeGeociencias,UniversidadNacionalAutónomadeMéxico, Juriquilla,Querétaro,Mexico

JavierLario FacultaddeCiencias,UNED,Madrid,Spain

CarlosMarín-Lechado InstitutoGeológicoyMinerodeEspaña,Granada,Spain

RosaMartín InstitutoAndaluzdeGeofísica,UniversidaddeGranada,Granada,Spain

FidelMartínGonzález ÁreadeGeologíaESCET,UniversidadReyJuanCarlos,Móstoles (Madrid),Spain

RaquelMartín-Banda InstitutoGeológicoyMinerodeEspaña,Madrid,Spain

IvánMartín-Rojas DepartamentoCienciasdelaTierrayMedioAmbiente,Universidadde Alicante,Alicante,Spain

José J.Martínez-Díaz DepartamentodeGeodinámica,FacultaddeCienciasGeológicas, UniversidadComplutensedeMadrid,Madrid,Spain

José ManuelMartínez-Solares InstitutoGeográﬁcoNacional,Madrid,Spain

EulàliaMasana RISKNATGroupandGEOMODELS,DepartamentdeGeodinàmicai Geofísica,FacultatdeGeologia,UniversitatdeBarcelona,Barcelona,Spain

José Morales DepartamentodeFísicaTeóricaydelCosmos,InstitutoAndaluzdeGeofísica, UniversidaddeGranada,Granada,Spain

MaríaOrtuño RISKNATGroupandGEOMODELS,DepartamentdeGeodinàmicai Geofísica,FacultatdeGeologia,UniversitatdeBarcelona,Barcelona,Spain

AntonioPedrera InstitutoGeológicoyMinerodeEspaña,Seville,Spain

HéctorPerea InstitutdeCiènciesdelMar CSIC,Pg.MarítimdelaBarceloneta37-49, 08003Barcelona,Spain;

GRD,ScrippsInstitutionofOceanography,UniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego,LaJolla 92093,USA

PauloPereira InstituteofEarthSciences,PoleoftheUniversityofMinho,Braga,Portugal

José VicentePérez-Peña DepartamentodeGeodinámica,UniversidaddeGranada,Granada, Spain

JuanRemondo DCITIMAC,UniversidaddeCantabria,Santander,Spain

PatriciaRuano DepartamentodeGeodinámica,InstitutoAndaluzdeCienciasdelaTierra (CSIC-UGR),UniversidaddeGranada,CampusdeFuentenueva,Granada,Spain

CarlosSanzdeGaldeano InstitutoAndaluzdeCienciasdeLaTierra(CSIC-UGR), UniversidaddeGranada,CampusdeFuentenueva,Granada,Spain

PabloG.Silva Dpto.Geología,UniversidaddeSalamanca,EPTSde Ávila, Ávila,Spain

José LuisSimón DepartamentoCienciasdelaTierra,UniversidaddeZaragoza,Saragossa, Spain

DanielStich DepartamentodeFísicaTeóricaydelCosmos,InstitutoAndaluzdeGeofísica, UniversidaddeGranada,Granada,Spain

PaulaTeves-Costa FaculdadedeCiências,InstitutoDomLuiz,UniversidadedeLisboa, Lisbon,Portugal

MarcViaplana-Muzas RISKNATGroupandGEOMODELS,DepartmentofEarthand OceanDynamicsandDepartmentofEarthScience,UniversityofBarcelona,Barcelona,Spain

CaridadZazo Dpto.Geolog ía,MuseoNacionalCCNaturales,CSIC,Madrid,Spain

Preface

ThegeologyoftheIberianPeninsulaanditscontinentalshelvesiscomplexandvarieddespite itsrelativelysmallsize.Withsome590,000km2 inland(IberianPeninsula,theBalearicand othersmallAtlanticandMediterraneanislands)andsomeadditional200,000km2 makingup thecontinentalshelves,therecordexposedspansfornearlythelast600MaofEarth’shistory. Thegeologicalrecordisnotonlylongbutalsodeep:fromsurfi cialtouppermantlesegments areexposedbothinlandandunderthesea.Atthesurface,threemaindivisionsareevidentafter aquickglanceatanylarge-scalegeologicalmap:(1)several,ratherlargeCenozoicbasins, whichoverlie;(2)avastareainthewesternpartoftheIberianPeninsulawherePaleozoicand Precambrianrockscropout(IberianMassif,makingthesouthwesternendoftheEuropean Variscanorogen);and(3)theeasternhalfofthepeninsulaandtheBalearicislands(westernmostextentoftheAlpine–Carpathian–Himalayanorogenicsystem)wheremostlyMesozoic rocksareexposedalthoughsomePrecambrianandPaleozoicbasementinliersalsoexist. SeveralreviewsofthegeologyofIberiahavebeenpublishedinthelastdecades,which collectivelyprovideareasonablygoodandcompletedescriptionofallthestratigraphicand structuralelementsofIberianGeology.However,theadvancesproducedinalmostevery geologicaldisciplinesincethelastofthosebookswaspublishedareoutstandinganditis worthwhiletotryandsynthesizetheminordertoderivetheirimplicationstoabetter understandingoftheglobalevolution.Previousreviewswereorganizedfollowingeithera purelystratigraphicarrangementoronerelatedtoatime-ordereddescriptionofthevarious tectono-stratigraphicunitscroppingoutinIberia.Forthepresentcase,ageodynamicapproach ispreferred.Theterm “geodynamic” ishereinusedinitswidestsignifi cance,i.e.pertainingto everykindoftime-evolvingprocesstakingplaceintheEarththathasanexpressioninthe geologicalrecord.Itisthusnotrestrictedtoitscurrentuseassynonymousof “tectonic” and alsoreferstosublithosphericprocesses(e.g.mantleplumes,lithosphericdelamination,etc.), lithosphericprocesses(e.g.isostasy,platetectonics,magmatism,metamorphism,etc.)aswell asouterprocesses(e.g.climate,eustacy,erosion–transport–sedimentation,etc.).Obviously, mostoftheseareinterrelatedandhavemutualfeedbackeffects.Neverthelessanddespitethe previousstatement,weacknowledgethatthemostreadilyrecognizable first-ordergeodynamic eventsarethoserelatedtothetectonicevolution,andweusethemtoestablisha first-order divisionoftheIberiangeologicalrecord.Fromageodynamic(platetectonics)pointofview, severaleventsarerecordedinIberia,themostsignifi cantofwhichrelatetothefollowing global-scaleprocesses:

• amalgamationofGondwanaintheNeoproterozoic(Cadomianarcandorogeny),

• CambrianriftingthatledtoopeningtheRheicOceanintheLowerOrdovician,

• driftofGondwanafromLowerOrdoviciantoDevoniantimes,

• subductionandcollisionwiththeLaurussianplatetoformPangea(Variscanorogeny)in theLowerDevonian–LowerPermianinterval,

• variousriftingeventsthatledtoPangea’sbreak-upbysequentialopeningoftheNeotethys, NorthAtlanticandBiscayoceans(UpperPermian–LowerCretaceous), xi

• individualizationanddriftofanIberianmicroplateduringmostoftheCretaceous, • collisionwiththeEurasianplateinthenorthandwiththeAfricanplateinthesouth(Alpine orogeny)fromthelatestCretaceoustothepresent.

Collectively,theseeventscharacterizetwocompleteWilsoncycles(VariscanandAlpine) andanolder,incompletelyexposed,Neoproterozoiccycle(Cadomian).Theseareaffectedand arerecordedinarelativelysmallcontinentalareathatwasalwayslocatedinperipheralpositionsrelativetothemajorcontinentstowhichitsuccessivelybelonged:Gondwanainthe Neoproterozoic –Devoniantimespan,PangeabetweentheDevonianandtheLowerJurassic, LaurasiafromthenuptotheLowerCretaceouswhenIberiabecameanindependentmicroplate, and ﬁnallyreturningtothesouthwesterntipofEurasiasincethePaleogenetothepresent.

Alltheseeventsmarkedanimprintinthehistoryofdeformation,magmatismandmetamorphismatalllithosphericlevels,aswellasintheformationofbasinsandtheirsubsequent evolution.Accordingtotheprevailingtectonicregimeatthetimeoftheirformation,sedimentary basinsofeachcycleinclude:(i)terrestrialtomarinerift-relatedtypes;(ii)platform,slopeand continentalrisebasinsduringpassivemarginstages;(iii)synorogenicforearcandforeland basins;and(iv)late-to-postorogenicintermontanebasins.Apartfrompaleotectonicinﬂuences, thesedimentarybasinsandthesurfacewereobviouslysubjectedtovariablepaleoclimatic, isostaticandeustaticconditions,whichalsoimpartedtheirimprintonsedimentation.

Themainpurposeofthisbookistoproduceanupdatedreviewofalltheaforementioned eventsandprocessesasexpressedinthegeologicalrecordinIberia,andtheircontributionto understandingtheglobalevolutionoftheEarthinthelast600millionyears.Theresponseto theeditors’ callforcontributionsamongvariousspecialistshasbeenoverwhelming:nearly 300contributorsandmanyhundredmanuscriptpages.Asaresult,wehavebeenforcedto changetheoriginallyintendedsinglebookintoa ﬁve-volumepublicationbuttryingtokeepits overallentityasanintegralpieceofwork.Assuch,thevariousvolumesareintendedto provideasequentiallycoordinatedaccountofthemaineventsrecordedintheIberiangeologicalmemory.This,however,bynomeansimplieseithertopicexhaustivenessorthe existenceofasubjacentcommonwayofthinking.Instead,itisbasicallyacontributedwork andwehaverespectedtheauthors’ personalapproachestotheirrespectivecontributions.Also, anddespitethehugesizeofthepublication,nooneshouldexpectto ﬁndeveryIberian geologytopicinit.

Underthegeneraltitle TheGeologyofIberia:AGeodynamicApproach,wehavesplitthe publicationintothefollowingvolumesandsubtitles:

Volume1:GeneralIntroductionandCadomianCycle

Volume2:TheVariscanCycle

Volume3:TheAlpineCycle

Volume4:CenozoicBasins

Volume5:ActiveProcesses:Seismicity,ActiveFaultingandRelief

Thepresent Preface appearsinall ﬁvevolumesbutthe GeneralIntroductiontothe GeologyofIberia isonlypublishedasChap.1inPartIofVolume1,towhichthepotential interestedreadersarereferredto.This, Volume5:ActiveProcesses:Seismicity,Active FaultingandRelief,isdevotedtounravellingtheevolutionofIberiainrecenttimes,stillunder waningAlpineconvergencebetweenEurasiaandAfrica.Thisisfacedthroughanexhaustive analysisofhistoricalandinstrumentalseismicity,theevidenceofactivefaultingandother activeprocesses,toconcludewiththeirexpressionintheformationofthepresentrelief.

Finally,wewishtoexpressourwarmestacknowledgementtoallthecontributors,andvery especiallytothebookandchaptercoordinators,fortheirenthusiasticcollaborationandgood work,whichhasmadepossiblethecompletionofthisexcitingchallenge.Everypossible successistheirs,andeveryfailureisours.Lastbutnotleast,weacknowledgeSpringerand

especiallyDr.AlexisVizcaino, EarthSciences,GeographyandEnvironment editor,for bringingtheidea,forinvitingustoeditthebookandforprovidingcontinuoussupportand encouragement.

Madrid,SpainCecilioQuesada Lisbon,PortugalJosé TomásOliveira November2018

3.3.2IberianChain

CarlosSanzdeGaldeano,José MiguelAzañón,JoãoCabral,PatriciaRuano, PedroAlfaro,CarolinaCanora,MartaFerrater,FranciscoJuanGarcíaTortosa, JuliánGarcía-Mayordomo,EulàliaGràcia,JuanMiguelInsua-Ar évalo, AlejandroJiménezBonilla,PierreGillesLacan,CarlosMarín-Lechado, RaquelMartín-Banda,FidelMartínGonzález,José J.Martínez-Díaz, IvánMartín-Rojas,EulàliaMasana,MaríaOrtuño,AntonioPedrera,HéctorPerea, andJosé LuisSimón

4.2ActiveFaultsinMainlandPortugal(WestIberia)

4.2.1NNE–SSWStrike-SlipFaultsintheNorthwesternIberianMassif (NorthernPortugal)

4.2.2ENE–WSWReverseFaultsBoundingthePortugueseCentralRange (CentralIberianMassif)

4.2.3ReverseFaultingintheSouthwesternIberianMassif.Example oftheVidigueira–MouraFault(SouthernPortugal) ..............

4.2.4Porto–Coimbra–TomarFault

4.2.5LowerTagusValleyFaultSystem

4.2.6ActiveFaultingintheAlgarve(SPortugal)

4.3ActiveFaultsintheSpanishIberianMassifandtheCantabrian Mountains

4.3.1GaliciaandCantabrianMountains

4.3.2SpanishIberianMassif

4.4ActiveFaultsWithinthePyrenees ...............................

4.4.1NormalFaultsWithintheHighPyrenees

4.4.2FaultsWithintheNorthwesternPyrenees

4.4.3FaultswithAssociatedSeismicityWithin theSouthwesternPyrenees ................................

4.4.4FaultsWithintheEasternDomain

4.4.5OtherPossiblyActiveFaults

4.5SlowActiveFaultsAlongtheExtensionalNortheasternMargin oftheIberianPeninsula .......................................

4.5.1ActiveFaultsintheTransverseRangesandEmpordà Basin

4.5.2ActiveFaultsintheCatalanCoastalRanges

4.5.3ActiveFaultsintheMaestratBasin

4.5.4ActiveFaultsintheMediterraneanSea ......................

4.6ActiveFaultsintheIberianChain

4.6.1TheConcudFault

4.6.2TheJilocaGrabenandItsNorthwardsProlongation:Sierra Palomera,Calamocha,DarocaandMunébregaFaults ............

4.6.3TheTeruelGraben:SierradeElPobo,Teruel andValdecebroFaults

4.6.4ConcludingRemarks

4.7ActiveFaultsintheBeticCordillera

4.7.1TheEasternBeticShearZone(EBSZ)

4.7.2TheNorteasternSectoroftheBeticCordillera(PrebeticArea)

4.7.3TheBeticCentralRegion

4.7.4TheWesternSectoroftheBeticCordillera ....................

5ActiveLandscapesofIberia .......................................

JorgePedroGalve,José VicentePérez-Peña,José MiguelAzañón, DiamantinoM.InsuaPereira,PedroP.Cunha,PauloPereira,MaríaOrtuño, MarcViaplana-Muzas,FranciscoJavierGraciaPrieto,JuanRemondo, AntonioJabaloy,TeresaBardají,PabloG.Silva,JavierLario,CaridadZazo, José LuisGoy,CristinoJ.Dabrio,andAnaCabero

5.1Introduction 78

5.2ReliefEvolutionandAssociatedGeodynamicProcessesinMainland Portugal(WesternIberia) ...................................... 79

5.2.1MainEvolutionaryPhasesoftheLandscape 79

5.2.2PlateausandMountainsofNorthernPortugal 80

5.2.3PortugueseCentralRangeandAdjacentPiedmonts 83

5.2.4PlateausofSouthernPortugal ............................. 84

5.2.5MesozoicOnshoreTerrainsUpliftedDuringtheCenozoic 84

5.2.6ReliefoftheMondego,LowerTagus–AlvaladeCenozoicBasins andtheAlgarveRegion

5.3ReliefandActiveProcessesintheCantabrianMountains

5.3.1AlpineExhumationoftheCantabrianMountains ...............

5.3.2UpliftRatesEstimatedThroughMarineTerraceDating

5.3.3EstimatedRiverIncisionRates

5.4OriginandEvolutionofthePyreneesTopography

5.4.1GeneralDescriptionoftheInternalStructureandthePresent-Day ReliefofthePyrenees

5.4.2EvolutionofthePyreneanOrogen

5.4.3ActivityofTectonicStructuresDuringthePostorogenicPhase

5.4.4OnsetofthePresent-DayDrainageSystem

5.4.5MainDrainageDivideDynamics

5.4.6PresentDayUplift?theDebateontheIsostaticCompensation oftheChain

5.5ReliefEvolutionoftheIberianChain

5.6.1EasternBetics

5.6.2CentralBetics

5.6.3WesternBetics

5.6.4AgesandRatesoftheUpliftandDenudationintheBetics

5.6.5QuaternaryCoastalUpliftoftheBeticLittoral

ActiveProcessesinIberia:AnIntroduction

JoséMiguelAzañónandJoãoCabral

Abstract

Thischapterprovidesageneralintroductiontotheothers chaptersofthisvolume.Itmainlyexplainsthemain regionalactiveprocessescurrentlyaffectingtheIberian Peninsulaasexpressedbyrecentandongoingseismic activity,activefaultingandreliefgeneration.Inthis chaptertheconcept “neotectonicperiod” isconsideredto lastfortheentireQuaternaryPeriod(approximatelythe last3Ma),aconceptalsofollowedintheotherchapters. Itisalsodiscussedthatthecurrenttectonicregimeand theactiveprocessesduringthe “neotectonicperiod” are mainlyduetoverticalmovementsofthelithosphere, resultingfromisostaticadjustmentsandactivefaulting, withinastillongoingregionalregimeofconvergence betweenAfricaandEurasia.

Thepresentchapter “ActiveProcessesintheIberianPeninsula:Seismicity,ActiveFaultingandRelief” dealswiththe neotectonicdeformationswithintheIberianPeninsula,which resultfromtheregionalactivetectonicprocesses.Tectonic activityishereconsideredinthesenseofdeformationsthat occurredinthecurrenttectonicregime,uptothepresent, whichcorrespondsroughlytotheQuaternaryPeriod(approximatelythelast3Ma),althoughlongertermcontinuity ofprocessesandthecoherentdescriptionofanevolutionary settingoftenrequiresawidertime-window.

Theneotectonicdeformationsincludetwomajorinterrelatedcomponentsthatareindependentlydescribedfor methodologicalpurposes:(i)verticalmovementsofthe lithosphere,resultingfromisostaticadjustmentsandtectonic

J.M.Azañón(&)

DepartamentodeGeodinámica,InstitutoAndaluzdeGeofísica, UniversidaddeGranada,InstitutoAndaluzdeCienciasdela Tierra(CSIC-UGR),CampusFuentenuevas/n,Granada,18071, Spain

e-mail: jazanon@ugr.es

J.Cabral

InstitutoDomLuiz,DepartamentodeGeologia,Faculdadede Ciências,UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,1749-016,Portugal

e-mail: jcabral@fc.ul.pt

processessuchaslithospherebuckling,and(ii)active faulting,bothwithamajorimpactonthelateCenozoic evolutionoftheIberianreliefanditspresentconﬁ guration. Theseinterdependentsubjectsaredealtwithintwodistinct sections,wheretheirgenesis,evolutionandimprintonthe regionalIberiangeologyaredescribedinthelong-term, geologicaltimeframe.

Besidesthosetwoactivetectoniccomponentsthatregisterthelong-termaccumulated, fi nitestrain,twoother subjectsareconsideredinthe firstsectionsofthepresent chapter,namelyactivedeformationfromspace-geodetic observations(GNSSdata)andtheregionalseismicity,asan expressionofthepresent,short-term,instantaneousdeformations,andtheirlinktotheregionalneotectonicsframework.Thesetwosectionsarepresentedinthe firstpartof thischapterbecausebothseismicityandgeodeticobservationsareconsideredessentialdatatopointouttheareasof presentactivedeformationwithintheIberianPeninsula.

TheinteractionoftheIberianmicroplate aspartof Eurasia,withtheNubiaplateisidentiﬁ edasthesourceforthe regionalneotectonicdeformations.Regionalgeodynamics hasthusbeendrivenbytheNW-SEtoWNW-ESEoblique convergenceofEurasiaandNubia,whichhasoccurredatthe longitudesoftheIberianPeninsulaatanaveragerateof4.5–6mm/yrforthepast3Ma,accordingtotheglobalgeological modelsofplatemotions(NUVEL-1AbyDeMetsetal. 1994, andthemorerecentMORVELbyDeMetsetal. 2010). Space-geodeticobservationsindicatethattheEurasia-Nubia displacementvectorsrotatedanticlockwiserelativetothe NWdirectionofgeologicalmodelsandsuggestaslowing downoftheconvergencerate(e.g.Calaisetal. 2003;Fernandesetal. 2007;NocquetandCalais 2004).

Despitethewell-establishedinterplatecontextofoblique convergence,deformationattheplatebordersisrather complex,evidencingadiffuseplateboundarywithdistributeddeformation.Tothewest,alongtheGulfofCádiz andtowardstheAtlanticOceantheplateboundaryis expressedasawide,roughlyE-Wdeformationband,where severalmajoractivefaultswithpredominantreverse

C.QuesadaandJ.T.Oliveira(eds.), TheGeologyofIberia:AGeodynamicApproach, RegionalGeologyReviews, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10931-8_1

kinematicshavebeenidenti ﬁedtrendingapproximatelyE-W andNE-SWtoNNE-SSW(e.g.Zitellinietal. 2001, 2004, 2009;Gràciaetal. 2003;Terrinhaetal. 2003).Recently, severalWNW-ESEright-lateralstrike-slipfaultshavebeen identi ﬁedinthisregion,interactingwiththeobliquely trendingreversefaultsandforminganarrowbandof deformationoveralengthofca.600km(Rosasetal. 2009, 2012;Zitellinietal. 2009).

CoevalWSW-ENEextensionintheAlboránDomain (producingtheAlboránBasin)andleft-lateralshearalong theNEtrendingTrans-Alboránshearzonearenotstraightforwardinthecontextofregionalshortening,corroborating thecomplexityofdeformationattheplateborders(e.g. Serpellonietal. 2007;Bufornetal. 2010).Deformationis apparentlytransferredfromnorthernAfrica(AtlasandRif), throughtheAlboránsea,toSEIberia(BeticsandtheCarboneras AlhamadeMurcia Alicantefaultsystem)inan overalltranstensiletoleft-lateralstrike-slipregime.

Inthiscontext,andbaseduponanumberofindependent observations(asseaﬂoormorphology,earthquakedistribution andseismicproﬁles),Gutscheretal.(e.g.Gutscher 2004; Gutscheretal. 2002, 2009)proposetheoccurrenceofactive subductionintheGibraltarArcbywestwardroll-backofan old(Miocene?)plate.Thismodelhasbeencontestedbyseveralauthors(e.g.Pedreraetal. 2011),whoarguethatthe eastwardGibraltarArcoceanicsubductionsystemisinactive probablysincetheLateMiocene-EarlyPliocene.Accordingto theseauthors,thecurrenttectonicframeworkintheGibraltar Arcdomainisofcontinentalcollision,withtheregional intermediateseismicitybeingassociatedtopartoftheold subductedslab,orthogonaltotheregionalconvergence.

Thisoveralltectonicsettingengendersastress ﬁeldinthe IberianPeninsulawhichischaracterizedbyapredominately NNW-SSEtoNW-SEtrendingSHmax(e.g.Andewegetal. 1999;DeVicenteetal. 2008;Custódioetal. 2016)reﬂecting theIberia-Nubiaconvergenceasamajordrivingmechanism forthecrustalstresses.Theoveralltendencyofchangein faultingstyle(reversetostrike-slipandtonormalfaulting) fromSWtoNandNEpointstoapermutationofprincipal stressesandapredominantNNW-SSEcontractionand ENE-WSWextension.Someregionaldeviationsoccurto thisgeneralpattern,indicatingdistinctlocalizeddriving mechanismsfortheneotectonicprocesses.

References

AndewegB,DeVicenteG,CloetinghS,etal.(1999)Localstress ﬁelds andintraplatedeformationofiberia:variationsinspatialand temporalinterplayofregionalstresssources.Tectonophysics 305:153–164.

BufornE,CescaS,delFresnoC,UdiasA(2010)Complexityofthe Ibero-Magrhebianregion:intermediatedepthearthquakes.GeophysicalResearchAbstractsV.12,EGU2010-1951.

CalaisE,DeMetsC,NocquetJM(2003)Evidenceforapost-3.16-Ma changeinNubia–Eurasia–NorthAmericaplatemotions?Earthand PlanetaryScienceLetters216(1–2):81–92.

CustódioS,LimaV,ValesD,etal.(2016)Imagingactivefaultingina regionofdistributeddeformationfromthejointclusteringoffocal mechanismsandhypocentres:ApplicationtotheAzores–western Mediterraneanregion.Tectonophysics676:70–89.

DeVicenteG,CloetinghS,Muñoz-MartínA,etal.(2008)Inversionof momenttensorfocalmechanismsforactivestressesaroundthe microcontinentIberia:Tectonicimplications.Tectonics27(1): TC1009, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006tc002093

DeMetsC,GordonRG,ArgusDF,SteinS(1994)Effectofrecent revisionstothegeomagneticreversaltimescaleonestimatesof currentplatemotions.GeophysResLett21:2191–2194.

DeMetsC,GordonRG,ArgusDF(2010)Geologicallycurrentplate motions.GeophysJInt181:1–80.

FernandesRMS,MirandaJM,MeijningerBML,etal.(2007)Surface velocity ﬁeldoftheIbero-Maghrebiansegmentofthe Eurasia-Nubiaplateboundary.GeophysJInt169:315–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.2006.03252.x.

GràciaE,DañobeitiaJJ,VergésJ,Bartolomé R(2003)Crustal architectureandtectonicevolutionoftheGulfofCádiz(SW IberianMargin)attheconvergenceoftheEurasianandAfrican plates.Tectonics22(4:1033–1057.

GutscherMA(2004)WhatcausedthegreatLisbonearthquake? Science305:1247–1248.

GutscherMA,MalodJ,RehaultJP,etal.(2002)Evidenceforactive subductionbeneathGibraltar.Geology30:1071–1074.

GutscherMA,DomínguezS,WestbrookGetal.(2009)Deepstructure, recentdeformationandanalogmodelingoftheGulfofCádiz accretionarywedge:implicationsforthe1755Lisbonearthquake. Tectonophysics475:85–97.

NocquetJM,CalaisE(2004)Geodeticmeasurementsofcrustal deformationintheWesternMediterraneanandEurope.PureAppl Geophys161, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-003-2468-z PedreraA,Ruiz-ConstánA,Galindo-ZaldivarJ,etal.(2011)Istherean activesubductionbeneaththeGibraltarorogenicarc?Constraints fromPliocenetopresent-daystress ﬁeld.JGeodyn52:83–96, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2010.12.003

RosasFM,DuarteJC,NevesMC,etal.(2012)Thrust-wrenchinterferencebetweenmajoractivefaultsintheGulfofCadiz(Africa-Eurasia plateboundary,offshoreSWIberia):tectonicimplicationsfrom coupledanalogueandnumericalmodeling.Tectonophysics548–549:1–21(http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.04.013 ).

RosasFM,DuarteJC,TerrinhaP,ValadaresV,MatiasL(2009) Morphotectoniccharacterizationofmajorbathymetriclineamentsin NWGulfofCadiz(Africa-Iberiaplateboundary):insightsfrom analoguemodellingexperiments.MarineGeology26:33–47, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2008.08.002

SerpelloniE,VannucciG,PondrelliS,etal.(2007)Kinematicsofthe WesternAfrica-Eurasiaplateboundaryfromfocalmechanismsand GPSdata.GeophysJInt169:1180–1200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j. 1365-246x.2007.03367.x

TerrinhaP,PinheiroLM,HenrietJP,etal.(2003)Tsunamigenicseismogenicstructures,neotectonics,sedimentaryprocessesand

slopeinstabilityonthesouthwestPortugueseMargin.MarGeol195 (1–4):55–73.

ZitelliniN,MendesLA,CórdobaD,etal.(2001)Sourceof1755 Lisbonearthquakeandtsunamiinvestigated.EOS,Transactions, AmericanGeophysicalUnion,82(26):285,290.

ZitelliniN,RovereM,TerrinhaP,etal.(2004)Neogenethrough quaternarytectonicreactivationofSWIberianpassivemargin; geodynamicsofAzoresTunisia.PureandAppliedGeophysics161 (3):565–587.

ZitelliniN,GràciaE,MatiasLetal.(2009)ThequestfortheAfrica–EurasiaplateboundarywestoftheStraitofGibraltar.Earthand PlanetaryScienceLetters280(1–4):13–50.

ActiveDeformationintheIberianPeninsula fromGeodeticTechniques

PatriciaRuanoandRuiManueldaSilvaFernandes

Abstract

IntheIberianPeninsula,morethan300continuousGNSS (CGNSS)stationsprovideservicetodetectdeformation duetogeodynamicprocessesandcombinedwith real-timekinematic(RTK)dataareusefultolocateand monitoringactivestructuresandprocesses.Mostofthe geodynamicstudiesusingGNSStechniquesintheIberian PeninsulaarelargelyfocusedupontheEurasia-Africa plateboundarygeometry,kinematicsandactivetectonics. AlthoughtheuseofCGNSSisthebestoptionto determineverysmallcrustalmovements,asintheIberia Peninsula,inareaswithlackofCGNSSstations,eight non-permanentnetworks(SGNSS)wereinstalledmainly inthesouth-southeastofIberianPeninsula,providing valuableinformationabouttheactivityofkeyactive structures.

GlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)providesvariouskinematicandpostprocessingmethodsofpositioning solutions.Thesetechniqueshaveundergonesigniﬁcant developmentinrecentdecadesandtodayarewidelyusedin variousapplicationssuchasmonitoringgeodynamicprocesses,earlywarningsystems,mappingandengineering applications.Therearetwomainlysurveyingmethods: (i)ContinuouslyOperatingReferenceStation(CORS, CGNSS)networksand(ii)Non-permanentGNSSnetworks (survey-mode,SGNSS)withrepeatabilityoftheobserved positionafteratimespantoguaranteethedataaccuracy.

2.1PermanentNetworks

ContinuousGNSS(CGNSS)networksrevealtheirusefulness todetectdeformationsduetogeodynamicprocessesbetween tectonicplates(inter-plate)andinsidetheplates(intra-plate). TheContinuouslyOperatingReferenceStation(CORS)network,combinedwithreal-timekinematic(RTK)correctionsis awidelyusedtechniquetoachievecentimeterpositioning accuracyinrealtimeorpost-processing(RINEX).TheRTK GNSSdataareactuallyusefulinactivetectonicstolocate activestructuresandtomonitoractiveprocessesalongtime, andtoprovidehigh-precisiontopographicproﬁlesfor detectingsubtlechangesinslopeasofterracesurfaces(e.g. Figueiredoetal. 2014).IntheIberianPeninsula,morethan 300GNSSstationsprovidethisservice(Fig. 2.1)andare availabletobeusedatnocost.

P.Ruano(&)

DepartamentodeGeodinámica,UniversidaddeGranada,Instituto AndaluzdeCienciasdeLaTierra(CSIC-UGR),Campus Fuentenuevas/n,Granada,18071,Spain

e-mail: pruano@ugr.es

R.M.daS.Fernandes

UniversidadeDaBeiraInteriorandInstitutoDomLuiz,Faculdade deCiências,UniversidadedeLisboa,Lisbon,1749-016,Portugal e-mail: rui@segal.ubi.pt

TheincreaseddensityofCORSstationsinthelasttwo decadeschangedthewayofstudyingthedynamicsofthe Earth’ssurfaceprovidingunprecedentedspatialandtemporal samplingofcrustaldeformationthatallowtoidentifytectonicallyactiveareasandtodetectverysmallrelative movements.VariousnetworksweredevelopedontheIberian Peninsulainthelastdecadebyregionalandnationalinstitutionsandprivateagencies(seeFig. 2.1 formoredetail).It isworthmentioningthenetworkdevelopedbyTopo-Iberia projectthatincludedintermediatestationsinkeysectors(de Lacyetal. 2014;Gárateetal. 2015).Mostofthegeodynamic studiesusingGNSStechniquesintheIberianPeninsulaare largelyfocusedupontheEurasia-Africaplateboundary geometryandkinematics(Fadiletal. 2006;Stichetal. 2006; Fernandesetal. 2007;Mantovanietal. 2007;Serpellonietal. 2007;Nocquet 2012;Pérez-Peñaetal. 2010;Vernantetal. 2010;Koualietal. 2011;Mancillaetal. 2013)ortocompute strainratemodels(Cunhaetal. 2012;Nevesetal. 2014).

ThemostcompleteandrecentanalysisofGNSSstations inIberiaisprovidedbyPalanoetal.(2015)showingthe geodeticvelocity ﬁeldof280GNSSstations(Fig. 2.2). Neresetal.(2016)basedon250stationsshownumerical

C.QuesadaandJ.T.Oliveira(eds.), TheGeologyofIberia:AGeodynamicApproach, RegionalGeologyReviews, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10931-8_2

Betics

Pyrenees

ARAGEA Permanent

BIZKAIA

CARM

CatNet

ERVA

GALNET

REGAM RAP ITACYL IGN IDERIOJA Guipuzkoa

REP

RGAC

RGAN

RGAPA

RGE

ReNEP

XGAIB

TopoIberia

CuaTeNeo

Fig.2.1 AvailableGNSSnetworksinIberia.Permanentwith RTKGNSSnetworks:ARAGEA(http://gnss.aragon.es);BIZKAIA (http://www.bizkaia.eus/home2/Temas/DetalleTema.asp?Tem_ Codigo=3328);CARM(http://gps.medioambiente.carm.es/ );CATNET (http://catnet-ip.icc.cat/ );ERVA(www.icv.gva.es);GALNET(http:// cartogalicia.com/galnet2/ );GIPUZKOA(http://b5m.gipuzkoa.eus/ web5000/es/geodesia/red-gnss/);IDERIOJA(https://www.iderioja. larioja.org/);IGN(www.ign.es);ITACYL(http://gnss.itacyl.es/);RAP (www.ideandalucia.es);REGAM(http://cartomur.imida.es/regam );

modelsthatpredictfaultkinematicsandheaverates(horizontalcomponentofsliprates).Basedonallthesestudies, themaingeneralfeaturesofthegeodeticvelocity ﬁ eldin Iberiaare:

PotSis-ResPyr

Bajo Segura

Balanegra

CuaTeTeo

Padul

Granada Basin

Baza Basin

Zafarraya-Sierra Tejeda

ReNEP(ftp.igeo.pt);REP(www.rep-gnss.es);RGAC(http://www. territoriodecantabria.es/cartogra ﬁa-sig/servicio-correcciones-gnssprecision);RGAN(http://www.navarra.es );RGE(http://www.gps2. euskadi.net/);XGAIB(http://xarxagnss.caib.es).Activefaultsfrom QAFIdataset(García-Mayordomoetal. 2012)areshown.Abbreviationsinmap:AMFAlhamadeMurciaFault;BFBazaFault;BNF BalananegraFault;BSB;BajoSeguraBasin;CFCrevillenteFault;CFZ CarbonerasFaultZone;GFGaleraFault;STASierraTejeda Antiform;ZFZafarrayaFault

– WNW-ESEconvergenceatarateof *5mm/yr, accommodatingtherelativemotionbetweenthetwo largeEurasianandNubianplates(McCluskyetal. 2003; Serpellonietal. 2007;DeMetsetal.2010). Gibraltar

Pyrenees

Fig.2.2 GNSSvelocitiesand95%conﬁdenceellipsesina ﬁxedEurasianreferenceframeforIberia(fromGárateetal. 2015 andPalanoetal. 2015).ActivefaultsfromQAFIdataset(García-Mayordomoetal. 2012)areshown

–

Alarge-scaleclockwiserotationoftheIberianPeninsula withrespecttostableEurasia.

– AfragmentationofthewesternMediterraneanbasininto severalcrustalblocksaccordingtotheirdistinctgeologicalhistory.

– Ageneralincreasinggradientofthegeodeticvelocity vectorfromtheNorthtotheSouthofIberia.

– WestwardrelativemotionoftheGibraltarArcof *3–5mm/yearwithasigniﬁcanthorizontalextension approximatelyintheE–Wdirection.

– WNWtoNEfan-shapedpatternofgeodeticvelocity vectorsinEasternBeticsshowingaroughlyN-Scompression(Echavarr íaetal. 2013).

GeodeticstudiesfocusedontheBeticshavepoorregional coverageor/andlackadetaileddescriptionoftherelationshipswithmainactivetectonicstructures.Basedon Topo-Iberianetwork,González-Castilloetal.(2015)analyze therelationshipsoftheCGNSSdisplacementsandtheactive tectonicsofthewesternBeticsanditsforeland. Galindo-Zaldívaretal.(2015)provideapreciseregional displacementpatterninthecentralandeasternBeticswith heterogeneousWandWSWresidualdisplacementwith respecttotheEurasiareferenceframe.

Ontheotherhand,Asensioetal.(2012)showthatthe westernandcentralPyreneesmoveawayfromthestablepart ofWesternEuropewithavelocityof0.5–1.5mm/yr.

ANNE–SSWproﬁleacrossthewesternPyreneesindicates extensionatarateequivalentto0.3–0.4mm/yrifawidthof thePyreneesof100–150kmisassumed.

2.2Non-permanentNetworks

Thebestoptiontodetermineverysmallcrustalmovements, asintheIberiaPeninsula,usinggeodeticmeasurementsisto useanetworkofpermanentGNSSstations(CGNSS). However,tocharacterizethedeformationofspeci ﬁcactive structureswhenthisisnotpossibleduetoalackofCORSin theareaorto ﬁnancialconstraints,thedeploymentofa networkofclosely-spacedpillarsanditsperiodicobservationbygeodeticcampaigns(SGNSS)becomesthebest option.However,alongtimespanmeasurementseriesis neededinthiscase.IntheIberianPeninsulaseveral non-permanentnetworks(Fig. 2.1)wereinstalledmainlyin thesouth-southeast,providingvaluableinformationabout theactivityofkeystructures:

– ThePotSis(Talayaetal. 1999)andResPyr(Fletaetal. 1996;Rigoetal. 2015)networksalongthePyrenees mountainrange,includingatotalof85GPSsites,were installedand ﬁrstmeasuredin1992and1995–1997, respectively.Rigoetal.(2015)estimatedamaximum extensionalhorizontalstrainrateof2.0 ± 1.7nanostrain peryearintheN–Sdirectioninthewesternpartofthe range,inagreementwiththeresultofAsensioetal. (2012)fromapermanentnetwork.

–

TheBajoSeguranon-permanentnetworkshowsa * N-Sshorteninginthewholebasin.TheratesintheBajo Segurafaultzonevaryfromwesttoeastbetween0.73 and0.24mm/yr.Inthenorthernborderofthebasin, alongtheCrevillentefaultzonealeft-lateralmovement variesbetween0.44and0.75mm/yrintheE-Wdirection (Alfaroetal. 2012;Sánchez-Alzolaetal. 2014). –

TheCuaTeNeonetwork(Colominaetal. 1998;Echeverríaetal. 2013)coversthesouthandcentralpartofthe EasternBeticShearZone.Theresultsshowcontinuing tectonicactivityintheSEBetics(Echeverr íaetal. 2013). ThemostprominentfeatureistheNWorientedmotionof themajorityofthestationsatratesrangingfrom2mm/yr nearthecoastto0.5mm/yrinland.MostofthedeformationisconcentratedontheAlhamadeMurciafault, thesourceofthe2011Lorcaearthquake(Mw5.2). Echeverriaetal.(2013)estimateareverse-sinistral geodeticsliprateof1.5 ± 0.3mm/yrforthisfault. Echeverriaetal.(2015)usingCORSstationsandCuaTeNeonetworksfoundastrike-sliprateof 1.3 ± 0.2mm/yrfortheCarbonerasfaultzone.

– InCampodeDalías(Almeríaprovince)twolevelling proﬁlesandaSGNSSnetworkwereestablishedinorder tomonitorthepresentverticalandhorizontaldeformationsandtherelationshipbetweentheBalanegrafault andfolddevelopment(Marín-Lechadoetal. 2010)in ordertoelucidatethefaultbehaviour.

– In2008anon-permanentnetworkwasinstalledinthe BazaBasin(Galindo-Zaldívaretal. 2015).Atotalof7 measurementcampaignswereperformedtoquantifythe presentsliprateoftheBazafaultandotheractivefaults astheGalerafault.Thegeodeticresultsareinagreement withthekinematicsoftheBazafaultestablishedby geologicalstudies(Alfaroetal. 2008).

–

TheGranadanon-permanentnetworkwasestablishedin 1999tomonitorthepresentNW-SEcompressionand NE-SWextensionaccommodatedmanlybynormal faultsthataffecttheBasin(Giletal. 2002).Consistent resultshavenotyetbeenobtained,duetothesmallstrain ratesofthearea,alongertimespanthanadecadebeing needed.InthePadulareaanothernon-permanentnetworkshowsadeformationof0.5mm/yr(Giletal. 2002; Ruizetal. 2003;Giletal. 2017).Theabsenceof instrumentalorhistoricalseismiceventswouldindicate thatfaultactivityoccursatleastpartiallybycreep.Padul faultkinematicswillberelatedtothepresent-daydominanceoftheENE-WSWregionalextensionversus NNW-SSEshorteningthatproducedtheupliftand northwestwardsdisplacementofSierraNevadaantiform (Giletal. 2017).

– Twonon-permanentnetworkswereestablishedin2004 attheZafarrayaFaultandSierraTejedaantiform (Galindo-Zaldívaretal. 2003;Borqueetal. 2005)to quantifytheirpresent-daydeformationwithatotalof16 sites.Inthe ﬁrst6yearsofmonitoring,theresultssuggestaveryslowactivityoftheSierraTejedaantiform andthedextralcharacteroftheZafarrayafault,witha NW-SEextensionthatmayduetoanactivefault(Ruano etal. 2011).

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SeismicityoftheIberianPeninsula

DanielStich,JoséManuelMartínez-Solares,SusanaCustódio, JosepBatlló,RosaMartín,PaulaTeves-Costa,andJoséMorales

Abstract

Earthquakesareaconspicuousmanifestationofactive processesinandaroundtheIberianPeninsula,providing evidenceforactivefaultingattheplateboundaryzone,as wellasacrosslargeintraplateareas.Anextensivesample offaultingfrommanyindividualstructuresisprovided throughtheearthquakesthatappearinthegeological, historicalandinstrumentalrecords.Modernseismic broadbandnetworksallowforestimatingearthquake sourceparametersroutinely.Thedistributionofhypocenterslocatesthezonesofprincipalstressrelease,andfocal mechanismdepictthevarietyofdifferenttectonicregimes overtheregion.Olderearthquakeshavebeenstudied frompaleoseismology,macroseismicinformationor

D.Stich(&) J.Morales

DepartamentodeFísicaTeóricaydelCosmos,InstitutoAndaluz deGeofísica,UniversidaddeGranada,CampusUniversitariode Fuentenuevas/n,18071Granada,Spain

e-mail: stich@ugr.es

J.Morales

e-mail: jmorales@ugr.es

J.M.Martínez-Solares InstitutoGeográﬁcoNacional,C/GeneralIbáñezde Íbero3,28003 Madrid,Spain

e-mail: jmmsolares@fomento.es

S.Custódio P.Teves-Costa FaculdadedeCiências,InstitutoDomLuiz,Universidadede Lisboa,1740-016Lisbon,Portugal e-mail: sicustodio@fc.ul.pt

P.Teves-Costa

e-mail: ptcosta@fc.ul.pt

J.Batlló InstitutCartogràﬁciGeològicdeCatalunya,ParcdeMontjuïc, 08038Barcelona,Spain

e-mail: josep.batllo@icgc.cat

R.Martín

InstitutoAndaluzdeGeofísica,UniversidaddeGranada,Campus UniversitariodeCartuja,18071Granada,Spain

e-mail: rosa@ugr.es

analoguerecordings,improvingourunderstandingof long-termcharacteristics.

3.1Introduction

Earthquakeseismologymadeimportantcontributionstothe studyoftectonics,startingwithitsfundamentalroleinthe discoveryandconﬁrmationofplatetectonics,basisofour presentunderstandingoftheglobalevolutionoftheEarth’s lithosphere,butthecontributionsareimportantalsoatthe regionallevel(seeJackson 2002,forareview).

Presentseismicityisstudiedmainlyusingtherecordsof thousandsofseismographsaroundtheworld.Justinthe IberianPeninsula,takingtogetherallkindofinstruments (seismographsandaccelerographs)thereareafewhundreds ofstations.Butthissituationisreallynew.Just ﬁftyyears agothetotalnumberofseismicstationsaroundtheworld wasscarcelytwothousandsandjusttwelvewerelocatedin theIberianPeninsula.Onehundred ﬁftyyearsagothere werenoseismicstationsatall.

Thus,instrumentalseismicrecordscannotbetheunique sourceofdataifalongrecordofseismicityisneeded,andit is.Weshouldkeepinmindthattheseismicityrateofa regionisnothomogeneousintimeorinsize.Evenmore,we knowthatintheIberianPeninsulathebiggerearthquakes mostlyoccurredbeforethesettingoftheearlierseismographs.Toaccountfortheseoldereventsweshallrelyon non-instrumentalrecords.Theymaybewrittenreportsabout theeffectsoftheearthquakes(historicalseismicity),orthose obtainedstudyingtheireffectsonoldbuildings(archeoseismology)oreventherecordsofearthquakespreservedon faultsanddifferentgeologicalunits(paleoseismology).Each oneoftheseapproachesrequiresspeci ﬁctechniquesanddata differentfromgeology.

AreviewofourpresentknowledgeoftheIberian Peninsulaseismicityanditscloserelationshiptotectonicsis presentedinthissection.

3.2HistoricalSeismicity:Characteristics ofSeismicityintheIberianPeninsula

NowadaystherearemanytoolstodetectandanalyseEarth’s seismicity.Informationaboutpreviousearthquakescomes fromnon-instrumentalsourcesdependingontheperiodwe consider.Paleoseismicityisusedforperiodsinwhichthe geologicalrecordistheonlyavailablesourceofinformation toanalyseandinterprettheoccurredearthquakes.Inthelast twodecades,interestingpaleoseismologicalresultshave beenobtainedintheIberianPeninsula(e.g.Masanaetal. 2001a, b;Cabral(2012);Martínez-D íazetal. 2012;Canora etal. 2015;seeChap. 4 formoredetails).

Anotherwaytostudythepastearthquakesisthe archeoseismology,startingwiththeearliestconstructions.In theIberianPeninsula,newinsightswerethusobtainedonthe occurrenceofancientearthquakes(e.g.VillaValdés 2009; Silvaetal. 2005;Rodríguez-Pascuaetal. 2015).

Next,wecontemplatetheso-calledhistoricalseismicity, mainobjectofthepresentsection,whichspansapproximatelyfromtheearlywrittenreportsuntilthe ﬁrstdecadeof the20thcentury.Studiesinthenineteeneightiesledtothe publicationofseismiccatalogsofsimilarqualityinSpain andPortugal(MezcuaandMartínezSolares 1983;Mezcua 1982;Oliveira 1986).Basedonthem,onnewstudiesof speci ﬁceventsandinthenewevaluationofthehistorical documentation,Martínez-SolaresandMezcua(2002)publishedanewcatalogfortheperiodupto1900coveringthe wholePeninsula.Thisnewcatalogchangedsomeofthe intensitydatapreviouslypublished(MezcuaandMartínez Solares 1983;Oliveira 1986).ItusestheEMS-98asthe referenceintensityscale,insteadoftheMSKandMM56 scalesusedinthepreviouscatalogs.Ifwecomparethe macroseismicinformationcontainedinbothcatalogs,forthe periodbetween1000and1900,wecanobserveaconsiderableincreaseofearthquakeswithlowerintensity,between IIIandV.Onthecontrary,aslightdecreaseinthenumberof earthquakesexceedingdegreeVIisobserved.Forthevalues withintermediateintensities,aremarkabledifferencecanbe seen.Thisisattributabletothefactthattheyhavebeen includedinamoresystematicwayinthenewcatalog,as recommendedbytheEMS-98scale.

Anothermacroseismicscale,complementarytothe EMS-98,istheEnvironmentalSeismicIntensityscale (ESI-07;Michettietal. 2007;Silvaetal. 2015a, b)developedbyINQUA(InternationalUnionofQuaternary Research).ESI-07isbasedonthesizeanddistributionofthe effectsofearthquakesonthenaturalenvironment.Ifearthquakeeffectsonpeopleandbuiltenvironmentarenoteasily observed,ESI-07isahelpfuldiagnostictooltoassessseismicintensitylevelsXtoXIIinsparselypopulatedor inhabitedareas.TheEarthquakeEnvironmentalEffects

(EEE)inSpainwerecompiledintheSpanishEarthquake GeologicalEffectsCatalog(SilvaandRodríguez-Pascua, 2014)andinseveralotherpublications(e.g.Silvaetal. 2015a, b;Giner-Roblesetal. 2016).

3.2.1DistributionofIntensities

UsingtheearthquakescompiledintheMartínezSolaresand Mezcua(2002)catalog,wecananalysetheirdistribution throughthefrequency-maximumintensityrelationshipand compareitwiththatobtainedfortheinstrumentalperiod. Forthispurpose,weconsidertwotimewindows:thehistoricalperiodbetweentheyears1000and1900andthe instrumentalperiodbetween1901and2015(Fig. 3.1). ConsideringtheGutenberg-Richterrelation,thesedistributionsshouldtheoretically ﬁttoastraightline,althoughthe lackofdatacompletenessforbothtimewindowscausesthe lowervaluesofintensitytoappeardampedand,onthe contrary,theshortintervalof115yearsfortheinstrumental periodmakesitincompleteforthehighestintensityvalues. Bothcurvesarenotformallycomparable,sincethey representtimeintervalsofdifferentsizeandthevaluesofthe macroseismicintensitycannotbeassumedhomogeneous betweenthem.However,fromtheslopesofeachcurve,itis possibletodetermine,forintensitieshigherthanVI,the referenceyearfromwhichthehistoricalperiodcanbe consideredcomplete.Forthispurposewerepresentthe numberofearthquakesofmaximumintensityhigherthanVI intheperiodwheretheintensitydataareestimatedtobe morereliable(1400–1900).Usingtwotimeintervals 25 and50years-inordertobettercomparetheintensity thresholds,werepresentthecorrespondinghistogramsin Fig. 3.2a,b.FromaqualitativeexaminationofthedistributionplottedinFig. 3.2a,b,itispossibletoinferthat,for intensitieshigherthanVII,thecatalogcanbeconsidered completefrom1401onwards,becausethenumberofevents

Fig.3.1 Frequency-intensitydistributionforhistoricalperiod(1000–1900)andinstrumental(1901–2015)

Fig.3.2 Numberofeventsbetweentheyears1400and1900for4intensitylevels. a 25yearsinterval; b 50yearsinterval

withintensityVIIisstable,despitethe ﬂuctuationsintime thatlogicallymayoccur.Instead,Fig. 3.2ashowsan increaseofeventswithintensityhigherthanVIafter1801. ButFig. 3.2bshowsadifferentview.Eventswithintensity higherthanVIseemstostabilize.Suchdifferences, dependingonthechosentimeinterval,showhowdifﬁ cultit istodeterminecompletitudeintervals.Numericalalgorithms donotperformbetterduetothelargeincertitudeofthe results.

3.2.2EstimationofMagnitude

Currentlysomeauthorsdeterminetheequivalentmagnitude directlyfromtheintensitydatapoints,avoidingthesubjectiveuseofisolines.Inparticular,BakunandWentworth (1997)developedamethodologyforCaliforniaableof estimatingfromtheintensitydatathelocationandseismic momentmagnitudesimultaneously.Itisagreedthatto determinethesizeofearthquakes,themomentmagnitude Mwisamuchmoresigniﬁ cantestimatorthananyothertype ofmagnitude,sincetheseismicmoment, Mo,contains informationaboutthedimensionsofthesource,theamplitudeofthedeformationandthephysicalcharacteristicsof thematerialinwhichtheruptureoccurs.Incontrast,other typesofmagnitude,suchas mb, Ml or Ms,maysaturate whenthereleasedenergyreachesacertainlevel.

FollowingBakunandWentworth’smethodology,Mezcuaetal.(2004)calibratedthejointestimationprocessfor theIberianPeninsulaandMartínezSolaresandMezcua (2002)applieditforsomeofthemostimportantearthquakes ofthehistoricalperiod,whenthenumberofavailableIDP (intensitydatapoint)wasenough.Table 3.1 liststheestimatedmomentmagnitudevalues Mw.Fromitwecan deducethat,exceptfortheLisbonearthquakeof1755(becauseitislocatedoutsidethecontinentalarea),themaximummagnitudethresholdforthepeninsulaisnear Mw =7.0.Recently,Mezcuaetal.(2013)calculated Mw

valuesforanextendedsetofearthquakes.Otherauthors (BakunandScotti 2006;Stucchietal. 2010)calculated attenuationlawsfordifferentpartsoftheIberianPeninsula andappliedthemtoasetofevents.

Anothermethodforepicentralparametercalculationfrom IDPwasdevisedbyGasperinietal.(1999).Inthiscasethe epicenteriscalculatedasthebarycenteroftheIDPswith higherdegrees.Oncetheepicenterisobtained,themagnitudeiscalculatedthroughpreviouslycalculatedintensity attenuationlaws.Thismethod,withcalibratedlaws,has beenusedforthelargeearthquakesoccurredintheIberian Peninsulaonthebuild-upoftheSHEECcatalog(Stucchi etal. 2013)andalsobyGomez-Caperaetal.(2015).

3.2.3SeismicSequences

InalimitedareasuchastheIberianPeninsula,thetemporal distributionofearthquakesdoesnotfullyfollowthePoisson lawofindependentevents,sincethesearegroupedinto differenttypesofseismicsequencesandmustbeconsidered asinterdependentphenomena.Therefore,someseismic catalogsdistinguishthoseearthquakesconsideredasaftershocksandprecursorsofamajorearthquake,orswarms. Althoughtherearemethodsthatallowdeﬁningnumerically theeventsthatmakeuptheseismicseries,forthehistorical perioditismoreusefultouseexpertcriteriaanddeﬁnethem fromtheconsiderationofrelatedevents,intimeandspace andwhosemacroseismicinformationisconsistentwitheach other.

TheprocessesofseismicsequencesoccurintheIberian Peninsulaalmostsystematically,bothduringhistoricaland instrumentaltimes.Table 3.2 liststhemostimportantseries ofearthquakeslongerthantwomonthsidenti ﬁedinMartínezSolaresandMezcua(2002)andclassi ﬁedaccordingto thetypeofrecordedactivity:mainearthquakewithprecursor andaftershockevents(PMR);majorearthquakewithfollowedaftershocks(MR)andswarms(E).

Table3.1 Estimatedmoment magnitude DateMwDateMw 1396-December6.51806-October-275.3 1431-April-246.71817-March-185.7 1504-April-56.81829-March-216.6 1522-September-226.51841-August-35.7 1531-January-267.01847-July-285.9 1680-October-96.81863-June-104.2 1722-December-276.51877-October-255.9 1748-March-236.21883-January-164.1 1755-November-18.51883-October-206.0 1761-March-316.71884-December-256.5 1804-January-136.71899-August-245.9 1804-August-256.4

FromTable 3.2 itfollowsthatthesequencesoflonger duration andwithalargenumberofearthquakes belong tothetypeofaftershock(MR)activity.Inthecaseofthe spatialdistributionofearthquakescontainedinaseismic series,theepicentersarelocated,withinthishistoricalperiod,inthesamecoordinatesasthemainepicenter.This coincidencedoesnotnecessarilyalwaysexist,sincethe sequencemustbegroupedaroundtheruptureareaandcould allow,asininstrumentalseismicitystudies,todeﬁneitssize anddirection.

3.2.4AdditionalInformation

Manyoftheavailablecasestudiesonhistoricalearthquakes addinformationnotdirectlyrelatedtotheseismicparametersandyetprovidesocialoreconomicdataofgreatinterest. Oneofthesedatacanbethevictimsofearthquakes.

Table 3.3 showsthoseeventsthatareknowntohaveproducedfatalities,althoughforsomeofthemtheamountisjust estimatedorevenunknown(MartínezSolaresandMezcua 2002).Anotherkindofinformationofgreatimportancein thedeterminationoftheseismicriskconsistsintheeconomiclossescausedbythegreatearthquakes.Their assessment,however,isdifﬁculttoquantifyduetothelack ofdocumentation,bothduetothelackofdataontheactual distributionofdamageandthelackofknowledgeofthe replacementcosts.Eventhoughtheestimatedquantitiesare mostlikelybelowtherealvalue,wehavehoweversome examplesthatcanillustratethelossescausedbysomehistoricalearthquakes,eachvaluedinthecirculatingcurrency atthetime.Thus,intheearthquakeof1504inCarmona (Seville)damagewasestimatedat7,562,500maravedies (Gentil 1989);thatofthe1748Montesa(Valencia)earthquakewasquantiﬁ edat116,377.5lb(Alberola 1995),and theearthquakethataffectedLisbonin1755wasestimatedto

havecaused onlyinSpain,damageof70,250,070reais (Martínez-Solares 2001).TheearthquakeinAndalusia (1884)reached5,826,028.66pesetas(MuñozandUdías 1980).Anyoftheseamountstransformedintothepresent currencywouldrevealthesigni ﬁcanteconomiclosses causedbytheseearthquakes,whichpresumablyweremuch lowerthantheywouldbetodaybecausetheelementspresentlyexposedtoriskaremuchmorenumerousand valuable.

3.2.5EarlyInstrumentalData

Iffeltintensitiesarethemaindatausedtoevaluateearthquakesinthehistoricalperiod,thepresentseismicityis characterizedmainlythroughtheanalysisofinstrumental records.Hypocentralcoordinates,magnitudes,momenttensorandotherparametersconsignedoncatalogsareobtained fromtherecordedwaveforms.Butithasnotbeenthisway sincethebeginningoftheinstrumentalrecordsmorethana centuryago.Instrumentalrecordingofearthquakesandits analysishavebeeninconstantevolution,anditshouldbe pointedoutthatthesamecautionsweobservewhendealing witholdmacroseismicdatashouldbeobservedwhenusing resultsfromearlyinstrumentaldata.

SeismoscopeswerepresentintheIberianPeninsulaat leastsince1885(Batlló 2006)andthe ﬁrstpeninsularcontinuousrecordingdatesbackto1898(Batlló 2004).Nevertheless,itisnotpossibletospeakaboutafullinstrumental recordofseismicitydowntomagnitudeM3uptothe nineteensixties.Ifwearelookingforepicentreslocatedwith uncertaintieslessthanafewkilometresandmagnitudes accuratetotwotenthsofdegree,thedatemovestothelast decadeofthe20thcentury.

TheevolutionofseismicrecordinginSpainandPortugal followedparallelpaths.Earlyseismographswereall

Table3.2 Seismicsequences

1373Ribagorça(L)4VIII–IX7MR 1427Amer(Gi)3VIII12E 1620–1621Alcoy(A)2VII–VIII7MR 1674Lorca(Mu)2VIII5PMR 1748Estubeny(V)2IX9MR 1755–1756SW.CaboS.Vicente12X59MR 1761SW.CaboS.Vicente2.5VI–VII15MR 1778Granada6VI26E 1788LaSeud’Urgell(L)5VI15E 1791–1792Melilla11VI–VII56E 1804MardeAlborán7VII–VIII17MR 1804Dalias(Al)4VIII–IX51PMR 1806–1807PinosPuente(Gr)12VIII159MR 1826Granada8VI20E 1829Torrevieja(A)4IX–X42PMR 1848Melilla2VII11MR 1848–1849OrihuelaTremedal (Te) 3VI–VII10PMR 1851–1852NE.Palmade Mallorca 13VII18MR 1861–1862Torrevieja(A)12IV25E 1862Torrevieja(A)6V21E 1863Huercal-Overa(Al)4VI–VII42E 1882–1883Archena(Mu)4VI–VII35E 1883VillanuevaCastellon (V) 2.5V6E 1884–1886ArenasdelRey(Gr)31IX–X253MR

mechanicalinstruments.Itisnecessarytowaituntilthe nineteen ﬁfties,aroundtheInternationalGeophysicalYear of1957–58,to ﬁndelectromagneticshort-periodinstruments,moreadaptedfortherecordofregionalseismicity. Anewstepforwardwasdoneinthesixties,withthe installationofthreeWorld-WideStandardizedSeismographicNetwork(WWSSN)stationsinthePeninsula (Málaga,PortoandToledo).AsPortugalwasmoreseverely shakenbythelarge28February1969earthquakeinthegulf ofCádiz,theplanninganddeploymentofamodernseismic network(withcentralizedrecordingandoperation)started therealreadyin1970,eventhoughitwasnotcompleted untiltheeighties(Senosetal. 2004).Spainwouldhaveto waituntiltheearlyeightiesforthedeploymentofa telemeteredseismicnetwork.Areviewoftheevolutionof seismicnetworksinSpaincanbefoundinGonzález(2016) andreferencestherein.SimilarinformationforPortugalcan befoundinFerryBorgesetal.(1976)andCustódioetal. (2012).

Thus,seismographssufferedalongevolutionandtheir characteristicschanged(andimproved)withtime(Dewey andByerly 1969;Batlló 2014).Earlyinstrumentalrecords wereobtainedmainlyinpapersupportandtheyhadalimiteddynamicrangeandfrequencyresolution.Theprecise timingoftheinstrumentswasadjustedindependentlyateach stationfewtimesaweek.Thus,thebestclockaccuracies rangeontheorderof1s;butstationtimeoffsetsontheorder of10swerenotexceptional.Epicenterlocationswithsuch inaccuraciesproducelargeerrors.Anexampleoftheellipse errorofthebestinstrumentallocationisthe1909Benavente event,nearLisbon.Theshortestsemi-axisoftheellipseis around50kmlong.Thus,inthiscasethemacroseismic epicenterismorereliable.

Inaddition,someofthepresentlyconsignedparameters andmethodsusedtocharacterizeseismicitywereunknown uptorecenttimes.EarthquakeMagnitudewasdeﬁnedfor the ﬁ rsttimebyRichter(1935).Ifhypocentrallocationusing linearleastsquareswasalreadydevisedbyGeiger(1910)

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