The Archaeology of the Holy Land Jodi Magness
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The Archaeology of the Holy Land
This book provides an introduction to the archaeology and history of ancient Palestine – modern Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian territories – from the destruction of Solomon’s temple in 586 B.C.E. to the Muslim conquest in 640 C.E. Special attention is paid to the archaeology of Jerusalem and to the late the Second Temple period, that is, the time of Herod the Great and Jesus. For each period, the book offers historical background for the Mediterranean world, the ancient Near East and Palestine. Major sites such as Masada, Caesarea Maritima, and Petra are examined in archaeological and historical detail, along with the material culture –coins, pottery, glass, and stone vessels – typical of each period. This book provides a thorough overview of the archaeology of this historically rich part of the world.
Jodi Magness is the Kenan Distinguished Professor for Teaching Excellence in Early Judaism in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She is the author and editor of several books, including StoneandDung,OilandSpit: JewishDailyLifeintheTimeofJesus(2011) ;TheArchaeologyof theEarlyIslamicSettlementinPalestine(2003); and The ArchaeologyofQumranandtheDeadSeaScrolls(2002).
The Archaeology of the Holy Land FromtheDestructionofSolomon’s TempletotheMuslimConquest
Jodi Magness
UniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S˜ao Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521124133
C
Jodi Magness 2012
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2012
Printed in the United States of America
AcatalogrecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritish Library.
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Magness, Jodi.
The archaeology of the Holy Land : from the destruction of Solomon’s Temple to the Muslim conquest / Jodi Magness. p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-521-19535-5 (hardback)
1. Palestine – Antiquities. 2. Bible – Antiquities. 3. Excavations (Archaeology) –
Palestine. I. Title.
DS111.M324 2012
933–dc23 2011050688
ISBN 978-0-521-19535-5 Hardback
ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
ToJim,withlove
CONTENTS
ListofIllustrations
page ix
Preface
(Herodian) Period (40 B.C.E.–70 C.E.):
The Early Roman (Herodian) Period (40 B.C.E.–70 C.E.):
Maritima, Samaria-Sebaste,
Jericho, and Herodium
From 70 C.E. to the Bar-Kokhba Revolt (132–135/
Capitolina (Hadrianic Jerusalem) (135 to
The Byzantine (Early Christian) Period (313–640 C.E.):
Palestine under Christian Rule 333 17
Epilogue: Early Islamic Jerusalem (638–750 C.E.) 349
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.1 Map of the ancient Near East, 2
3.5 Houses at Tel Dor with pier and rubble
1.2 Map of the modern Middle East, 4 construction, 56
1.3 A tel (Beth Shean), 8
3.6 Greek black-glazed and red- and
1.4 Excavated square at an archaeological site black-figured pottery found in Israel, (Huqoq), 10 including a krater (rear center) and an early
2.1 Aerial view of Jerusalem from the south, 21 closed oil lamp (front left), 58
2.2 Topographic map of Jerusalem, 23
3.7 Amphoras, 59
2.3 Map of Iron Age Palestine, 27
3.8 Electrum coin, 60
2.4 Plan of Jerusalem at the end of the First
3.9 Coin of Yahud, 61 Temple period, 30
4.1 Map of Alexander’s Empire, 64
2.5 Diagram of Area G showing the stepped
4.2 Map of Hellenistic Palestine, 69 stone glacis and houses, 31
4.3 Round tower at Samaria, 70
2.6 Bulla of Gemaryahu, son of Shaphan, 33
4.4 Round tower at Caesarea, 71
2.7 Plan of the water systems of biblical
4.5 The “seam” at the southern end of the east Jerusalem, 36 wall of the Temple Mount, showing the 2.8 Section through Warren’s Shaft, showing earlier wall on the right and the Herodian the original system (above), and the later extension on the left, 72 cutting of the floor into the vertical shaft
4.6 The Qasr el-Abd at Iraq el-Amir, 73 (below), 37
4.7 Leopard with spouted mouth in the Qasr
2.9 Plan of the fortifications around the Gihon el-Abd at Iraq el-Amir, 75 spring, 38
4.8 Plan of Hellenistic Marisa, 77
2.10 The inscription from Hezekiah’s Tunnel, 39
4.9 Olive press at Marisa (crushing stone), 78
2.11 The pool of Siloam of the late Second
4.10 Olive press at Marisa (pressing
Temple period, 40 installations), 79
3.1 Map of the Persian Empire, 48
4.11 Columbarium (es-Suk) at Marisa, 80
3.2 Map of Persian Palestine, 51
4.12 Interior of Tomb I at Marisa looking
3.3 Plan of Persian period Jerusalem (time of toward back wall, 81 Nehemiah), 54
4.13 Loculi and painted frieze in Tomb I at 3.4 Monumental staircase of the Samaritan Marisa, 82 temple on Mount Gerizim, 55 ix
List of Illustrations
4.14 Fish plate, 83
7.10 Reconstruction of the Herodian Temple
4.15 Early Hellenistic mold-made oil lamp, 85 Mount, 148
4.16 Coin of Alexander the Great, 85
7.11 The Western Wall, 149
4.17 Line drawing of the Doric order, 88
7.12 Wilson’s Arch, 150
4.18 Line drawing of the Ionic order, 89
7.13 Robinson’s Arch, 151
5.1 Map of the Hasmonean Palestine, 97
7.14 Hulda Gate with steps, 152
5.2 Jason’s Tomb, 99
7.15 The Temple Mount in the Holyland
5.3 Graffiti of ships from Jason’s Tomb, 100 Model, 153
5.4 Theater at Petra, 101
7.16 Soreg inscription in the Istanbul
5.5 The Khazneh at Petra, 102 Archaeological Museum, 155
5.6 Aerial view of the acropolis of Oboda
7.17 Lithostratos pavement, 157 (Avdat), 103
7.18 Arch of Ecce Homo, 159
5.7 Painted Nabataean bowl, 104
7.19 Plan showing alternative lines for the
5.8 Cornucopia lamps, 105 second north wall of Jerusalem according 5.9 Coin of John Hyrcanus I, 105 to the minimalists, 160
5.10 Coin of Mattathias Antigonus with a
7.20 Remains of the Third Wall, 161 depiction of the menorah, 106
7.21 Early Roman pottery including Eastern
6.1 Map of the Dead Sea region, 109
Sigillata A and Herodian oil lamps, 162
6.2 Aerial view of Qumran looking south, 110
7.22 Jerusalem painted bowls, 163
6.3 Cylindrical jar with lid from Qumran, 111
7.23 Roman discus lamp, 164
6.4 Cave 4 at Qumran, 113
7.24 Herodian (wheel-made) lamps, 165
6.5 Table and bench from the “scriptorium” at
7.25 Coin of Herod showing a cap with a Qumran, 114
star, 166
6.6 Broken dishes in the pantry at Qumran, 115
7.26 Coin of the First Jewish Revolt, 166
6.7 Deposit of animal bones covered by
7.27 Judea Capta coin, 167 potsherds found at Qumran, 117
7.28 The Bethesda (Sheep’s) pools, 168
6.8 Miqvehwith earthquake crack at
8.1 Aerial view of Caesarea, 171 Qumran, 119
8.2 Reconstruction of Herod’s harbor at
6.9 Aqueduct cut as a tunnel through a cliff at Caesarea, 173
Qumran, 120
8.3 Vault in the Temple Platform at
6.10 Heaps of stones covering graves in the Caesarea, 174 Qumran cemetery, 121
8.4 Byzantine street at Caesarea flanked by
6.11 The Isaiah Scroll from Cave 1 at
Roman statues, 175
Qumran, 123
8.5 The Pontius Pilate inscription from 6.12 Roman luxury latrine at Ephesus, 127 Caesarea, 176
6.13 Toilet in the house of Ahiel in the City of
8.6 Reconstruction of Herod’s promontory David, 129 palace, 177
7.1 Map of the Roman Empire, 134
8.7 Inscription in the “archives building” at 7.2 Map of Herod’s kingdom, 137 Caesarea, 177
7.3 Plan of Jerusalem at the end of the Second
8.8 View of the Herodian theater and Temple period, 141 hippodrome at Caesarea, 181
7.4 David’s Tower and the First Wall, 142
8.9 The high-level aqueduct at Caesarea
7.5 Stucco room in “the mansion”, 143
showing the two construction
7.6 Mosaic floor and stone table from the phases, 182 Jewish Quarter, 144
8.10 General plan of Sebaste, 183
7.7 Ennion’s glass vase from the Jewish
8.11 The steps of Herod’s temple to Roma and Quarter, 145 Augustus at Samaria, 183
7.8 Stone vessels from the Jewish Quarter, 146
8.12 The colonnaded street at Samaria, 184
7.9 Skeletal arm of a young woman in the
8.13 Reconstruction of Herod’s Third Palace at Burnt House, 147 Jericho, 185 x List of Illustrations
8.14 Aerial view of the northern wing of 11.3 The Tomb of Bene Hezir (left) and the Tomb
Herod’s Third Palace at Jericho, 186
of Zachariah (center), looking east, 235
8.15 Opusreticulatumin the bath house of 11.4 Tomb of Absalom, 237
Herod’s Third Palace at Jericho, 186
11.5 Tomb of Queen Helena with monumental
8.16 Aerial view of Herodium, 187
rock-cut staircase in the foreground, 238
8.17 Section through Upper Herodium, 188
11.6 Interior of a rock-cut tomb with loculi and
8.18 Reconstruction of Herodium including ossuaries, 239
Herod’s tomb, 189
11.7 Inscribed ossuary from the Caiaphas family
9.1 Map of Roman Galilee, 195 tomb, 241
9.2 Aerial view of Sepphoris’ theater and
11.8 Heel bone and nail of a crucified victim acropolis, 197 from Jerusalem (upper right), next to a
9.3 Mosaic floor in the Villa of Dionysos at
modern reconstruction, 247
Sepphoris, 198
11.9 The “James ossuary”, 253
9.4 House at Capernaum with a window
12.1 View of Nahal David at Ein Gedi, looking wall, 198 west, 261
9.5 Reconstruction of a house at 12.2 Wooden plate and bowl from the Cave of Capernaum, 199 Letters, 262
9.6 View of Gamla looking west, 201
12.3 Glass plates from the Cave of Letters,
9.7 The Sea of Galilee boat, 202 Judean desert with their original palm fiber
10.1 Aerial view of Masada from the wrapping, 263 northwest, 205
12.4 Bronze jugs from the Cave of Letters, 264
10.2 View of the northern palace complex
12.5 Wool mantle from the Cave of Letters, 265 looking south, 206
12.6 Bar-Kokhba letter from the Cave of Letters, 10.3 Reconstruction of the northern requesting the four species, 266 palace, 207
12.7 Daromoil lamps, 267
10.4 Lowest terrace of the northern palace with 12.8 Bar-Kokhba coins, 268 wall-paintings and stuccoed
12.9 Bar-Kokhba coin showing the temple columns, 209 fac¸ade, 268
10.5 Caldariumin the large bath house, 211
13.1 Plan of Aelia Capitolina, 272
10.6 Mosaic floor in the western palace, 212
13.2 The Madaba map, 273
10.7 Southern cistern, 213
13.3 Jerusalem in the Madaba map, 274
10.8 Plan of the Roman siege works at
13.4 Remains of the Hadrianic gate at the Masada, 217
Damascus Gate (lower left), 275
10.9 View of Camp F looking west, 218
13.5 Reconstruction of the Hadrianic gate at the 10.10 The praetoriumand tribunal in Camp
Damascus Gate, 276 F, 219
13.6 Oval plaza at Jerash, 277
10.11 Painted amphoriskosfrom the praetoriumin
13.7 Mithraic vase from Clermont-Ganneau’s Camp F, 220 excavations by the Via Dolorosa, 278
10.12 Contuberniumin Camp F, with a book on 13.8 The remains in the Russian Alexander the bench for scale, 220
Hospice showing the steps of the 10.13 Arrowhead from Yadin’s excavations at Hadrianic/Constantinian basilica (right) Masada, 221
and adjacent threshold with image of the
10.14 Scales of armor from Yadin’s excavations at crucified Jesus, 279 Masada, 222
13.9 Remains of Jerusalem’s main cardo, 283
10.15 Scabbard chape from Yadin’s excavations
14.1 The Theodotus inscription, 289 at Masada, 223
14.2 Aerial view of the synagogue at
11.1 Burial cave at Ketef Hinnom with rock-cut Masada, 290 benches, 231
14.3 The Gamla synagogue, 291
11.2 Reconstruction of the Mausoleum at 14.4 Aerial view of the synagogue at Halicarnassos, 233 Capernaum, 295 xi
List of Illustrations
14.5 Corinthian capital from Capernaum with a
15.5 South fac¸ade of the Church of the Holy menorah, 295
Sepulcher, 327
14.6 Relief from Capernaum showing the Ark of 15.6 Inscription from the Nea Church, 329 the Covenant/Torah shrine, 296
15.7 Reconstruction of Jerusalem’s main
14.7 Relief from Chorazin showing a head of cardo, 331
Medusa or Helios, 297
16.1 Map of Byzantine Palestine, 334
14.8 Reconstruction of the synagogue at Kfar
16.2 Plan and section of the Constantinian Baram, 297 Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, 335
14.9 Main doorway of the synagogue at Kfar
16.3 Plan of the Justinianic Church of the Baram, 298
Nativity in Bethlehem, 336
14.10 Relief of a Victory from Ephesus, 299
16.4 Interior of the Church of the Nativity in 14.11 Mosaic floor in the nave of the synagogue Bethlehem, 336 at Hammath Tiberias, 300
16.5 Colonnaded street at Beth Shean with the 14.12 Plan of the synagogue at Beth Alpha, 302 tel in the background, 337
14.13 The offering of Isaac and dedicatory
16.6 Tyche mosaic from Beth Shean, 338 inscriptions in the mosaic floor of the
16.7 Western Church (church of Nilus) at synagogue at Beth Alpha, 303 Mampsis, 341
14.14 Drawing of the mosaic floor in the nave of 16.8 Monastery of Mar Saba, 343 the Sepphoris synagogue, 305
16.9 Late Roman Red Ware bowls stamped with 14.15 Mosaic floor in the Jericho synagogue, 307 fish and Christogram motifs, 344
14.16 Christ Pantokrator in the dome of the
16.10 Byzantine pottery including Fine Byzantine church at Daphni in Greece, ca. 1100, 314 Ware, 345
14.17 The west wall of the Dura Europos
16.11 Beth Nattif oil lamps decorated with synagogue with the Torah shrine niche, 315 menorahs, 346
14.18 Interior of the Sardis synagogue looking
16.12 “Candlestick” lamp with a cross and Greek east toward the Torah shrines, 316 inscription, 347
15.1 Statue of the Tetrarchs in Venice, 321
17.1 The Dome of the Rock, 350
15.2 Plan of Byzantine Jerusalem, 324
17.2 Interior of the Dome of the Rock, 351
15.3 Plan of the Constantinian Church of the
17.3 The al-Aqsa mosque, 354 Holy Sepulcher, 325
17.4 Reconstruction of the Umayyad palatial or
15.4 Aediculein the Rotunda of the Church of
administrative buildings around the
the Holy Sepulcher, 326
Temple Mount, 354
xii
PREFACE
For more than twenty years I have wanted to write this book. That’s how long I have been teaching the material covered here as an introductory-level course to undergraduate students. Over the years, repeated proposals that I submitted to various presses were rejected on the grounds that there was not enough demand to make such a textbook profitable. Therefore, I am grateful to Beatrice Rehl at Cambridge University Press for offering me a contract. I also thank Mary Robinson-Mohr and Jason Staples for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.
I got the time I needed to write this book thanks to a Chapman Family Faculty Fellowship at the Institute for the Arts and Humanities (IAH) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The research fund awarded with the fellowship paid for the reproduction rights and preparation of many of the images. My work on the book was enriched by weekly meetings with the other Fellows at the IAH during the fall of 2010. I also wish to thank the faculty and staff of the Department of Religious Studies and Dean William Andrews at UNCChapel Hill for their support, including granting me a leave of absence for the 2010–2011
academic year.
I am grateful to the many friends and colleagues who generously granted
reproduction permission or provided the images that are a key component of this book, including Todd Bolen (BiblePlaces.com), Felicity Cobbings (Palestine Exploration Fund), Gwyn Davies, Hillel Geva (Israel Exploration Society), Gabi Laron (Hebrew University Institute of Archaeology), Leen Ritmeyer, Ronny Reich, Zev Radovan, Hershel Shanks (Biblical Archaeology Society), Zeev Weiss, and Jane Cahill West. I owe special thanks to Jeffrey Becker and Richard Talbert at the Ancient World Mapping Center at UNC-Chapel Hill, who prepared an
original series of maps for this book.
xiii
Preface
This book is informed by decades of learning from teachers, students, colleagues, friends, and family. Although it is impossible to acknowledge them all, I wish to remember some of those who are no longer with us: James A.
Sauer and Keith de Vries, who were my teachers and dissertation advisers at the University of Pennsylvania; my close friend and colleague Hanan Eshel; and my dear friends Tsvi (Harvey) Schneider and Ora Sinai. They had a lasting impact on my life and are deeply missed.
I am fortunate to have a loving and supportive family, including my parents, Herbert and Marlene Magness; my husband, Jim Haberman; and my nephew
Mike Miller. This book is dedicated to Jim, for whose unconditional love and companionship I am grateful. Jim works as the photographer on my excavations, and he gets the credit for preparing many of the illustrations in this book as well.
xiv
INTRODUCTION
In the heart of the ancient Near East (modern Middle East), at a crossroads between once-mighty powers such as Assyria to the east and Egypt to the south, is a tiny piece of land – roughly the size of New Jersey – that is as contested as it is sacred. One cannot even name this territory without sparking controversy.
Originally called Canaan after its early inhabitants (the Canaanites), it has since been known by various names. To Jews this is EretzIsrael(the Land of Israel), the Promised Land described by the Hebrew Bible as flowing with milk and honey.
To Christians it is the Holy Land where Jesus Christ – the messiah, or anointed one – was born, preached, and offered himself as the ultimate sacrifice. Under the Greeks and Romans, it was the province of Judea, a name that hearkened back to the biblical kingdom of Judah. After the Bar-Kokhba Revolt ended in 135 C.E., Hadrian renamed the province Syria-Palestina, reviving the memory of the long-vanished kingdom of Philistia. Under early Islamic rule the military district ( jund) of Filastin was part of the province of Greater Syria (Arabic Biladal-Sham). In this book, the term Palestineis used to denote the area encompassing the modern state of Israel, the Hashemite kingdom of Jordan, and the Palestinian territories.
This book introduces readers to this complex and fascinating land, the birthplace of Judaism and Christianity, drawing on archaeological evidence and literary (historical) information, including the Bible. Archaeological remains give voice to the narratives of forgotten peoples who contributed to its rich cultural tapestry: Phoenicians, Edomites and Idumaeans, Moabites, Ammonites, Ituraeans, Nabataeans, Samaritans, Philistines. Today, scholars generally use the term “biblical archaeology” to refer to the archaeology of Palestine in the Bronze Age (ca. 3000–1200 B.C.E.) and Iron Age (ca.
1200–586 B.C.E.) – that is, the Old Testament period, when the land was inhabited by Canaanites and 1
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EADACHE , 401-414
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403 , 404 of rheumatic, pyrexial, and syphilitic form,
403 of sympathetic form,
404 Synonyms,
401 Treatment,
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syphilis, 1003 in children,
405 in chronic cerebral meningitis, 722 in external pachymeningitis,
705 in hæmatoma of the dura mater,
707 in hyperæmia of the brain,
770
in the chloral habit,
in the opium habit,
in thermic fever, 390 in tubercular meningitis,
,
in tumors of the brain, 1033 spinal cord,
periodical or sick, 1216 , 1230
Head-pressure, sense of, in cerebral hyperæmia, 769
Hearing, disorders of, in alcoholism, 623 in Bell's palsy, 1204 in cerebral hyperæmia, 772
in hemiplegia, 955 in neuralgia, 1213 in progressive unilateral facial atrophy, 698 in tumors of the brain, 1030 , 1043 Heart, disorders of, in angina pectoris, 1237 in chronic alcoholism,
610-612 in disease of cervical sympathetic, 1265 in labio-glosso-laryngeal paralysis, 1171 in neurasthenia, 356 in tabes dorsalis, 836 in the chloral habit, 662 in the opium habit, 654 ,
, 659 influence on causation of embolism and thrombosis of cerebral veins, 951 of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy, 930
Heat, affections produced by exposure to,
Heat, use of, in concussion of the spine, 911
Hebephrenia, 171
Hemianæsthesia, hysterical, 247
Hemianopsia in nervous diseases, 39 , 40 in tumors of the brain,
1030 , 1042
Hemicrania angio-paralytica, 409 , 411 spastica, 409 , 411
Hemiparaplegia in nervous diseases, 44
Hemiplegia, hysterical, 238
in cerebral hemorrhage and occlusion of cerebral vessels, 940 , 954 in cerebral meningeal hemorrhage, 712 in infantile spinal paralysis, 1120 varieties in nervous diseases, 42 , 43
Hemispasm in nervous diseases,
45
Hemorrhage as a cause of cerebral anæmia, 776
cerebral meningeal, 710
intracranial, 918
spinal meningeal, 754
Hemorrhages of spinal cord, 808
Hemorrhagic pachymeningitis, 707
Hepatitis, parenchymatous and interstitial, in chronic alcoholism, 604
Hereditary alcoholism, 634
Ataxia, 870
Tabes, 870
Heredity, influence on causation of alcoholism,
576 of angina pectoris, 1238 of cerebral hyperæmia,
765 of chorea,
440 of chronic hydrocephalus, 741 of copodyscinesia, 513 of epilepsy, 468
of general paralysis of the insane,
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113 of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy, 929 of migraine, 407 , 1231 of neuralgia, 1216
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1000 of tabes dorsalis,
851 of tremor,
429 of tubercular meningitis, 724 of tumors of the brain, 1029
History of alcoholism, 574 of catalepsy,
of chorea,
439 of chronic lead-poisoning,
678 of ecstasy,
399 of epilepsy,
467 of general paralysis of the insane,
176 of hysteria,
207
of hystero-epilepsy,
of insanity, 109 of labio-glosso-laryngeal paralysis, 1169 of neural disorders of writers and artisans, 504 of progressive unilateral facial atrophy, 693 of spina bifida, 757 of symmetrical gangrene, 1257