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Surgical Intensive Care Medicine

Third Edition

Surgical Intensive Care Medicine

Surgical Intensive Care Medicine

Third Edition

Department of Surgical Critical Care

Lahey Hospital and Medical Center

Burlington, MA, USA

University Hospital

Federal University of Rio de Janeiro

Surgical Critical Care Medicine

Pró-Cardíaco Hospital

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

ISBN 978-3-319-19667-1

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19668-8

ISBN 978-3-319-19668-8 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016943138

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2001

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

This book is dedicated to my wife, Rocky, and daughter, Jacquelyn, who give me purpose; to my beloved parents, Kay and Frank “Shorty” O’Donnell, who never lost faith; to my mentors, medical students, and residents, whose patience was tested every day; and to all of the nurses who have ever cared for patients in the surgical intensive care unit at the Lahey Hospital and Medical Center.

To my parents Lilian and Jacob, for showing me that possibilities are infinite; To my wife Alessandra, for her unconditional love; To my children Mariana and Rafael, for enriching my life and making everything worthwhile;

And to my brother Luis and my uncle Sabino, for showing me that medical practice should be guided by kindness, knowledge, ethics, and common sense; with admiration.

Preface

We are honored to present the third edition of Surgical Intensive Care Medicine and we are very grateful for the enthusiastic reception with which the academic community received the first two editions. Most considered them to be important contributions to the critical care literature. Although the basic organization of our new book remains unchanged, being composed of 63 carefully selected chapters divided into 11 parts, the chapters have been largely rewritten to include the many important advances that have been made and the controversies that have arisen over the past few years. While the chapters discuss definitions, pathophysiology, clinical course, complications, and prognosis, the primary emphasis is devoted to patient management. We have been extremely fortunate to attract a truly exceptional group of contributors, many of whom are nationally and internationally recognized researchers, speakers, and practitioners in the field of critical care medicine. An important feature of this edition is the geographical diversity of authors. Most are based in the USA but colleagues from Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and the UK have also made notable contributions. The book is written for medical students, residents, fellows, practitioners, and for all health care professionals involved in the care of the critically ill surgical patient. We are fortunate to have Springer as our publisher and we are especially thankful to our chapter authors and their families. We anticipate that our book will be both educational and enjoyable and it is our hope that both our readers and their patients will benefit.

John M. O’Donnell, MD

Flávio E. Nácul, MD, PhD Burlington, MA, USA Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Acknowledgements

We would first like to thank Springer Publishing Company for giving us the opportunity and providing the support necessary to develop the third edition of Surgical Intensive Care Medicine. We are forever grateful to Barbara Murphy, Melissa Ramondetta, and Paula Callaghan for helping us with the publications of our first two editions. It is difficult to adequately express our appreciation and thanks to Lorraine Coffey, to whom we are indebted for her assistance, advice, and friendship during the preparation of this present text. Without her dedicated help, completion of this project would not have been possible. Lastly, we are especially grateful to the many colleagues who helped us by offering recommendations for improving the content and format of our textbook.

16

17

Zarina S. Ali and Robert G. Whitmore

Katja E. Wartenberg

18 Hemorrhagic Stroke ................................................................................................

Katja E. Wartenberg

19 Status Epilepticus

Andreas H. Kramer and Thomas P. Bleck

20 Delirium ....................................................................................................................

Bjoern Weiss, Alawi Lütz, and Claudia Spies

Part III

21

Daniela M. Darrah and Robert N. Sladen

22 Postoperative Myocardial Infarction .....................................................................

Glynne D. Stanley and Sundara K. Rengasamy

23 Postoperative Arrhythmias: Diagnosis and Management....................................

Eugene H. Chung and David T. Martin

Part IV Pulmonary Medicine

24 Acute Respiratory

Luca M. Bigatello and Rae M. Allain

25

26

Virginia Radcliff and Neil MacIntyre

John M. O’Donnell 27

J. Borromeo

28 Sepsis .........................................................................................................................

29

Patricia Mello, Dimitri Gusmao-Flores, and R. Phillip Dellinger

Donald E. Craven and Kathleen A. Craven

30 Pneumonia

Jana Hudcova, Kathleen A. Craven, and Donald E. Craven

31 Intra-abdominal

Reuben D. Shin and Peter W. Marcello

32 Evaluation of the Febrile Patient in the Intensive Care Unit ...............................

François Philippart, Alexis Tabah, and Jean Carlet

33 Antimicrobial Use in Surgical Intensive

Robert A. Duncan

49 Postoperative Care Following Major Vascular Surgery ....................................... 669

Elrasheed S. Osman and Thomas F. Lindsay

50 Postoperative Care After Bariatric Surgery .......................................................... 679

Fredric M. Pieracci, Alfons Pomp, and Philip S. Barie

51 Care of the Organ Donor......................................................................................... 693

Marie R. Baldisseri and Younghoon Kwon

52 Postoperative Care of the Heart Transplant Patient ............................................ 701

Aida Suarez Barrientos, Georgios Karagiannis, and Nicholas R. Banner

53 Postoperative Care of the Lung-Transplant Patient ............................................. 731

Wickii T. Vigneswaran and Sangeeta M. Bhorade

Part XI Additional Topics

54 Management of the Critically Ill Geriatric Patient .............................................. 743 Paul E. Marik

55 Critical Care Issues in Oncologic Surgery Patients .............................................. 759

Kunal P. Patel, Kaye Hale, and Stephen M. Pastores

56 Echocardiography in the Critically Ill ................................................................... 771

Viviane G. Nasr, Anam Pal, Mario Montealegre-Gallegos, and Robina Matyal

57 Point-of-Care Ultrasound ........................................................................................ 787

Peter E. Croft and Vicki E. Noble

58 Scoring Systems and Outcome Prediction ............................................................. 817

Rui P. Moreno, Susana Afonso, and Bruno Maia

59 Long-Term Outcomes After Intensive Care .......................................................... 825 Hans Flaatten

60 Ethics in the Intensive Care Unit ............................................................................ 837 Dan R. Thompson

61 Triage of Surgical Patients for Intensive Care ...................................................... 851 Julia Sobol and Hannah Wunsch

62 Improving the Quality of Care in the ICU............................................................. 861

Asad Latif, Bradford Winters, Sean M. Berenholtz, and Christine Holzmueller

63 Continuing Education in Critical Care Medicine ................................................. 873 Todd Dorman and Michael C. Banks Index .... 883

Contributors

Susana Afonso, MD Neurointensive Care Unit, Hospital de São José, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Central, E.P.E., Lisbon, Portugal

Zarina S. Ali, MD Department of Neurosurgery, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Rae M. Allain, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

Shaan Alli, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Rashid Alobaidi, MD Department of Pediatrics and Critical Care Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Sana Ata, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Interventional Pain Management, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Hollmann D. Aya, MD, EDIC. Adult Intensive Care Directorate, St George’s University Hospital, NHS Foundation Trust and University of London, London, UK

Ruben J. Azocar, MD, FCCM Department of Anesthesiology, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Daniel de Backer, MD, PhD. Department of Intensive Care, CHIREC Hospitals, Univerisité Libre de Bruxelles (ULB)35 rue Wayez1420, Braine L’Alleud, Belgium

Sean M. Bagshaw, MD, MSc Department of Critical Care Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

Marie R. Baldisseri, MD, MPH, FCCM University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Michael C. Banks, MD Department of Anesthesiology & Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

Shawn E. Banks, MD Department of Anesthesiology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA

Nicholas R. Banner, MD, FRCP Harefield Hospital, Royal Brompton and Harefield Hospital NHS Foundation, Middlesex, UK

Philip S. Barie, MD, MBA, Master CCM, FIDSA, FACS New York-Presbyterian Hospital/ Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

Aida Suarez Barrientos, MD Royal Brompton and Harefield Hospital NHS Foundation, Harefield Hospital, Middlesex, UK

Sean M. Berenholtz, MD MHS FCCM Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Armstrong Institute for Patient Safety and Quality, Baltimore, MD, USA

Greet Van den Berghe, MD, PhD. Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University Hospital KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Sangeeta M. Bhorade, MD Section of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Division of Medicine, Northwestern Memorial Hospital, Chicago, IL, USA

Luca M. Bigatello, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

Thomas P. Bleck, MD, MCCM, FNSC Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL, USA

Victor A. van Bochove, MSc Department of Anesthesiology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Carl J. Borromeo, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Bernd W. Böttiger, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, Köln, Germany

Jean Carlet, MD Department of Medical-Surgical Intensive Care Medicine, Groupe Hospitalier Paris Saint Joseph, Paris, France

Eugene H. Chung, MD, MSc Division of Cardiology, Cardiac Electrophysiology, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Leanne Clifford, BM, MSc Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA

Jeremy Cohen, MBBS, MD(Int.Med), FRCA, FFARCSI Burns, Trauma and Critical Care Research Centre, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia

Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Elifçe O. Cosar, MD Department of Anesthesiology, UMass Memorial Medical Center, Worcester, MA, USA

Donald E. Craven, MD, FACP, FIDSA, FRCP(C) Infectious Diseases Research & Prevention, Lahey Health Medical Center & Hospital, Burlington, MA, USA

Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

Visiting Scientist, Harvard T. H. Chen School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

Kathleen A. Craven, RN, BS, MPH Preventionist and Public Health Consultant, Wellesley, MA, USA

Peter E. Croft, BA, MD Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

Daniela M. Darrah, MD Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

R. Phillip Dellinger, MD Department of Medicine, Cooper Medical School of Rowan University, Cooper University Hospital, Camden, NJ, USA

Theodore R. Delmonico, MD Department of General Surgery, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Peter K. Dempsey, MD Department of Neurosurgery, Lahey Hospital & Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Katia Donadello, MD Department of Intensive Care, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata (AOUI) di Verona, Verona, Italy

Dipartimento ad Attività Integrata (DAI) di Emergenza e Terapie Intensive, U.O.C. Anestesia e Rianimazione B, Verona, Italy

Todd Dorman, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Surgery and the School of Nursing, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

Robert A. Duncan, MD, MPH Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA Center for Infectious Diseases & Prevention, Lahey Hospital & Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Paul W.G. Elbers, MD, PhD Department of Intensive Care Medicine, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Monique Espinosa, MD Department of Anesthesiology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA

Hans Flaatten, MD, PhD General Intensive Care Unit, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway

Rainer Gatz, MD Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Herlev Hospital, Herlev, Denmark

Joshua M. Glazer, MD Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Joshua C. Grimm, MD Division of Cardiac Surgery, Department of Surgery, The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA

Kyle J. Gunnerson, MD Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Emergency Critical Care, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Dimitri Gusmao-Flores, MD Hospital Universitário Prof. Edgar Santos, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

Kaye Hale, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Memorial SloanKettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA

Naomi E. Hammond, BN, MN (Crit. Care), MPH Malcolm Fisher Department of Intensive Care, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW, Australia

Stephen O. Heard, MD Department of Anesthesiology, UMass Memorial Medical Center, Worcester, MA, USA

Christine Holzmueller, BLA Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Armstrong Institute for Patient Safety and Quality, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

Jana Hudcova, MD Department of Surgical Critical Care, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Steven W. Hwang, MD Department of Neurosurgery, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Larry M. Jones, MD Department of Surgery, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA

Georgios Karagiannis, MD Royal Brompton and Harefield Hospital NHS Foundation, Harefield Hospital, Middlesex, UK

Andrew W. Kirkpatrick, MD, MHSc Department of Surgery and the Regional Trauma Program, University of Calgary and the Foothills Medical Centre, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Daryl J. Kor, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA

Andreas H. Kramer, MD, MSc, FRCPC Department of Critical Care Medicine & Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Foothills Medical Center, Calgary, AB, Canada

Catherine Kuza, MD Department of Anesthesiology, UMass Memorial Medical Center, Worcester, MA, USA

Younghoon Kwon, MD Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

Asad Latif, MD, MPH Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Armstrong Institute for Patient Safety and Quality, Baltimore, MD, USA

Marcel Levi, MD, PhD Department of Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Thomas F. Lindsay, MDCM, MSc, FRCS, FACS Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

R. Fraser Elliot Chair in Vascular Surgery, Peter Munk Cardiac Centre, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada

Alawi Lüetz, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, CharitéUniversitaetsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Neil MacIntyre, MD Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA

Sohail K. Mahboobi, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

Bruno Maia, MD Neurointensive Care Unit, Hospital de São José, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Central, E.P.E., Lisbon, Portugal

Manu L.N.G. Malbrain, MD, PhD Department of Intensive Care, Ziekenhuis Netwerk Antwerpen, Antwerpen, Belgium

Sara A. Mansfield, MD Department of General Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Peter W. Marcello, MD Department of Colon and Rectal Surgery, Lahey Hospital & Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Paul E. Marik, MD, FCCM Department of Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA

Michael B. Maron, PhD Department of Integrative Medical Sciences, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH, USA

David T. Martin, MD, FRCP, FACP, FACC, FHRS Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Burlington, MA, USA

Robina Matyal, MD Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Mario Montealegre-Gallegos, MD Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Rui P. Moreno, MD, PhD Neurointensive Care Unit, Hospital de São José, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Central, E.P.E., Lisbon, Portugal

John A. Myburgh, AO, MBBCh, PhD, FCICM Department of Intensive Care Medicine, St George Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Flávio E. Nácul, MD, PhD Critical Care Medicine, University Hospital, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro; Surgical Critical Care Medicine, Pró-Cardíaco Hospital, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Viviane G. Nasr, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

Vicki E. Noble, MD Department of Emergency Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

John M. O’Donnell, MD Division of Surgery, Department of Surgical Critical Care, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Steven M. Opal, MD Division of Infectious Diseases, The Memorial Hospital of Rhode Island-Brown University, Pawtucket, RI, USA

Rafael A. Ortega, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Elrasheed S. Osman, MBBS, FRCSI Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada

Anam Pal, MD Division of Cardiac Surgery, Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

Stephen M. Pastores, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA

Kunal P. Patel, MD Department of Critical Care Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

François Philippart, MD, PhD Department of Medical-Surgical Intensive Care Medicine, Groupe Hospitalier Paris Saint Joseph, Paris, France

Frank M. Phillips, BSc, MBBS, MRCP Department of Gastroenterology, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK

Fredric M. Pieracci, MD, MPH University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, CO, USA

Martijn Poeze, MD, PhD Department of Surgery and Intensive Care Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands

Alfons Pomp, MD Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York Presbyterian Hospital, New York, NY, USA

Erik Popp, MD Department of Anesthesiology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany

Virginia Radcliff, MD Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA

Jason Pierce Rahal, MD Department of Neurosurgery, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Tony M. Rahman, MA, DIC, PhD, FFICM, FRCP, FRACP Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Sundara K. Rengasamy, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Andrew Rhodes, MD, FRCA, FRCP, FFICM Adult Critical Care, St George’s University Hospital, NHS Foundation Trust and University of London, London, UK

Emanuel P. Rivers, MD, MPH Department of Emergency Medicine and Surgical Critical Care, Henry Ford Hospital, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA

Derek J. Roberts, BSc(Pharm), MD, PhD(Cand) Departments of Surgery and Community Health Sciences (Division of Epidemiology), Intensive Care Unit Administration, Foothills Medical Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Gerardo Rodriguez, MD Department of Anesthesiology, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA

Michael S. Rosenblatt, MD, MPH, MBA Department of General Surgery, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Manoj Saxena, MBBChir, BSc Department of Intensive Care Medicine, St. George Hospital, Kogarah, NSW, Australia

Andreas Schneider, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, Köln, Germany

Reuben D. Shin, MD Department of General Surgery, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Robert N. Sladen, MBChB, MRCP(UK), FRCP[C] Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

Julia Sobol, MD, MPH Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

Claudia Spies, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Charité Campus Mitte and Charité Virchow Klinikum, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany

Glynne D. Stanley, MBChB, FRCA Plexus Anesthesia Services Management, Westwood, MA, USA

Genevra L. Stone, MD Graduate of Tufts University School of Medicine Class of 2014, Boston, MA, USA

Alexis Tabah, MD Burns Trauma and Critical Care Research Centre, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia

Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Steven Thiessen, MD Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University Hospital KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Dan R. Thompson, MD, MA, MCCM Department of Surgery, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, USA

Sam Thomson, MD, MBBS, MRCP Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Western Sussex Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Worthing Hospital, West Sussex, UK

Pieter Roel Tuinman, MD, PhD Department of Intensive Care Medicine, VU University Medical Center, The Netherlands

Ilse Vanhorebeek, MEng, PhD Clinical Division and Laboratory of Intensive Care Medicine, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University Hospital KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Albert J. Varon, MD, MHPE, FCCM Department of Anesthesiology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA

Patricia Mello, MD Hospital Getulio Vargas, Universidade Federal do Piauí, Teresina, Brazil

Bala Venkatesh, MBBS, MD(Int.Med), FRCA, FFARCSI Wesley Hospital, Auchenflower, QLD, Australia

Princess Alexandra Hospital, Harlow, UK University of Quensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

José Mauro Vieira Jr. , MD, PhD Critical Care Medicine, Hospital Sírio Libanês, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

Wickii T. Vigneswaran, MD Department of Surgery, University of Chicago Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA

Andrew G. Villanueva, MD Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

Jan J. De Waele, MD, PhD Department of Critical Care Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium

Katja E. Wartenberg, MD, PhD Neurointensive Care Unit, Department of Neurology, Martin-Luther-University, Halle, Germany

Bjoern Weiss, MD Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Charité Campus Mitte and Charité Virchow Klinikum, Charité-Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany

Jan Wernerman, MD, PhD Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden

Glenn J.R. Whitman, MD Division of Cardiac Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA

Robert G. Whitmore, MD Department of Neurosurgery, Lahey Hospital and Health System, Tufts University School of Medicine, Burlington, MA, USA

Bradford Winters, MD, PhD Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Armstrong Institute for Patient Safety and Quality, Baltimore, MD, USA

Hannah Wunsch, MD, MSc Department of Critical Care Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre and Department of Anesthesia, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Supplemental Oxygen Therapy

Oxygen is the most commonly used medication in intensive care units. Intensivists caring for critically ill patients in a surgical intensive care unit continually face multiple diverse and challenging problems regarding adequacy of oxygen therapy. A fundamental goal is to provide adequate cellular respiration and thereby maintain sufficient tissue oxygenation and normal organ function. Routinely supplemental oxygen is being used in settings of normal oxygen saturation believing it will increase oxygen delivery to the tissues. Hyperoxia in the setting of decrease perfusion can result in hyperoxia-induced tissue injury, and this narrow margin of safety makes it important for intensivists to understand all aspects of oxygen therapy. Successful cellular oxygenation depends on the maintenance of several factors, including adequate alveolar ventilation, a functioning gas-exchange surface, the capacity to transport oxygen to the tissue, and intact tissue respiration (the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase system). Subsequent chapters in this textbook describe problems with each of these factors and how intensivists should approach and manage them. This chapter focuses on alveolar ventilation and how to use supplemental oxygen therapy to improve arterial oxygenation in patients who are hypoxemic but do not require mechanical ventilation.

Indications of Oxygen Therapy

The most common and important indication of oxygenation therapy is the prevention and correction of hypoxemia aiming to avoidance or treatment of tissue hypoxia. Other indications for oxygen therapy include suspected hypoxemia, acute myocardial infarction, severe trauma, and postoperative recovery from anesthesia. Early clinical findings associated with hypoxemia include tachycardia, tachypnea, increased blood pressure, restlessness, disorientation, headache, impaired judgment, and confusion. Some patients may become euphoric and lack the classic signs and symptoms of hypoxemia. Severe hypoxemia is associated with slow and irregular respirations, bradycardia, hypotension, convulsions, and coma.

Pathophysiology of Hypoxemia

A.G. Villanueva, MD

Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

S.K. Mahboobi, MD (*)

Department of Anesthesiology, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, 41 Mall Road, Burlington, MA 01805, USA

Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA

e-mail: Sohail.mahboobi@lahey.org

S. Ata, MD

Department of Anesthesiology and Interventional Pain Management, Lahey Hospital and Medical Center, Burlington, MA, USA

e-mail: sana.ata@lahey.org

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Hypoxemia and hypoxia are not synonymous. Hypoxemia is defined as a relative deficiency of oxygen in the arterial blood as measured by arterial oxygen tension (PaO2). Hypoxia is defined as inadequate oxygen tension at the cellular level. Currently, there is no way for clinicians to directly measure hypoxia, and the diagnosis must be made indirectly based on the assessment of organ function, oxygen delivery, and mixed venous oxygen tension. Patients may have hypoxia without hypoxemia, but patients cannot have sustained severe hypoxemia without developing hypoxia. It is thus imperative to promptly treat patients who have significant hypoxemia with supplemental oxygen.

The PaO2 is determined by the inspired oxygen tension, the alveolar ventilation, and the distribution of ventilation and perfusion (V/Q) in the lungs. The five major mechanisms of hypoxemia are (1) decreased ambient fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), (2) alveolar hypoventilation, (3) diffusion limitation across the alveolar–capillary membrane, (4) shunt, and (5) V/Q mismatch [1]. Decreased ambient FiO2 is generally not a cause, unless the altitude is very high.

J.M. O’Donnell, F.E. Nácul (eds.), Surgical Intensive Care Medicine, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19668-8_1

Pure alveolar hypoventilation is often related to drug overdose, the excess use of medications that suppress the respiratory drive such as opiates or benzodiazepines, or catastrophic events of the central nervous system such as head trauma, stroke, subarachnoid hemorrhage, subdural hematoma, or cerebral edema. The hypoxemia is caused by a decrease in the alveolar oxygen tension (PAO2), which can be measured using the alveolar gas equation:

POPBPaCOR FiO A222 47 =-() - /

where FiO2 is the fraction of inspired oxygen (expressed as a decimal), (PB − 47) is the barometric pressure minus water vapor pressure, PaCO2 is the arterial carbon dioxide tension, and R is the respiratory quotient (usually 0.8). Clinically, hypoventilation results in a decreased PaO2 and an elevated PaCO2. With hypoventilation, however, the alveolar–arterial oxygen gradient ([A − a]O2) and the arterial–alveolar ratio (PaO2/PAO2) are normal (2.5 + [0.21 × age] mmHg, and 0.77–0.82, respectively). Diffusion limitation across the alveolar–capillary membrane, shunt, and V/Q mismatch all causes an abnormal [A − a]O2 and PaO2/PAO2

Diffusion limitation across the alveolar–capillary membrane can be caused by pulmonary edema fluid or interstitial fibrotic tissue between the alveolar epithelium and the capillary endothelium. This impaired oxygen exchange is worsened as blood transit time through the pulmonary capillaries decreases, such as during exercise. Arterial hypoxemia secondary to diffusion defects is not common but is responsive to an increase in PAO2 using supplemental oxygen therapy.

True shunt occurs when right-heart blood enters the left heart without an increase in oxygen content because the blood does not interact with alveolar gas (zero V/Q). The shunt can be intracardiac (e.g., atrial septal defect, patent foramen ovale) or intrapulmonary. Causes of intrapulmonary shunting include alveolar collapse, which occurs with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), complete lobar collapse due to retained respiratory secretions, pulmonary arterial-venous malformations, and pulmonary capillary dilatation, as is sometimes seen in liver disease (the so-called hepatopulmonary syndrome) [2]. Oxygen therapy is of limited benefit with significantly increased shunt because, regardless of the FiO2, oxygen transfer cannot occur when blood does not come into contact with functional alveolar units. Therefore, true shunt pathology is refractory to oxygen therapy. The shunt, however, can be improved if the cause is lobar or alveolar collapse. Lobar lung collapse can often be reversed with appropriate bronchial hygiene or removal of the source of obstruction. Alveolar collapse resulting from destabilization of the alveolar architecture due to disruption of the surfactant layer, such as with acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), can improve with the use of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), but this requires mechanical ventilation.

V/Q mismatch is defined as an imbalance between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary blood flow. A detailed explanation of why V/Q mismatch results in hypoxemia is beyond the scope of this chapter (see Chap. 7), but this mechanism is believed to be the most common cause of hypoxemia [3, 4]. V/Q mismatching can result from an array of disorders such as bronchospasm, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchial secretions, mild pulmonary edema, interstitial lung disease, venous thromboembolism, pleural effusion, pulmonary contusion, aspiration of gastric contents, and pneumonia, to name just a few. The hallmark of hypoxemia due to V/Q mismatch is that it improves with oxygen therapy. In contrast to shunt, an increase in the FiO2 causes a substantial increase in PaO2

Goals of Supplemental Oxygen Therapy

A constant supply of oxygen is required for proper tissue function as it is not stored. An adequately functioning cardiovascular system is required for adequate delivery of oxygen to the tissues. Oxygen supply must match the metabolic demand by tissues; otherwise organ dysfunction may occur. Oxygen delivery is the total amount of oxygen delivered to tissues and is described by the equation:

DOCaOCO 22=´

where DO2 is oxygen delivery in ml/m, CaO2 is arterial oxygen content, and CO is cardiac output. Arterial oxygen content can be calculated by following equation:

CaOSaOHgPaO2221390003 =´´+´

where SaO2 is arterial oxygen saturation, Hg is hemoglobin, 1.39 is oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin, PaO2 is arterial partial pressure of oxygen, and 0.003 is solubility coefficient of oxygen in plasma. In healthy persons DO2 is more than oxygen consumption, but in critical illness, the ability of tissues to extract oxygen is not efficient. The purpose of oxygen therapy is to correct hypoxemia by achieving a PaO2 ≥ 60 mmHg or an arterial oxygen saturation of ≥90 % [5]. Little additional benefit is gained from further increases because of the functional characteristics of hemoglobin (Fig. 1.1). Different criteria are used for patients with COPD and chronic carbon dioxide retention. In these patients, values that define hypoxemia are PaO2 of 50–55 mmHg, corresponding to arterial oxygen saturation 88–90 % [6]. These target values for PaO2 or arterial oxygen saturation assume the presence of normally functioning hemoglobin. In situations with abnormal hemoglobins that cannot effectively bind oxygen, such as methemoglobinemia or carbon monoxide poisoning, even supranormal PaO2 values may be

Fig. 1.1 The normal oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve for humans. The reversible chemical reaction between O2 and hemoglobin is defined by the oxyhemoglobin equilibrium curve, which relates the percent saturation of hemoglobin to the PaO2. Because of the characteristic sigmoid shape, the affinity for O2 progressively increases as successive molecules of O2 combine with hemoglobin. There are physiologic advantages in that the flat upper portion allows arterial O2 content to remain high and virtually constant (>90 %) despite fluctuations in arterial PaO2 (60–100 mmHg), and the middle steep segment enables large quantities of O2 to be released at the PaO2 prevailing in the peripheral capillaries

associated with a reduction in available hemoglobin and resultant lower oxygen content [7–9].

Oxygen Delivery Systems

Oxygen delivery systems can be classified as low-flow (or variable performance) and high-flow (or fixed performance) systems. Low-flow systems provide small amounts of 100 % oxygen as a supplement, with FiO2 determined by the patient’s pattern of breathing and minute ventilation. The greater portion of the inspired volume is obtained from room air. High-flow systems, on the other hand, are designed to supply premixed oxygen in volumes that provide the patient’s total ventilatory requirements. An advantage of high-flow systems is that the level of FiO2 remains constant regardless of any changes that may occur in the ventilatory pattern [10]. In this section these two types of oxygen delivery systems will be discussed, as well as delivery systems for helium–oxygen gas mixtures and for oxygen via positive pressure devices using a mask device instead of an endotracheal tube—so-called noninvasive ventilation (NIV).

Low-Flow Systems

Low-flow oxygen devices are the most commonly used because of their simplicity and ease of use, healthcare providers’ familiarity with the system, low cost, and patient acceptance.

Nasal Cannula

The most frequently used low-flow oxygen delivery system consists of a pronged nasal cannula to deliver 100 % oxygen at flow rates of 0.5–6 L/min, delivering an FiO2 ranging from 0.24 to 0.40. Patients generally cannot tolerate an oxygen flow rate of more than 6 L/min from the nasal cannula because of nasal discomfort. If the oxygen flow rate exceeds 4 L/min, the gases should be humidified to prevent drying of the nasal mucosa. As a rule, FiO2 increases by approximately 0.03–0.04 for each increase of 1 L/min in the oxygen flow rate, up to about 0.40 at 6 L/min (Table 1.1). However, in clinical practice this rule of thumb cannot be applied with confidence, because of variations in individual patients’ breathing patterns. To be effective, the patient’s nasal passages must be patent to allow filling of the anatomic reservoir. The patient, however, does not need to breathe through the nose, because oxygen is entrained from the anatomic reservoir even in the presence of mouth breathing.

The nasal cannula is advantageous because of the comfort and convenience it affords—the patient may eat, speak, and cough with it in place. Except for irritation of the nasal mucosa at higher flow rates and an occasional reaction to

Predicted FiO2 values for low-flow systems assume a normal and stable pattern of ventilation [11]

Table 1.1 Flow rates and FiO2 with low-flow oxygen delivery devices

chemical components of the tubing, cannulas are well tolerated. The physiologic disadvantage of cannula use is that FiO2 varies with the patient’s breathing pattern, and calculations requiring accurate FiO2 data cannot be made. In most patients with mild hypoxemia, precise knowledge of FiO2 is unnecessary and clinical improvement occurs rapidly.

Simple Face Mask

A simple oxygen mask is a low-flow system that delivers approximately 35–50 % oxygen at flow rates of 5 L/min or greater. The mask provides a reservoir (100–200 mL) next to the patient’s face to increase the fraction of oxygen in the tidal volume. The open ports in the sides of the mask allow entrainment of room air and venting of exhaled gases. Because the mask fits over the nose and mouth, the volume it contains may increase ventilatory dead space; flow rates of 5 L/min or greater are required to keep the mask flushed [12]. Flow rates greater than 8 L/min do not increase the FiO2 significantly above 0.6 (Table 1.1). The disadvantages of using this device include the resultant variable FiO2 and the fact that it must be removed for eating or drinking.

Partial Rebreathing Mask

Partial rebreathing and nonrebreathing masks with 600–1000-mL reservoir bags (Fig. 1.2) can deliver high inspired oxygen concentrations of greater than 50 % with low flow rates [6]. In partial rebreathing masks, the first one-third of the patient’s exhaled gas fills the reservoir bag (Fig. 1.3). Because this gas is primarily from anatomic dead space, it contains little carbon dioxide. With the next breath, the patient inhales a mixture of the exhaled gas and fresh gas. If the fresh gas flows are equal to or greater than 8 L/min and the reservoir bag remains inflated throughout the entire respiratory cycle, adequate carbon dioxide evacuation and the highest possible FiO2 should occur (Table 1.1). The rebreathing capacity of this system allows some degree of oxygen conservation, which may be useful while transporting patients with portable oxygen supplies [11].

Nonrebreathing Mask

A nonrebreathing mask is similar to a partial rebreathing mask but with the addition of three unidirectional valves (Fig. 1.4). Two of the valves are located on opposite sides of the mask; they permit venting of exhaled gas and prevent entrainment of room air. The remaining unidirectional valve is located between the mask and the reservoir bag and prevents exhaled gases from entering the fresh gas reservoir. As

with the partial rebreathing mask, the reservoir bag should be inflated throughout the entire ventilatory cycle to ensure adequate carbon dioxide clearance from the system and the highest possible FiO2 [11]. Because its bag is continuously filled with 100 % oxygen and expired gases do not enter the reservoir, the tidal volume should be nearly 100 % oxygen (Table 1.1). To avoid air entrainment around the mask and dilution of the delivered FiO2, masks should fit snugly on the face, but excessive pressure should be avoided. If the mask is fitted properly, the reservoir bag should partially deflate and inflate with the patient’s inspiratory efforts.

The disadvantages of high FiO2 masks include the risk of absorption atelectasis and the potential for oxygen toxicity if they are used for longer than 24–48 h. Therefore, these masks are only recommended for short-term treatment. Critically ill patients with profound hypoxemia usually require ventilatory assistance as well, because pure hypoxic respiratory failure rarely occurs without concomitant or subsequent ventilatory failure.

Tracheostomy Collars

Tracheostomy collars primarily are used to deliver humidity to patients with artificial airways. Oxygen may be delivered

Fig. 1.2 Rebreathing mask with reservoir bag. With permission from Lahey Hospital & Medical Center A.G.

Fig. 1.3 Partial rebreathing mask. The mask captures the first portion of exhaled gas (dead-space gas) in the reservoir bag. The remainder of the reservoir bag is filled with 100 % oxygen. Reprinted from Shapiro BA, Kacmarek RM, Cane RD, et al. Clinical application of respiratory care. 4th edition. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book 1991 [13] Copyright Elsevier

with these devices, but as with other low-flow systems, the FiO2 is unpredictable and inconsistent and depends on the patient’s ventilatory pattern.

High-Flow Systems

In contrast to low-flow systems, high-flow systems are designed to deliver a large volume of premixed gas. Because the patient is breathing only gas applied by the system, the flow rate must exceed the patient’s minute ventilation and meet the patient’s peak inspiratory demand. The advantages of a high-flow system include the ability to deliver relatively precise oxygen concentrations, control the humidity and temperature of the inspired gases, and maintain a fixed inspired oxygen concentration despite changes in the ventilatory pattern.

Fig. 1.4 Nonrebreathing mask. The one-way valves of the nonrebreathing mask prevent expired gases from reentering the reservoir bag. The tidal volume with this device should be nearly 100 % oxygen. Reprinted from Shapiro BA, Kacmarek RM, Cane RD, et al. Clinical application of respiratory care. 4th edition. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book 1991 [13] Copyright Elsevier

High-Flow Oxygen with Nasal Cannula

As discussed earlier, nasal cannula is usually categorized as low-flow oxygen delivery device. Not long ago high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy concept was introduced. It consists of a patient interface (nasal prongs), a gas delivery device for FiO2, and a humidifier (Fig. 1.5). Heated humidification system is added to avoid drying of upper airway mucosa because of high flows and for patient comfort and greater tolerance. Humidification also decreases the energy cost of conditioning of inspired gases by upper respiratory tract. High flows of oxygen can be used from 15 to 60 L/m range [14]. The nasal prongs are designed to minimize secondary room air entrainment. Nasopharynx and oropharynx serve as natural reservoirs for oxygen. Delivered high flows reduce nasopharyngeal dead space and result in improved alveolar ventilation [15, 16]. The nasopharyngeal gas flows are usually higher than the peak inspiratory flow and thus decrease resistance and improve the work of breathing and compliance. There is a CPAP effect due to high flows, which

1.5 High-flow oxygen delivery system with nasal cannula by Fisher and Paykel. With permission from Lahey Hospital & Medical Center

not only decreases atelectasis but also improves ventilation–perfusion ratio of the lungs. This CPAP effect is dependent on the leak and in turn the size of nasal prongs to the nose. Recent data supports the use of this technique in patients with persistent hypoxemia after receiving oxygen with other low-flow delivery systems. Because oxygen flow can be titrated on a wide range depending on patient response, it can be used as an initial measure in settings like ER. This delivery system is particularly useful in situations where removing mask to speak, eat, drink, or cough and clearing of secretions can cause hypoxemia.

Air-Entrainment (Venturi) Mask

Air-entrainment masks (Fig. 1.6), commonly called “Venturi masks,” entrain air using the Bernoulli principal and constant pressure-jet mixing [17]. A jet of oxygen is forced through a small opening that because of viscous shearing forces creates a subatmospheric pressure gradient downstream relative to the surrounding gases (Fig. 1.7). The proportion of oxygen can be controlled by enlarging or reducing the size of the injection port. A smaller opening creates greater pressure of oxygen flow, resulting in more room air entrained and a lower percentage of inspired oxygen. As the desired FiO2 increases, the air/oxygen-entrainment ratio decreases with a net reduction in total gas flow. Therefore, the probability of the patient’s ventilatory needs exceeding the total flow capabilities of the device increases with higher FiO2 settings [11].

Venturi masks are available in various colors. The colors specify delivered oxygen concentration and the required gas flow. Another type of Venturi mask has a dialed setting on

1.6 Air-entrainment (Venturi) mask. With permission from Lahey Hospital & Medical Center

the apparatus. In order to change delivered oxygen concentration in these masks, flow is increased and desired concentration is dialed on the apparatus. The dial will change

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nousuun on ryhdytty. Ajatus on tietysti mieletön.» Sanders hymyili jälleen.

SODAN KOIRAT

Valkean suojelijan mustalle miehelle asettamista rajoituksista on tuntuvin se, ettei hän saa kiukuissaan ottaa vihamiestään kurkusta ja leikata häntä leveällä kotitekoisella puukolla. Tietysti hyväsävyisimpiäkin ärsyttää tämä brittiläisten tekemä rajoitus.

Varmastikin akasavalaisten muisti on sangen lyhyt, ja heitä viime pahanteosta kohdannut rangaistus unohtuu ajan mukana pian tilaisuuden ja kiusauksen tullen. Siten akasavalaiset kuultuaan ochorilaisten tehneen jotakin ilkeyttä huomasivat joutuneensa kärsimään vääryyttä ja valmistautuivat sotaan, mutta lähettivät sitä ennen sanan Sandille kuvaillen laveasti ochorilaisten heille aiheuttamaa vahinkoa. Onneksi Sanders oli lähellä ja saapui paikalle hyvin nopeasti pitämään neuvottelua ja tyynnyttämään raivostunutta kansaa miten parhaiten voi. Sanders oli tahdikas mies, eikä tahdikkuuteen aina kuulu pehmeäkätisyys. Neuvostossa näet istui raaka sielu ja esitti töykeitä kysymyksiä.

Rohkaistuneena komissaarin säveistä vastauksista hän ylitti, niinkuin lapsi ja alkuasukas aina pyrkii tekemään, hyväin ja huonojen tapojen välisen rajan. Sanders kääntyi häneen.

— Mikä orjan ja koiran äpärä sinä olet? kysyi hän; ja kun mies mietti vastausta, potkaisi Sanders hänet alas kukkulalta, jolla neuvottelumaja oli, ja sopusointu oli vielä kerran palautettu.

Heti tämän palaverin jälkeen tuli katkera valitus Isisistä. Se koski lulungolaisten säälimättömästi hävittämiä kalaverkkoja, ja se oli Sandersin vaikea selvittää. Ensiksikin kaikki itseään kunnioittavat ihmiset halveksivat lulungolaisia, viekkaita ja ilkeitä olioita, joilla ei ollut häpyä eikä suolaa. Mutta isisiläiset rauhoittuivat, ja hävittävä sota saatiin vältetyksi. Sattui toisia pienempiä selkkauksia — ja ne kuuluivat jokapäiväiseen työhön — mutta Sanders oli huolissaan lulungolaisten vuoksi, erittäinkin näiden ilkeyden vuoksi ja siksi, että kaikki hänen heimonsa, isisiläiset, ikeliläiset, akasavalaiset ja ochorilaiset, vihasivat lulungolaisia sydämensä pohjasta. Sisimmässään Sanders tunsi, että sota voitiin vain lykätä tuonnemmaksi, ja ilmoitti sen Lontooseen, josta Whitehallin kiihtynyt apulaisministeri lähetti kiihkeän ilmoituksen, että sota oli lykättävä keinolla millä hyvänsä »tämän budjettivuoden yli taivaan nimessä!»

Lulungon alueella — kolmen päivän marssin päässä Akasavan takana — käytettiin muun muassa sananpartta: »Jos miehellä on salainen vihollinen, jota hän ei löydä, niin kaatakoon oman majansa ja etsiköön sen jäännöksistä.» Tämä on vapaa käännös. Toinen sananlasku sanoo: »Vaarallisin on se vihamies, joka asuu sinun omassa majassasi» ja kolmas: »Ellet löydä vihollistasi, niin tapa paras ystäväsi.» Nämä sananlaskut osoittavat, että lulungolaisilla oli synkkä elämänkatsomus ja että he olivat epäluuloisia.

Sandersilla oli Mpitissa lulungolainen kokki — Mpitin uudenaikainen kaupunki oli komissaarin päämaja. Tämä kokki oli

kulkija, ja sellaisena hän oli liikkunut Dakarista Sananaan asti — ja luultavasti Kongoa pitkin aina Matadiin asti. Kun hän tuli työnhakuun Mpitiin, niin häneltä kysyttiin nimeä, ja hän vastasi rannikon »englannilla»:

— Herra, yksi sano minä Kuuspenni. Hieno kokki minä: te hakee parempi kokki, ei löydä — savi?

— Ja mitä, kysyi Sanders lulungoksi, — mitä sekamelskaa tämä puhe on sinun mielestäsi?

— Herra, se on englantia, sanoi hämmästynyt alkuasukas.

— Se on marakatinkieltä, sanoi Sanders jäykästi, — krulaisten ja puoliveristen merimiesten puhetta, joka ei ole mitään kieltä, Miksi sinua sanotaan omiesi keskuudessa?

— Latakiksi, herra, sanoi kokki.

— Se on sinun nimesi, sanoi Sanders. — Tästä lähtien et saa puhua muuta kieltä kuin omaasi ja sinun palkkasi on kymmenen shillinkiä kuussa.

Lataki oli kelpo kokki, ja kolme kuukautta hän oli kunnon kansalainen, minkä ajan kuluttua Sanders palatessaan odottamatta metsästysretkeltä tapasi Latakin nukkumasta isäntänsä vuoteessa — juovuksissa, ja kaksi viinapulloa oli todistamassa hänen kolttosestaan. Sanders kutsui poliisinsa, ja Lataki heitettiin selviämään putkaan, josta hän pääsi vuorokauden kuluttua.

— Sinä kai ymmärrät, sanoi Sanders rikolliselle seuraavana päivänä, — etten halua nähdä palvelijoitten juovan; vielä vähemmän

sallin juopuneiden palvelijoitteni nukkua humalaa päästään minun vuoteessani.

— Herra, olen häpeissäni, sanoi Lataki ystävällisesti, — sellaista tapahtuu miehelle, joka on nähnyt paljon maailmaa.

— Samaa voit sanoa myös ruoskimisesta, jota saat kokea, virkahti Sanders antaen käskyn poliisikersantilleen.

Lataki ei ollut mikään stoalainen. Kun hänet sidottiin puuhun ja tukeva hausa antoi hänen lihavaan selkäänsä kymmenen lyöntiä, hän huusi äänekkäästi Sandersia ja sitä sivistystä vastaan, jonka aseeksi Sanders oli valittu.

Kun juttu oli ohi ja hän huomasi vielä olevansa elossa, vaikkakin veriin piestynä, hän tunnusti saaneensa hieman enemmän kuin oli ansainnut, ja lupasi kyynelsilmin, että läksy ei jäisi tuloksettomaksi. Sanders, jolla ei ollut asiasta enempää sanottavaa, lähetti hänet töihinsä.

Viikon kuluttua tästä päivästä komissaari söi yksinänsä palmunöljyhakkelusta, joka on mainiota sikäläistä ruokalajia, ja kanaa. Hän ryhtyi syömään, mutta lakkasi äkkiä, meni konttoriinsa ja toi sieltä mikroskoopin. Sitten otti hän hiukan hakkelusta juuri niin paljon kuin neulan kärkeen menee — levitti sen lasilevylle ja tarkisti sitä koneella. Se, mitä hän näki, oli mielenkiintoista. Hän pani mikroskoopin pois ja kutsui Latakin, ja Lataki tuli puhtaaseen valkeaan pukuun puettuna.

— Lataki, sanoi Sanders ystävällisesti, — kun sinä tiedät valkeitten miesten tavat, niin sano, miten isäntä voi osoittaa palvelijalleen kunniaa?

Ovella seisova kokki epäröi.

— On monta tapaa, sanoi hän oltuaan hetken vaiti. — Hän voisi…

Hän vaikeni hieman epävarmana maaperästä.

— Koska olet hyvä palvelija, vaikka sinussa kyllä on vikojakin, sanoi Sanders, — tahdon osoittaa sinulle kunniaa. Siihen olen valinnut tämän tavan; sinä, joka olet pyytämättä nukkunut minun vuoteessani, istut pöytään minun kanssani ja käskystäni.

Mies epäröi, hämmentyi hieman ja tuli sitten pöydän ääreen ja istahti kömpelösti vastapäätä herraansa.

— Minä odotan sinua, sanoi Sanders, — sinun oman kansasi tavan mukaan.

Hän nosti kaksi suurta lusikallista palmunöljyhakkelusta hänen lautaselleen.

— Syö, sanoi hän.

Mutta mies ei liikahtanut, vaan istui silmät luotuina pöytäliinaan.

— Syö, sanoi Sanders jälleen, mutta Lataki istui liikkumatta.

Silloin Sanders nousi, meni huoneensa avoimelle ovelle ja vihelsi.

Kuului jalkojen töminää, ja kersantti Abibu tuli neljän hausan kera.

Jauhettu lasi — niin hieno lasijauho, että se koskettaessa tuntuu liidulta — on vaarallinen myrkky, koska se joutuessaan ihmisen sisälmyksiin viiltelee ne rikki, ja hän kuolee, kuten rannikon pahat miehet tietävät ja ovat jo satoja vuosia tietäneet. Lataki joutui

tuomarin eteen, joka istui ladontapaisessa suuressa oikeussalissa, ja esitti todistajina kolme serkkuaan, yhden veljen ja yhden ystävänsä, jotka vannoivat, että Sanders oli etukäteen asiaa harkittuaan sekoittanut itse lasijauhoa hakkelukseensa. Huolimatta todistusten yhtäpitäväisyydestä — todistajia kuulusteltiin kokonaista neljä kertaa tuomion julistamisen edellisenä iltana — vanki tuomittiin viidentoista vuoden pakkotyöhön.

Tähän olisi juttu loppunut, ellei olisi ollut lulungolaisia, jotka asuvat kaukana pohjoisessa ja joille heidän miehensä vankina pitäminen on casus belli.

He olivat epäluuloisia ihmisiä, synkkiä, kylmiä ja julmia, ja maantieteellisesti heidän asemansa oli erinomainen, sillä he asuivat sellaisen territorion rajalla, joka on kiistämättä ranskalainen ja johon sitä paitsi on vaikeata päästä.

Sanders lähetti pikaviestejä kaikille valkoisille, jotka asuivat lulungolaisten läheisyydessä. Heitä oli kaikkiaan kuusi asettuneina kahdelle lähetysasemalle, toiset jesuiittoja, toiset baptisteja. He olivat senlaatuisia ihmisiä kuin heidän vastauskirjeensä osoittavat:

Ensimmäinen protestanteilta:

»Losebin lähetysasema.

H. Herra Komissaari. — Vaimoni ja minä olemme Teille hyvin kiitolliset varoituksestanne, mutta Jumala on kutsunut meidät tälle paikalle ja täällä tulee meidän olla tehden Herran työtä, kunnes Hän viisaudessaan määrää, että meidän on jätettävä työmaamme.»

Isä Holling kirjoitti:

»Ebendo-joki.

Hyvä Sanders. — Uskon, että arvostelette väärin lulungolaisia, joista useita olen äskettäin tavannut. He ovat hyvin maallisia, mikä on ainoa heissä huomaamani paha merkki. Pysyn täällä, koska voin torjua kaikki heidän tekemänsä hyökkäykset. Minulla on neljä Martini-Metford-kivääriä ja kolmetuhatta panoskertaa, ja tämä talo on, kuten tiedätte, kivestä rakennettu. Toivon Teidän olevan väärässä, mutta —»

Sanders otti laivansa, konekiväärinsä ja hausapoliisinsa ja meni jokea vastavirtaa niin kauas kuin pieni perärattainen voi häntä viedä. Ja jokaisen päivän iltana hän tuli sellaiseen paikkaan, jossa metsä oli puhdistettu ja jossa rannalla oli valtainen halkopino. Jossakin metsässä oli aina kylä, jonka velvollisuutena valtiota kohtaan oli tämän pinon uusiminen. Yötä päivää kaksi miestä istui laivan keulassa mitaten veden syvyyttä yhtä mittaa. Riutta, hiekkasärkkä, väylä, riutta. Joskus laiva meni karahtaen vedenalaisen matalan yli ja luisui sen toiselle puolen syvään veteen; joskus öisin laiva hypähti särkälle, jolloin huomattiin sen tulleen »järveen», jota kaikkialla ympäröivät hiekkaharjanteet. Silloin miehet menivät veteen ja kulkien joen hiekkapohjaa myöten vetivät laivan takaisin syvälle. Kuudenkymmenen mailin päässä baptistilähetysasemalta Sanders sai uutisia ystävällismielisiltä alkuasukkailta:

— Herra, lulungolaiset, tulivat aikaisin aamulla ja veivät mukanaan lähetyssaarnaajan, hänen vaimonsa ja tyttärensä omaan kaupunkiinsa.

Keltaisena kuumeesta, raskassilmäisenä unen puutteesta, parrakkaana ja pesemättömänä Sanders pyyhki ohimoitaan kädenselällä.

— Ota laiva hoitoosi, sanoi hän Abibulle. — Minun täytyy nukkua.

Hän heräsi neljän tienoissa iltapäivällä, kun hyllyllä hänen vuoteensa yläpuolella oleva vesipullo meni kappaleiksi. Sen särkymiseen hän ei huomannut mitään syytä, mutta lasinpalaset ja vesi putosivat hänen päälleen.

Hän kuuli kiväärin pamahtavan aivan lähellä ja avasi hyttinsä oven.

Abibu tuli tekemään ilmoitusta.

— Kaksi miestä ampui rannalta, sanoi hän. — Ammuin niistä toisen.

He lähestyivät nyt kylää; kääntyen suoraan joen poikki he tulivat sen näkyville, ja pikku »Zairen» vihellin kirkui kimeästi.

Sanders näki ryhmän tulevan rantaan, näki keihäiden kimmeltävän, ja kiikarilla hän havaitsi miesten vartalot maalatuiksi. Sitten kuusi kanoottia tuli laivaa vastaan.

Hausakorpraali istahti sanaa puhumatta konekiväärin takana olevaan satulaan ja tarttui kädensijaan.

— Viisisataa askelta, sanoi Sanders, ja korpraali tarkisti tähtäimen pitämättä erityisempää kiirettä.

Kanootit tulivat nopeasti kuin hirmumyrsky, sillä virta oli niille myötäinen. Konekiväärin takana istuva mies puhdisti sinisen

takkinsa liepeellä messinkisuojuksessa olevaa himmeää paikkaa ja kohotti silmänsä.

Kanootit lähenivät, yksi toisten etupäässä; viha kiihotti hermoja, kuolema oli palkintona.

Äkkiä —

— Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha! nauroi konekivääri ivallisesti, ja johtava kanootti kääntyi syrjävirtaan, sillä sen ohjaajat ja puolet soutajista olivat kuolleet.

— Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha!

Toisessa kanootissa syntyi sekasorto, se huojahti, kaatui, ja joki oli täynnä mustia päitä, ja ilmassa kajahtelivat kimeät huudot.

Laivaston jäännökset pyörähtivät takaisin ja pyrkivät pois; konekiväärikorpraali asetti toisen patruunanauhan ja kokeili ampumista yhdeksänsadan askelen päähän asti, jonne kaksi kanoottia vimmatusti melottuina oli päässyt.

Sanders käänsi pienen merkinantajansa täyteen vauhtiin ja seurasi.

Rannalla lulungolaiset pysähtyivät ja monenlaisia terveisiä singahteli pikku »Zairelle». Mutta konekivääri lakaisi kylän katuja äänekkäästi, ja pian tuli lauhtunut mies palmunoksa käsissään; Sanders lopetti ampumisen ja huusi megafonilla lähetille, että hänen oli uitava laivaan.

— Herra, häpeämme suuresti, sanoi mies. Hän seisoi kannella lammikon keskellä, ja vesipisaroita tippui hänestä. — Emme

tietäneet, että taistelimme Sandi-leijonaa, Sandi-puhvelia vastaan, jonka mahtavan jalan poljennosta…

Sanders keskeytti hänet lyhyeen.

— Teidän kylässänne on valkea mies, valkea nainen ja nuori tyttö, sanoi hän. — Tuokaa ne laivaan, sitten minä istun palaver-majassa ja puhun tästä asiasta.

Mies näytti kiusaantuneelta.

— Herra, sanoi hän, — valkea mies kuoli tautiin, nainen on myös sairas; ja tytöstä minä en tiedä mitään.

Sanders katsoi häneen pää kallellaan kuin uteliaalla linnulla.

— Tuokaa minulle valkea mies elävänä tai kuolleena, sanoi hän hiljaa, — samoin valkea nainen joko elävänä tai kuolleena, ja tyttö.

Tunnin kuluessa he toivat onnettoman lähetyssaarnaajan, kun olivat häntä jonkin aikaa koettaneet saada sellaiseksi, että hänet ilkesi tuoda. Lähetyssaarnaajan vaimo tuotiin toisessa kanootissa, ja neljä naista piteli häntä, sillä hän oli mielipuoli.

— Missä on tyttö? kysyi Sanders. Hän puhui melkein kuiskaten.

Lähetti ei vastannut.

— Tyttö? kysyi Sanders ja löi häntä kepillään poikki kasvojen.

— Herra, mutisi mies kasvot rintaa vasten laskettuina, — hän on päällikön luona.

Sanders käveli kerran edestakaisin kannen yli, meni sitten hyttiinsä ja tuli takaisin kaksi pistoolia vyössään.

— Menen katsomaan tätä päällikköä, sanoi hän. Abibu, aja laivan keula rannan pehmeään hiekkaan, niin että voit konekiväärillä ampua yli kadun, kun minä olen maalla.

Hän meni maihin kohtaamatta vastarintaa; ei pyssy pamahtanut eikä keihäs lentänyt, kun hän käveli nopeasti leveää katua myöten. Tyttö makasi päällikön majan edessä kuolleena, hyvin tyynenä, hyvin hiljaisena. Käsi, joka oli katkaissut hänen elämänsä langan, oli ollut armeliaampi kuin Sanders oli uskonut. Hän kohotti tytön käsivarsilleen ja kantoi hänet laivaan. Kerran hän kuuli takaansa ääntä, mutta kolme kivääriä pamahti laivan kannelta, ja sitten hän kuuli jonkun kaatuvan ja tuskallisesti kiemurtelevan.

Hän toi ruumiin laivaan ja asetti sen peräkannelle. Sitten hänelle kerrottiin naisen kuolleen, ja hän nyökkäsi hitaasti sanoen, että niin oli parasta.

»Zaire» tuli takaisin keskivirralle, ja Sanders seisoi katsellen kylää vaiteliaana. Hän halusi kostaa Lulungon päällikölle; hän halusi vimmastuksissaan paistaa hänet hiljaisella tulella. Mutta päällikkö oli lulungolaisineen metsissä, ja he saattoivat paeta Ranskan alueelle.

Illalla hän hautasi lähetyssaarnaajan ja hänen perheensä pienelle saarelle, palasi sitten myötävirtaa pohtien synkkiä ajatuksia ja heikkoja voimiaan, sillä kokonaista kansaa vastaan ei voida taistella kahdenkymmenen hausapoliisin voimilla.

Hän tuli hämärissä puupaikalle ja pysähtyi siihen yöksi. Hän jatkoi matkaansa aamulla ja tuli iltapäivällä lainkaan aavistamattaan

keskelle suurta sotalaivastoa.

Ei voinut erehtyä satakunnasta kanootista, jotka tulivat hitaasti vastavirtaa neljä rinnakkain meloen konemaisen tahdikkaasti.

Oikeanpuoleinen rivi oli akasavalaisia; sen näki kanoottien tylpästä keulasta. Vasemmalla olivat ochorilaiset; heidän kanooteissaan oli punaisia juovia. Keskimmäisissä, paremmin tehdyissä kanooteissa hän näki naamoja, joihin oli vedetty valkeita viivoja; siinä olivat isisiläiset.

— Taivaan nimessä! sanoi Sanders kulmat koholla.

Laivastossa syntyi hämminkiä, ja sen säännöttömät rivit murtuivat, mutta »Zaire» höyrysi kanoottien keskelle. Sitten Sanders pysäytti koneet ja kutsui päälliköt laivaan.

— Mikä häpeä tämä on? kysyi Sanders.

Isisin Otako, kuningas ja vanhin päällikkö, katsoi avuttomasti Akasavan

Ebeniin, mutta Bosambo, Ochorin päälliköksi hankkiutunut, puhui.

— Herra, sanoi hän, — kuka välttää ainavalvovan Sandin silmän? Katso! luulimme sinun olevan mailien päässä, mutta kuin huuhkaja…

— Mihin menette? kysyi Sanders.

— Herra, emme aio pettää sinua, sanoi Bosambo. — Nämä suuret päälliköt ovat minun veljiäni, koska muutamat lulungolaiset ovat tulleet meidän kyliimme ja aikaansaaneet pahaa varastaen ja tappaen. Sen vuoksi, koska olemme samalla lailla kärsineet ja olemme onnettomuudessa yhtä, menemme lulungolaisia vastaan, sillä olemme ihmisiä, ja sydämemme on verillä.

Hymy, kavala, tunteeton hymy käväisi Sandersin huulilla.

— Ja te tapatte ja poltatte? kysyi hän.

— Herra, sellainen huvitus oli edessämme.

— Kaupungin polttaminen ja päällikön tappaminen ja metsissä piilevien ihmisten tuhoaminen?

— Herra, vaikka he piilisivät tuonelassa, löydämme heidät, sanoi Bosambo. — Mutta jos sinä, joka olet meidän kaikkien isä, sanot ei, niin me kokoamme sotilaamme ja sanomme heille, että se on kielletty.

Sanders ajatteli kolmea pikku saarella olevaa uutta hautaa.

— Menkää, sanoi hän viitaten vastavirtaan.

Hän seisoi »Zairen» kannella ja katseli, kun viimeinen kanootti sivuutti joenmutkan, ja kuunteli monivivahteista surinaa, joka heikkeni ja heikkeni. Se oli Tappajan laulu, jota isisiläiset laulavat ennen taistelua.

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