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Michael S. Carolan
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Agricultural Chemicals and the Environment Issues and Potential Solutions 2nd Edition Bailey
Society and the Environment: Pragmatic Solutions to Ecological Issues was born of my personal frustration as an educator In my department at Colorado State University, we have an undergraduate concentration in environmental sociology; I teach the introductory-level course in that concentration, called Global Environmental Issues Every semester in this class, I engage with roughly 130 students about the environmental state of affairs, while also going to great lengths to explain how sociology can inform our understanding of how we ’ ve arrived at this state It’s an incredibly fun class to teach, not only because it deals with subject matter that’s close to my heart, but because the students tend to be really interested in the material as well But when I first taught the class, over the course of the term my students’ early excitement changedtosomethingcooler Theywerebecoming,toputitinaword,depressed Sociology students talk frequently about their desire to make the world a better place Yet in our environment classes, day after day, we focused on all that was wrong with the world. I was feeding my students a steady diet of pessimism about how they can’t really make it better yet still asking them to take individual responsibility for our environmental future No wonder they were getting indigestion When I realized this when the CFL went on over my head I began to make solutions a central component of my class. My students still occasionally feel disheartened or upset, but these days I rarely see a true cloud of depressionsettleoverthem
I talk about solutions in two ways Think of the first like a steady drumbeat: problem/solutions, problems/solutions Each chapter, following this arrangement, begins by stating environmental issues and their implications for society. At each chapter’s midpoint, the discussion becomes solution oriented, tackling the possible solutions to the problem immediately at hand Yet in the end, solutions real solutions to our environmental ills come not from fiddling around at the margins but from deep systemic change; we need to also come up with solutions that take us in other directions. The second way I therefore talk about solutions takes the form of an argumentative arch that builds throughout the entire book. Think of it as a complementary drumbeat that slowly crescendos until the cymbals crash in Parts III and IV, where attention centersoncollectivelyreorganizingasustainablesociety
I have found this two-part technique for talking about solutions to be particularly useful in the classroom. Sociologists have long been suspect of bolt-on solutions; after all, we are trained to see the root causes of problems sometimes to a fault But I would argue that small changes to behavior (such as turning down the temperature on one ’ s hot water heater) and technological fixes (like compact fluorescent bulbs) have their placeaslongasthey aremet withanequalzest tocreatedeeperstructuralchange.At thesametime,Irealize such short-term fixes risk creating short-term apathy, which can derail attempts to solve today’s environmental problems at their root To those reading and assigning this book, I recommend a critical reflection on the solutions proposed in each of the following chapters Ask yourself: What do they fix and whatdotheymiss?
Much of the material that populates the book comes from my Global Environmental Issues class, so you could say it has, from a student’s perspective, been truly peer reviewed It is loaded with figures, tables, and images as well as a variety of text boxes: the Case Study, to briefly highlight case studies; the Ethical Question, to highlight the value disputes that underlie environmental conflicts; the ECOnnection, which allows me to interject additional information into a subject; and the Movement Matters, new in this edition, whichoffervignettesongrassrootsmovementsthathaveaffectedlegislation Ialsoincludeattheendofevery chapter, which I again draw right from class material, suggested additional readings, discussion questions, relevant online sources, and suggested videos. Finally, I take time at the end of every chapter to highlight particularlyimportantconcepts.Definitionsofthesetermsandofallthetermsappearinginboldfacearethen providedintheglossarylocatedneartheendofthebook
Talking, thinking, and learning about environmental issues in a pragmatic way may also require going beyondthepagesofthebookinyourhands.Withthatinmind,Ihavepostedanumberof“beyondthebook”
resourcesonlineatwwwwestviewpresscom/carolan Theseresourceswilllinkyoutothesocialwebbywayof video clips, podcasts, and interesting, informative blogs and websites. Slides of the figures, tables, and images as well as a variety of slides expanding on issues raised in the boxes are available to help bring the subject matteraliveduringlectures Samplequizquestions areavailablefor useasastudyguidetogivetostudents or as a starting place for crafting your own exams. Additionally, the website provides a selection of exercises, scenarios, and games (such as an adaptation of the “wedges” game developed by the Carbon Mitigation Initiative at Princeton University), all of which are designed specifically to promote active learning in the classroom If you have suggestions for additional resources, please feel free to share them with me via the website.
Before you dig into the book, I want to say a few words about my intentional use of the term pragmatic in the book’s subtitle (indeed, originally the plan was to call this book Pragmatic Environmentalism) As with solutions,myunderstandingofpragmaticoperatesattwolevels Atonelevel,thetermismeanttoevokeavery commonsense understanding, relating to practical matters of fact where results are of greater importance than philosophical debates. Yet as is also made clear in the chapters that follow, the world is not that black and white Matters of fact, for example, particularly when dealing with environmental issues, are rarely selfevident Philosophical and ethical questions are often embedded within debates around what ought to constitute a fact. I would therefore caution anyone from operating solely according to this understanding of thetermastheysearchforanswerstotheenvironmentalproblemsthatplagueus.Yetyoucouldsaythisbook ispragmaticinsofarasshort-termsolutionsgo
This brings me to the second interpretation of pragmatic: as pragmatism For those unfamiliar with this term, it references a distinct philosophical tradition, whose relevance for environmental sociology I delve into in Chapter 13. At the moment, I will say only that I appreciate the pragmatist approach, for it offers an alternative to overt structuralism, on the one hand, and methodological individualism, on the other The way it does this, I should also add, makes it inherently hopeful, as the changes it seeks are deep and therefore lasting.Butyou’llhavetoreadtherestofthebooktofindouthowthisoptimisticstoryends.
Finally, a few words about the revisions and changes made, as this book represents a second generation: Society and the Environment 20 I am often disheartened to see new editions of texts come out with only cosmetic changes updated citations and statistics but little else Don’t get me wrong; any good text needs to be current. But I also believe authors have a responsibility to update text in additional ways. Fields change, or at least they better you shouldn’t be taking a class on a subject if it isn’t! And authors don’t always get everything right the first time I certainly didn’t After the release of the first edition I realized there were areasofliteraturethatdeservedgreaterattention Idon’tclaimthesecondeditiongetseverythingrighteither Butitrepresentsanhonestattempttoimproveontherangeofliteratureofferedinthefirstedition.
Having surveyed current instructors who have adopted my book, the consensus was not to add additional chapters Rather, they were of the opinion that my energies would be better spent adding material within the existing chapter format That is what I have done Some of those substantive additions include the following (innoparticularorder):
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expandeddiscussiononfracking
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expanded discussion on the sociological dimension of environmental problems linking ecological concepts to sociological concepts and more emphasis on the institutions of society, their interrelationships,andhowtheysociallyandculturallydefinenature,resources,andenvironment greaterattentiontohealthconsequences addition of new text boxes called “Movement Matters,” which provide vignettes on a grassroots movementthathaseffectedchange morevisualelements photos,figures,andtables expandedancillaries,offeredontheinstructorwebsite expandeddiscussiononsocialmovements
Acknowledgments
How does one begin to acknowledge people when one ’ s career is filled with supportive relationships and enlightening encounters? From my graduate student days, when I was lucky enough to have Michael Bell as my PhD adviser, to today, when I have the good fortune of being chair of a sociology department full of faculty and students interested in issues related to environment sustainability and justice, my experience with scholarship has been inherently collective, and this book is a reflection of this fact So I’ll focus on naming thosewithapresencemoredirectlyfelt First,EvanCarver,theoriginalacquisitionseditoratWestviewPress who talked me into taking this project on. Without you there would be no book. Period. I also owe a debt of gratitudetothevariouseditorsandassistantsatWestviewPresswhohavehelpedimmenselyovertheyears BrookeMaddaford,LeanneSilverman,KristaAnderson,JamesSherman,andGraceFujimoto
I leaned on a number of colleagues for images and articles and in a couple cases used some as sounding boards for ideas and arguments. Those colleagues include Brett Clark, Maurie Cohen, Jennifer Cross, Riley Dunlap, Cornelia Flora, Jan Flora, Lori Hunter, Colin Khoury, Jack Kloppenburg, Aaron McCright, Kari Norgaard, Thomas Rudel, and Richard York A heartfelt note of thanks must also be extended to these scholarswhoprovidedconstructivecommentsandcriticismsofthebook:Dr ShaunnaL Scott(Universityof Kentucky),Dr.KristaE.Paulsen(UniversityofNorthFlorida),Dr.ManuelVallee(UniversityofAuckland), Dr Kooros Mohit Mahmoudi (University of Northern Arizona), Dr Jesse T Weiss (University of the Ozarks),Dr SusanG Clark(YaleUniversity),andDr ChristopherOliver(UniversityofKentucky)
The original book proposal and final manuscript were extensively reviewed by a list of scholars known only to me as “Reviewer 1, 2, 3, … ” Thanks too to all those anonymous (at least to me) instructors who adopted my book and were kind enough to provide the publisher and myself with constructive feedback on how the first edition could be improved A lot of you sacrificed a great deal of time to anonymously involve yourselves inthisproject.Yourcommentswereinvaluable.Thankyou.
IamalsogratefultoallthosestudentswhomIhavehadthegoodfortuneoflearningfromeachsemesterin myGlobalEnvironmentalIssuesclass(theintroductoryclassforourenvironmentalsociologyconcentrationat Colorado State University) This book is the culmination of a lot of trial and error in that class as I sought to makethematerialinteresting,relevant,and,importantly,hopefulintone.Thisworkwassupportedinpartby the following grant: Social Science Korea (SSK), National Research Foundation of Korea (grant number NRF-2013S1A3A2055243)
Whymustbooksontheenvironmentbesogloomy?Chapterafterchapterdetailwhat’swrong,followedby,if you ’ re lucky, a chapter or two on what could be done to turn things around No wonder my students express bewildermentand,inafewcases,somethingakintoborderlineclinicaldepressionwhen,duringthefirstweek of my Global Environmental Issues class, I ask about their thoughts on the ecological state of the world. A quickqueryonhttp://Amazoncom brings up 66,351 books when the words environmentalproblems are typed into the search bar A search of the term environmental solutions, conversely, brought up 14,062 books Sex, apparently,isn’ttheonlythingthatsellsbooks.Wecanaddapocalypticecologicalpredictionstothatlist.
I understand why, historically, all this attention has been paid to environmental problems. People are not much interested in reading about solutions until they’ve been convinced that there’s a problem in need of solving More than fifty years have passed since the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring Since then wehavebeenexposedtoasteadydietofproblemtalk,withmeasurableeffect.A2015pollfoundthatroughly half of Americans have heard about the ongoing drought in the western United States (Ipsos/Reuters 2015). (As I write this in the summer of 2015, Californians are facing “historic water rationing plans” [Boxall and Stevens 2015]) A 2015 Ipsos poll of eighth graders across the United States offers the following encouraging news: not only are kids widely aware of the terms global warming and climate change, but they nearly universally agree (94 percent) that climate change is real, while 85 percent agree that human activity significantly contributes to climate change (Ipsos 2015) Even friends of mine who would rather lose a limb than be called environmentalists acknowledge the problematic ecological conditions that surround us (Granted,theymightstillbeindenialaboutclimatechange,butnotmuchelse.)Whoislefttoconvince?Isn’t ittimetoturnthecornerandtalkabout andevencelebrate instancesofpositivesocioecologicalchange?
This book is a bit of both: a bit about problems, a little bit more about solutions By focusing on ecological solutions rather than entirely on problems I am striving to make this book hopeful, recognizing that if we can’t at least think and talk about and point to sustainable alternatives, we really are in trouble. But I am a realisticdreamer,asindicatedbymyevokingthetermpragmaticinthebook’ssubtitle Althoughitneverhurts to be imaginative about what could be, we must be realistic about the possibilities Too often we confuse criticism, to the point of focusing only on what is bad and wrong, with gritty realism That kind of negative approachisnotrealismbutpessimism.
Pragmatism decries grand narratives those totalizing theoretical views of the world that claim to explain humanmind,body,andsocietysincethebeginningoftime Assomeonewhofindssocialtheoryinteresting,I admit that it is fun to try to “ scoop up ” the world in one all-encompassing conceptual framework Grand narratives are like flying at thirty thousand feet: they are great for discussing the big picture things like globalcapitalismandworldpoliticalandeconomicsystems Whenthetimecomestorollupone’ssleevesand talk about practical policy solutions, however, I find these approaches less helpful, especially when issues revolvearoundsustainability.(Irealizegrandnarrativeshavetheirsolutionstoo,buttheyareoftenunrealistic, nebulous, and even polemical. In a word, they’re not pragmatic.) Theoretical grand narratives aside, the nontheoretical sustainability literature is equally rife with overly simplistic, onesize-fits-all solutions Singlehandedpraiseforsuchphenomenaasverticalfarming(Despommier2010),climateengineering(Keith2013), algae-based biofuels (Demirbas and Demirbas 2010), and edible insects (as “the last great hope to save the planet,” Martin 2014) generates considerable interest in and excitement around a topic. As a professional sociologist, however, I cannot help but cringe when the pilots of these tomes spend the majority of their time at cruising altitude Fine-grain details matter; often they determine whether a solution will work in a particular space. A pragmatic environmentalist enjoys big pictures like anyone else. But he or she also realizes thatthereisnosubstitutetohavingone’sfeet plantedfirmlyonthegroundforestablishingwhatworks and
Individualism:TooMuchandNotEnough
Thepragmaticvalueofmanyenvironmentalbooksisfurtherlimitedbytheproblemofindividualism.Thatis, they place either too much or not enough emphasis on individual action In the former case we ’ re reduced to selfish, autonomous actors for instance, sovereign consumers while in the latter case human behavior isn’t evenfactoredintotheequation Bothoftheseextremesmissthecollectivenatureofsociallife Asforascribing toomuchweighttoindividualaction,thestandardargumentgoessomethinglikethis:savingtheenvironment startswitheachofus“doingourpart” sogoplantatree,buyorganicfood,rideabike,installsolarpanelson yourhouse,recycle,andsoon Youdon’thavetobeasociologisttoknowthatouractions,everyoneofthem, areshapedbyawholehostoffactors Evidenceofthisisallaround Mostpeople,forexample,alreadyhavea goodbasicunderstandingofhowtheycanreducetheirecologicalfootprint whohasn’theardofthethreeRs of reduce, reuse, recycle, for example? Yet people’s actions seemingly belie this knowledge I see this all the time in my students: they recognize the negative ecological impacts of many of their actions yetstilldothem (I am certainly just as guilty of this) While we act in ways that reflect our wants and interests, those very wants and interests are heavily shaped by existing structures cultural, technological, infrastructural, political, organizational, legal, and so forth It is not that individual action has no value when it comes to creating meaningful socioecological change Individual action devoid of collective mobilization think shopping however,willneverproducethesamelevelofchangeas,forexample,awell-organizedsocialmovement. Too much focus on the individual can also create dangerous blind spots that risk making circumstances worse for some people We see this occasionally in the “sacrifice talk” that abounds in the environmental literature downshift,buyless,giveupyourcar,stopshopping,andsoforth Foronething,Ihavefoundthis sacrifice talk to be somewhat demoralizing among people genuinely concerned about the environment. Focusing on what one can’t do, rather than on what one can, contributes to the malaise described by many of my students Moreover, not everyone can afford to sacrifice To give up something requires you to have somethingtogiveup Butnoteveryonewantstosacrifice,ortheyarewillingtosacrificeonlysomuchforthe environment. And in some cases, even wanting to sacrifice may still not be enough to elicit a particular behavior I know someone, for example, who despises driving his car, yet when the temperature drops below freezing, he makes the choice to drive his child to day care to avoid exposure to the elements This is why environmental education, as a strategy to change behaviors, can take us only so far: because behaviors do not occur in a vacuum. In order for people to make a “ greener ” choice, they must have viable greener choices to choosefrom.Andtohavethosechoicesoftenrequirescollective(notjustindividual)action.
I think I can speak for all sociologists when I encourage readers to resist the temptation to inject individualistthinkingintocausalexplanationsofinequality Toputthingsplainly,don’tblameindividualsfor asystemicproblem.Asyou’llsoonsee,risingratesofinequalitycannotbechalkeduptothefailingsofspecific individuals. Inequality is a sociological phenomenon. You will also be hard-pressed to find a greater risk factor for suffering from environmental problems than being poor, which is why issues of global environmental justice are increasingly being discussed in classrooms, courtrooms, and political arenas the world over Poor people are the least responsible for our environmental ills and yet most affected by them. How is that fair? If we hope to ever make things right, we have to grasp the roots of poverty, which means we have to get over blaming poor people for their lot in life and begin thinking sociologically about how and why we have organized society in such a way that allocates “goods” and “bads” so inefficiently and unjustly And then we must ask how we can do better, while being clear about what “better” means. The pages that follow are intendedtospuronthatconversation.
Then there’s the other extreme: the world-without-people perspective I encounter this often in material writtenbyspecialistswhoobviouslyknowalotmoreabouttechnoscientificmattersthantheydoabouthuman behaviorandsocialchange.Thesearethebooks,essays,andresearchpapersthattoutimpressivetechnological solutionstoavarietyofoursocialandecologicalills,liketheonedeclaringtheneedfora“rooftoprevolution” and promising to explain to readers “how solar power can save our economy and our planet from dirty energy ” (Kennedy 2012) Don’t misunderstand my critique; I enjoy reading these materials Moreover, they containjustthetypeofoutside-the-boxthinkingthatweneed.NordoIdoubtthetechnologicalfeasibilityof many of the solutions proposed; indeed, the authors usually go to great lengths to convince us of their longterm practicality Yet just because something is technologically possible does not automatically mean it is socially, economically, politically, and organizationally probable Too often the two are conflated, leaving the readerguessingastohowtotakesomethingthatworksinalaboronpaperandscaleituptothelevelofcity, state,nation,orentireworld
TheContributionoftheSocialSciences
One explanation for why books with an environmental focus tend to concentrate on problems, and superficially on what ought to be done to change things, is the nature of how expertise has historically been attached to the subject They are called environmental problems, after all The discussion is therefore dominated by natural or environmental scientists and engineers All are very competent to tell us what the state of things is (though even so-called objective facts, as is made clear in later chapters, are mediated and conditioned by social variables and are often premised on the making of subtle value judgments). Yet by nature of their training, they lack a strong grasp of why we got ourselves into this mess and how we might be able to get ourselves out of it These “why” and “how” questions inevitably require a firm working knowledge of social, political, economic, and cultural variables, which makes these questions better suited for social scientists.Feelingsofdoomandgloomarisewhentoomuchfocusisplacedonthe“what”andnotenoughon the “why” and “how” To be fair, the social sciences share some blame in this They spent a good part of the twentieth century turning away from the material world, preferring instead to focus almost exclusively on phenomena such as language, nonmaterial culture, and, later, socialconstructivism, an approach that focuses entirely on the sociologically dependent knowledge of a phenomenon rather than on any inherent qualities that the thing possesses (Catton and Dunlap 1978; Carolan 2005a, 2005b) For much of the last century the “worlds” studied by the social and natural sciences had been distinct indeed, to some degree, even mutually exclusive.
Of my various professional identities, one is “environmental sociologist.” Although I am proud to identify myself with this subfield of sociology, I admit to being tired of answering the question, “What does sociology havetodowiththeenvironment?”Muchofthis,Irealize,stemsfromageneralmisunderstandingofhowthe so-calledsocialandnaturalworldsinteract.Theveryfact thatweseparatethesocialfromthenaturalsciences at universities underscores the pervasiveness of this misunderstanding. Yet the longer I study the world, the blurrierthisdivisionbecomesforme Whatdoessociologyhavetodowiththeenvironment?Morethanmost realize
Sociology has a long history of sidestepping environmental variables, phenomena historically understood as under the purview of the natural sciences. It is important to remember that early social thought was developed, at least in part, as a reaction to social Darwinism, which sought to explain much of social life by way of biology To avoid a repeat of this dark chapter in sociology’s history, social thinkers found safer territory studying phenomena they took to be largely decoupled from the natural world. The problem with environmental issues, however, is that they make a terrible mess of this historically rooted division of labor between the “social” and the “natural” sciences I do not want to say much more about this now, as the remainder of the book details ways that the social sciences can contribute to discussions about today’s most pressing environmental issues. I will, however, add this: I cannot think of a single environmental problem todaythatdoesnottouch,insomeway,humansociety.Allenvironmentalcontroversiesaretheresultofsocial action,andnonecanberesolvedwithoutsocialaction
FIGURE1.1OperationalSpacefortheSocialSciences
Figure 11 gives us a way to visualize this interrelationship while marking the terrain that is comfortably withintherealmofwhatsocialscientistsstudy Asthefigureillustrates,environmentalsociologistsareequally as interested in material (or ecological) and social variables. Although acknowledging the fallibility of all knowledge claims, the “emphasis [among environmental sociologists] tends to be on analyzing linkages betweenthesymbolic,social-structuralandmaterialrealms”(Dunlap2010,23)
One could argue that the sociological imagination a way of thinking that involves making connections over time and across scales between the particular and the general knows no limits, as evidenced by the fact that sociologists have studied such seemingly “natural” phenomena as quarks (Pickering 1999) and genes (Carolan 2010a) I will leave it to someone else to determine exactly where the boundaries of the sociological imagination lie That said, for students wondering if something falls within what the figure refers to as the “operational space for the social sciences,” they need only ask themselves: Has human society ever been of consequencetothephenomenon’sexistence?
Let’s take, for example, the sun Whereas our understanding of the sun is an entirely relevant subject for sociological analysis, I would argue that the sun itself is not (since the existence of human society has been of no consequence to the sun ’ s life cycle). While we are shaped by the sun daily, there is no evidence that the relationshipissymmetrical So-callednaturalecologicalprocessesandphenomena,ontheotherhand,arevery much shaped by our presence and us by them, making them prime candidates for a thorough sociological treatment Thus, as Richard York (2006) has astutely noted, sociologists who study, for example, environmental controversies or the framing or discursive construction of environmental problems rather thantheinteractionsbetweenthesocialandmaterialworlds mightbestbedescribedaspracticing“sociology ofenvironmentalissues”
The double-headed arrows in Figure 11 are a key component of the image Although on paper they may appear insignificant, they represent the figure’s conceptual heart. If you want to understand really understand environmental problems, with the hope of devising practical solutions, then you have to understand how these two realms interact with each other And I am not just talking about understanding how society affects ecological conditions (which implies a unidirectional arrow) We are shaped as much by thematerialworldasthematerialworldisshapedbyus.Shyingawayfromthisbasicfactwillonlydistractus fromwhat’sreallygoingon
More recently, I, along with my colleague Diana Stuart, have elaborated upon this figure (Carolan and Stuart2016) Today,agrowingnumberofsocialscientistsareopenlytalkingandwritingasifnature,froman analytical, conceptual, and causal standpoint, matters. And yet, while the social sciences seem to be coming around to the fact that the biophysical matters, we still have some way to go in forcefully articulating how sociological variables equally matter that they too can have force much like so-called laws of ecology and therefore constitute “real” events in the causally efficacious sense I hear this critique all too often about the
social sciences: that the phenomena we interrogate and the processes we hold up as being consequential are notreallyreal not,thatis,likethephenomenathatthenaturalsciencesencounter.
The specifics of this argument get fairly theoretical, bordering on the metatheoretical This is not the place to delve into such a discussion Cutting right to the chase: Stuart and I overlaid my original figure with a three-part framework that allows us to talk about deep sociological drivers in realist terms, as illustrated in Figure1.2.Theimportanceofthisframeworkliesinhowitfurtherlegitimizesthesocialsciences andsocial theory by pointing to the unique insights these disciplines provide into all of the issues that grip us today, fromclimatechangetoconsumerism,inequality,andhungerandmalnutrition Therevisedfigurenowpoints to three levels: empirical, actual, and real. We use the example of climate change to flesh these levels out. Generally speaking, most of the social scientific literature on the subject can be located within at least one of these analytic boxes: the empirical, those looking at attitudes and knowledge claims toward climate change; the actual, those looking at surface-level drivers contributing to it (for example, food waste, population, transportation, over-consumption; and the real, those looking at deep drivers, where the root causes of it lie (this is where social theory comes into play). Social theories, especially those we take as espousing grand narratives, are trying to point to real things that cannot be easily pointed to (You cannot point to, for example,thetreadmillofproductionthewayyoucanpointtoapollutedriver;seeECOnnection11)Itryto convey in this book, especially in the later chapters, the nature of those deep drivers: the sociological forces underlying today’s environmental ills drivers that also must be addressed as we envision more sustainable, just futures As the book progresses, I drill further down in an attempt to better grasp the really real the phenomenadrivingthesedebates
Environmental controversies are never just about any one thing. The above discussion ought to have made thisclear.Contextmatters.
It is important to remember, however, that this context also changes over time, a point that is particularly salient when discussion turns to behavioral, and ultimately socioecological, change Structures social, economic, political, legal, and even technological can gather what could be thought of as sociological momentumovertime.Iamdrawinghereonthetermtechnologicalmomentum,whichwascoinedanddeveloped bythefamedhistorianoftechnologyThomasHughes(1969)
According to Hughes, society has the greatest control over a technology when it is first introduced As a technology matures, however, and becomes embedded within society and society becomes further intertwined with the technology it becomes increasingly difficult to change paths. Today’s gas-powered
automobile, for example, would be of considerably less effect were it not for oil, roads, automotive engineers, gas stations, car companies, government taxes on fuel, pro-automobile cultural imperatives, and the like. The nowclassicmovieBacktotheFuture,PartIII(1990)illustratesthisperfectly MartyMcFly(playedbyMichael J Fox)findshimselfin1885withagasoline-poweredDeLorean,andhis“futuristic”vehicleisworthless:cars are nothing more than processed raw materials when abstracted from the system out of which they emerged. Evenunderstandingsoffuelareconditionedbythesecontextualconditions.Nothingisinherentlyfuel.Fuel is simply a term for a carrier of energy A system must be in place that utilizes a particular carrier of energy if said carrier is to be called fuel Even oil Before society organized around it, thereby giving it the designation offuel,oilwasonceviewed“withindifferenceorannoyance”(Bolles1878,772).
ECOnnection11
SomeofThoseDeepSociologicalDrivers
Theliteratureisfullofframeworksdesignedtohelpusgraspwhyinstitutions,groups,andculturestreat the environment in the manner they do Three such approaches, among many, include the treadmill of production,metabolicrift,andtheprivilegingworldview
TREADMILLOFPRODUCTION(SEEALSOCHAPTER10):
Modern capitalistic societies are driven by a never-ending commitment to growth a treadmill. With the support of government and a complicit public, industrial production is allowed to expand, which in turn places still further demands on nature while creating growing amounts of waste (which in turn overload waste sinks, like the Earth’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide) The process contains the following paradox: economic growth is privileged, yet the environmental destruction that follows disrupts and severely threatens the system’s ability to ensure long-term economic expansion (Schnaiberg 1980)
METABOLICRIFT(SEEALSOCHAPTER10):
A metabolic rift exists in the exchange between social systems and natural systems, which is hypothesized to lead to ecological crisis (Foster 1999) The origins of the concept lie in the writings of KarlMarx,referringtothecrisisinsoilfertilitygeneratedbyurbanization nutrientsfromthesoilwere exported to cities in the form of agricultural products but not returned to the land, causing a disruption in the aforementioned exchange Over time the process created an ecological crisis, namely, in the case of London, a human-waste-filled River Thames and depleted soil in the countryside Similar rifts have beenshowntoexistintheEarth’scarboncycleandtheoceans’fisheries.
PRIVILEGINGWORLDVIEW(SEEALSOCHAPTER13):
Thisisanespeciallydiverseliterature,encompassinghowphilosopherssincethetimeofPlatoseparated nature from society (and mind from body) as well as the historical tendency to feminize nature and the hypermasculine language tied to civilization’s need to dominate and tame “her.” One especially influential tradition has its roots in a 1967 article by Lynn White Jr published in the magazine Science The essay, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” argues that in order to understand environmental problems we must first examine and critique our attitudes toward nature. According to White, prevailing attitudes toward nature are rooted in religious beliefs. As White wrote, “What people do about their ecology depends on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them Human ecology is deeply conditioned by beliefs about our nature and destiny that is, by religion” (White 1967, 1206). White focused his analysis on Western Christianity (both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism). He asserted that Western Christianity is “the most anthropocentric religion the worldhasseen”(1205)andthatitencouragesandlegitimizesadangerousindifferencetotheintegrityof ecological systems White argued that within Christian theology, “nature has no reason for existence save to serve ” (1207) humanity and thus “bears a huge burden of guilt” (1206) for the environmental messwearein.
When thought of in abstract isolation, technological artifacts indeed, all “things” appear innocuous and open to change. In reality, however, as contexts change, and as society organizes itself around particular ways of doing things, these artifacts can gather momentum. What I like about the metaphor momentum is that it keepsusfromreducingthesediscussionstoafocusonunembeddedthings
I frequently come across comparisons between the truly impressive public transportation systems in Western Europe and Japan and the truly abysmal system found in the United States. Pointing to the widespread use of mass and individual (eg, biking) transit in parts of Europe, a number of people have told me, “There’s no reason we can’t duplicate that system here” True enough; there is no reason we can’t duplicatethatsystemintheUnitedStates.Buttherearealotofreasonswehavenot.
BeforeWorldWarII,UScitiesarguablyhadthebestpublictransportationsystemsintheworld.Following the war, the nation found itself at a crossroads: should those systems be rebuilt and updated (as was being done throughout Europe), or should another transportation model be adopted, namely, the car? We all know the outcome of that decision. And since then, over the course of more than a half century, the country as a whole has slowly organized itself around the automobile. In doing this, the United States has sunk literally trillions of dollars of capital into this transportation model, virtually guaranteeing that the car will remain a central fixture in our lives for decades to come Here are some examples of how we have stacked the deck in favor of the “choice” to drive a car over other methods of transportation: building parking lots and by making space for cars to park on taxpayer-funded streets; government funding of an extensive infrastructure of roads and bridges that in many cases can be used only by automobiles; restaurants like Starbucks and McDonalds incorporating the automobile into their architectural plans by offering drive-through lanes; and the proliferationofurbansprawl,whichsimultaneouslywasmadepossiblebecauseofthecarwhilefurthermaking ownership of one a necessity. This level of organization this momentum makes using the car quite attractive On the other hand, policy decisions make public transportation, the bike, and walking less convenient and therefore less attractive This is especially apparent when comparing the United States to other countries, where the decision was made long ago to structurally organize around multiple modes of transportation, which explains why in the Netherlands 27 percent of all trips are by bike versus less than 1 percentintheUnitedStates(L Brown2009,153)
Sociological structures, however, refer to more than bricks, concrete, and rails Another reason why the DutchusetheirbikesmorethanAmericansisbecausetheformerarelesspressedfortime.Arecentstudyout of University of California, Los Angeles, highlights three important differences between the two countries that produce these asymmetries in available time (Smart et al 2014) First, family-friendly labor policies like flex time and paternity leave allow Dutch families to divide child care responsibilities more evenly than American families. Second, workweeks in the Netherlands are shorter. Lastly, Dutch parents do less chauffeuring of children than American parents Walkable neighborhoods and a high-quality bike infrastructureintheNetherlandsmakeiteasyandsafeforchildrentowalkorbiketoschool(seeImage11)
Cyclists bike over a railway in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. In this city there are many alternatives bike, walking, tram, and bus to the car. Source:lornet/Shutterstockcom
In short, the automobile, as the dominant mode of transportation in the United States, has a significant amount of momentum behind it. This is not to suggest that our hands are tied, that we cannot move away from the car and replicate a transportation system more like what’s found in, say, the Netherlands. Rather, it is an acknowledgment that change of such magnitude comes with significant transaction costs The question is:Arewewillingtopaythem?Andarelatedquestion:Shouldallmembersofsocietypaythesecostsequally?
TheMessyRelationshipBetweenBehaviorsandAttitudes
In the small rural Iowa town where I grew up, my parents carefully separate their recyclables from the other rubbish that ends up in the garbage truck. They also have to dutifully study every plastic container and verify its number (only certain numbers, and very few numbers at that, can be recycled) Finally, they have to haul their recycle bins to the nearest pickup site, which, fortunately for them because they live in town, is only aboutthree-quartersofamileaway.Itwouldbesomucheasierifmyparentsjustthreweverythingaway.But they don’t. They put up with the “cost” of recycling. I know many in my hometown, and especially those living in the surrounding countryside, however, who do not For them, all household waste ends up in either thelandfillortheburnpile
Once, one of my more ecologically passionate friends, after hearing this story, looked at me with disbelief, unabletoacceptthatpeoplechoosenottorecycle.Heaskedme,“Whydotheydothis?Don’ttheycareabout the environment?” I think his questions missed the mark These divergent behaviors seem not to reflect vast differences in attitudes For example, one individual from my hometown who does not recycle, a lifelong friend,hasbeenacard-carryingmemberoftheSierraClubforaslongasIcanremember.Hehasahardtime walking, lives far from town, and prefers not to drive, which makes the practice of recycling very difficult. Similarly, I know some people in the town where I now live, Fort Collins, Colorado, who admit to having verylittleinterestinreducingtheirimpactontheenvironmentbutstilldiligentlyrecycle
Fort Collins has a mixed-recycling program. In other words, if it is recyclable and, unlike in my parents’ town, every piece of plastic is recyclable it goes into a massive blue bin that is wheeled out with the trash to bepickedup That’sit Easy Moreover,unlikemyparents,whosegarbagefeeallowsthemtosetoutasmany trash bags as they wish, there is an economic incentive in Fort Collins to divert waste into the recycle stream; namely,youpaymoreforlargertrashcans.Toputitincost-and-benefitterms:whereasitcostsmyparentsto
recycle in terms of time, hassle, and braving the elements (Iowa winters can be brutal) it costs residents of FortCollinsnotto.
This goes back to a point I made earlier about the need to contextualize social behavior I supervised a visiting student from Russia for six months who wanted to learn more about the field of environmental sociology. One of the things that interested her was how attitudes toward the environment in the United States differed from those in Russia. Coming across a statistic about the amount of solid waste that Colorado State University my employer recycles (something like 56 percent), she assumed this behavior was evidence of deep attitudinal affinities toward the environment After noting how comparatively little her Russianuniversityrecycles,sheasked,“Whatdotheydoheretodevelopthesegreenattitudes?”Holdingupa ubiquitous recycle bin and pointing to the words mixed recycling, I proceeded to tell her about how socioorganizational changes now make recycling as easy as throwing things away (if not easier, as rubbish bins are notoriouslydifficulttofindincertainuniversitybuildings)
The moral of these two stories: structural changes go a long way toward changing behavior. And many times, these changes go further than attitudinal changes alone. As my nonrecycling but otherwise environmentally minded friend from my hometown reminds us, having the “right” attitudes does not do anyone(ortheenvironment)anygoodifsocietyfailstoprovidecost-effectivewaystoactonthosebeliefs
I realize that the idea of changing behaviors prior to attitudes is somewhat counterintuitive. Yet, for some people at least, perhaps that is what we ought to be shooting for. Just to be clear: I am not talking about making people do something that they don’t want to do In fact, I am saying just the opposite Recognizing thatsacrificeisnotforeveryone,weshouldstrivetoreorganizesocietyinsuchawaythatindividualschoosea moresustainablepath likethoseIknowwhorecoilatthethoughtofbeinglabeledan“environmentalist”but still diligently recycle. Sacrifice is a rather uninspired solution, and my experience has been that the message tendstoturnpeopleoff,especiallythosewithexceedinglylargeecologicalfootprints Howcanwehavepeople wanttoactlikeanenvironmentalisteveniftheydon’twanttobecalledit?
I lay no claim to having the answers about what ought to be done. That is a question best left for us all, collectively,todecide.ButIdoknowwewillneverbeabletoansweritcomprehensivelyuntilwehaveagrasp of the level of complexity involved The road ahead is not going to be easy, but, as the following chapters explain,thereareviablewaysforward
TheJourneyAhead
Some readers (and colleagues) might wonder why, as a professionally trained environmental sociologist, I did not include the term environmental sociology in the book’s title. You might say it was a pragmatic move to select a title that does not tie me to any one particular disciplinary narrative Citing my own earlier plea (see Carolan 2005b) to social scientists to expand their sociological imaginations and see the explanatory power of nontraditional sociological variables, Riley Dunlap calls for the “pragmatic employment of environmental indicators in empirical research investigating linkages between social and biophysical phenomena” (2010, 23; emphasis added) This book takes this pragmatic call to heart The conceptual and analytic approaches discussed in the forthcoming chapters come from many disciplines: sociology, to be sure, but also anthropology,geography,politicalscience,scienceandtechnologystudies,andeconomics,amongothers.AsI tell my students, there are many ways to make sense of today’s ecological state. Undoubtedly, there will be those who find fault with how I go about discussing a particular environmental issue, thinking I should have used “theory X” or “analytic device Y” I accept such criticism I make no claims that the analyses that follow are the only ways or even the best ways to make sense of the environmental issues discussed. Space constraints limit the amount of detail that can be conveyed about any particular topic. But that’s okay. The chapters are meant to start discussions, not stifle them by claiming to be the last word on any given subject I urgeyoutocritique,elaborate,andrefinethetheoriesandargumentsinthisbook
The following chapters are problem and solution focused. In addition to describing what is wrong (and why),theyalsodiscussalternativeinstitutional,cultural,technological,ethical,andpoliticalformsthatseekto facilitate more sustainable outcomes Each chapter follows a similar organizational structure: a brief overview onthecurrentstateoftheissue,anoverviewofsomeofthewayssocialscientistshaveexploredit,followedby asociological(andthusstillcritical)discussionofsolutions.
Although each chapter is written to stand alone, the full pragmatic force of the text is best felt when it is read cover to cover The reason for this is simple: the most sustainable solutions (in other words, the real solutions) rarely apply to just one problem In fact, if we dig deep enough, we would discover that many of today’s environmental problems have related causes. Having already cautioned readers to thinking only in terms of grand narratives, it should not come as a surprise that I reject the view that environmental problems
are the result of any one thing Yet I do not symmetrically assign fault, either The problems we face may not beentirelytheproductofanyonething,butsomethingscertainlydeservetheirfairshareoftheblame.Thus, as the book progresses from “Living in a Material World” (Part I) to “At the Intersection of Ecology and Society” (Part II) to “Organizing a Sustainable Society” (Part III) and, finally, to “Shifting the Focus to Results”(PartIV), critiques sharpen, and proposed solutions become more complete, as the discussion moves closertothosenotablyculpablesociologicalartifacts,whichIzeroinoninthelaterchapters.Asnotedearlier, with each section I attempt to drill further down to uncover the really real social dynamics on which considerableblamecanbelaidandwhich,oncechanged,pointtoopportunitiesfortruesustainability
Thus, if the solutions proposed early in the text seem shallow, they are. This does not lessen their importance:whenyou’resick,youneedtotreatthesymptomsasmuchasthecause.Yetthepragmatistinme wantsmore;afterall,pragmaticsolutionsneedtonotonlyberealisticbutalsoresolvethatwhichailsus
The first part focuses on issues related to certain environmental phenomena Specifically, time is taken in this part of the book to examine problems and solutions linked to greenhouse gases (Chapter 2), waste (Chapter 3), biodiversity (Chapter 4), and water (Chapter 5). One of the themes of Part I is that the social sciences have plenty to say about artifacts often assumed to be within the exclusive purview of natural scientistsandengineers PartIIadjustsitsinvestigationslightlytodiscussphenomenathatexplicitlyweavethe “social” and “natural” realms together in complex and fascinating ways. The problems and solutions discussed here revolve around issues relating to population (Chapter 6), transportation (Chapter 7), food (Chapter 8), and energy production (Chapter 9) Part III offers the most pointed response to the question, What does sociology have to do with today’s environmental problems? To put it plainly: everything By highlighting the phenomena driving today’s environmental problems those phenomena located in the realm of “the real” in Figure1.2 my wish is to approach the closing chapter on a sincerely hopeful note. Only by naming the root dynamics of today’s environmental ills from the political economy (Chapter 10) to issues of governance (Chapter 11) and inequality and growth (Chapter 12) can we expect to have a real chance of naming truly sustainable solutions. Part IV concludes our journey. Whereas a considerable amount of attention is given throughout the book to structural phenomena (like the aforementioned sociological momentum), the book concludes by elaborating on how social change ultimately hinges on people behaving and thinking in particular ways (Chapter13) Change must start with us Lest we forget, although social forces act on us as if independentfromus,theyareproductsofourmaking.Thisfactisperhapsthemosthopefulmessageofall.
The reader will also find a number of features provided in the forthcoming chapters In addition to many figures,tables,andimages,avarietyoftextboxesareinterspersedthroughouttoaddeitherfurtherdetailoran illustrative case study to bolster a point, concept, or theme in the main text These take four forms: Case Studies, which briefly highlight case studies relevant to points made throughout the text; Ethical Questions, to highlight the value judgments that lurk everywhere when talking about environmental phenomena; ECOnnections, which I use to interject additional information into the text with minimal disruption to the flow of the main narrative; and Movement Matters, which offer vignettes on grassroots movements that have affectedlegislation.Finally,suggestionsforadditionalreadingsareprovidedattheendofeverychapter,asare questions to help spur further thought and discussion on the subject matter Also at the end of each chapter are Important Concepts, Relevant Internet Links, and Suggested Videos (many of the videos are available for freeonline)
In your experience do people, books, and professors and instructors seem more interested in talking aboutenvironmentalproblemsthansolutions?Ifso,whydoyouthinkthisis?
Do old distinctions between the social and natural sciences still hold when facing today’s environmental problems?Whataboutdisciplines?Dowestillneedthem?Whyorwhynot?
SUGGESTEDADDITIONALREADINGS
Harris,P,andG Lang 2015 “EastAsiaandtheEnvironment:AThematicInstruction”InRoutledgeHandbookofEnvironmentandSocietyin Asia,editedbyP HarrisandG Lang,3–18 NewYork:Routledge Jackson,T 2014 “SustainableConsumption”InHandbookofSustainableDevelopment,2nded,editedbyG Atkinson,S Dietz,E Neumayer, andM Agarwala,279–290 Northampton,MA:EdwardElgar Lidskog, R., Arthur M., and P. Oosterveer. 2015. “Towards a Global Environmental Sociology? Legacies, Trends, and Future Directions.” CurrentSociology63(3):339–368
RELEVANTINTERNETLINKS
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envirosoc.org. The Environment and Technology subsection of the American Sociological Association. Thisisanexcellentresourceforanyoneinterestedinenvironmentalsociology vimeocom/channels/186979 Videos of the late William “Bill” Freudenburg describing a host of environmental sociological phenomena anything from “the history of modern environmental theory” to “the‘nature’ofsprawl.”
SUGGESTEDVIDEOS
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AllThingsAreConnected (2012) While our ethical traditions know how to deal with homicide and even genocide,thesetraditionscollapseentirelywhenconfrontedwithecocideandbiocide Disruption (2014) Shot during the hundred days prior to the People’s Climate March held September 21, 2014, in New York City, the film serves as a cautionary countdown intended to motivate viewers to takeactionontheissueofclimatechange
Earth Days (2009) A documentary about the rise of the environmental movement in the United States andthefirstEarthDayin1970
Earth on Fire (2014). A one-hour, Australian special that focuses on mega fires and fires in general as theyrelatetoforestsandtheecosystem
• What actions of yours clearly cost the environment? Why do you still do them? What would it take for thosebehaviorstochange?
Living Downstream (2010) After being diagnosed with cancer, acclaimed ecologist and author Sandra Steingraberinvestigatesthelinksbetweencancerandenvironmentaltoxins
LIVINGINAMATERIALWORLD
GreenhouseGases:WarmerIsn’tBetter
Afriendoncetoldmethatyouknowwhenaperson,catchphrase,orsubjecthasbecomepartofourcollective consciousness when it has been immortalized on a bumper sticker. Well, I once saw a bumper sticker that read,“Greenhousegases:proofthatyoucanhavetoomuchofagoodthing”(Greenhousegasesareanygases in the atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared range) True to my friend’s words, the topic of human-induced climate change a change in climate patterns that results from human activity like burning fossil fuels has become unavoidable. (The terms climate change and global warming are usedinterchangeablythroughoutthebook)
Contrary to what certain politicians and media personalities might be saying, scientific debate around climatechangeiscomingtoaclose.Tobesure,therestillisaclimatechangedebatewithinthepeer-reviewed literature. Yet that debate is ultimately around questions such as “What are we to do about climate change?” and “Do we all bear equal responsibility for it, or do some individuals and nations deserve a greater share of the blame?” rather than “Is climate change happening?” Interestingly, whereas the peer-reviewed scientific literature is nearly unanimous in its support of the thesis that climate change is occurring and that it is anthropogenic (aka human induced) (Cook et al. 2013), the general public holds a greater diversity of views (seeECOnnection21)
So we are left with sociological questions Some of these include, for example, What might account for the aforementioneddiscrepancybetweentheviewsheldamongclimatescientistsandthegeneralpublic?Howdid we get ourselves into this mess? and Why is it proving so hard to change course? A thorough treatment of these questions will have to wait for later sections of the book, when we talk about pressures and drivers In this chapter I address various societal impacts that we can expect from climate change there are, unfortunately,many andsuggestpotentialsolutions.
FastFacts
Aportionofthesun’sshort-waveradiationthatenterstheatmosphereisabsorbedbytheearth’ssurfaces, whereitisthentransferredintolong-waveradiation(namely,heat)andreradiatedbackintospace.Some of this energy, however, is absorbed by the planet’s atmosphere, thanks to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), a process known as the greenhouseeffect (Other major greenhouse gases are methane andnitrousoxide)
Notonlyareatmosphericlevelsofgreenhousegasesrising,buttherateofincreaseisgrowing Inthe1970s and 1980s, global emissions of CO2 from burning fossil fuels increased at a rate of 2 percent annually Since 2000 the annual rate of increase of the world’s CO2 emissions is now 3 percent At this rate of increase,globalCO2 emissionswilldoubleeverytwenty-fiveyears(Hamilton2010,4)
Humans emit more than 35 billion tons of CO2 into the atmosphere annually, while natural emissions (coming from plants breathing out CO2 and outgassing from the ocean) equal about 776 billion tons of CO2 per year (Olivier et al 2014) Natural sources, however, absorb more than they emit roughly 788 billion tons annually Yet this difference is not enough to compensate for all that humans pump into the atmosphere
A comparison between satellite data from 1970 to 1996 found a steady decline in the amount of energy escaping to space at the wavelengths that greenhouse gases absorb Since there was no indication that there was less solar energy coming in, this is direct experimental evidence for a significant increase in the earth’s greenhouse effect (Harries et al 2001) This evidence has since been independently corroborated
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
Father —We shall have time enough for many things, my dear children; but for the present, it is sufficient to prove to you, that God has not made any thing to be wholly useless; and that it is the duty of men, on whom he has bestowed the gifts of wisdom and intelligence, to employ those faculties, in discovering the utility of the different productions he has allowed to exist.
Jack.—For my part, I have done with the Indian fig-tree, its fruit, its cochineal, and its ugly thorns, and I will never go near it again.
Father.—If the plant could speak, it would most likely say: That little boy shall not come near me any more. Without any reason, or any necessity, but purely out of contradiction to his father, he attacks and destroys me; me, who would have done him service, if he would but have treated me with kindness, and have been careful in coming near me. And now, Jack, if your leg is still painful, apply a leaf of the karata to it, for I recollect that the plant possesses the property of curing wounds. He accordingly took my advice, and in a few minutes was able to join us on our road to Tent House.
Now then, said Ernest, I have had an opportunity of learning the valuable properties of the karata tree, and of the Indian fig-tree; but I wish I could also be informed respecting those tall plants which look like sticks covered with thorns, that I perceive every where about us; I see neither fruits nor insects on them: of what use then, father, do you think they can be?
Father.—It is not in my power, my dear boy, to explain to you the uses of all the plants in the world; I presume that many exist which have no other use than contributing to the sustenance of different kinds of animals; and, as I have already told you, it is for man, by his superior intelligence, to discover those that can be applied to his own use. Many possess medicinal qualities of which I am ignorant, and which will become better known as the world advances in age. It occurred to me that one of the plants we saw today, named the prickly candle, is of the kind which Bruce describes in his Travels to Abyssinia, and of which he gives a drawing; the only difference that I perceive, being the size. They serve, says he, for food to the elephant and the rhinoceros; the first with his strong teeth, or his trunk, and the latter with his horn, lay hold of this seeming stick, and
rip it up from one end to the other; they then devour the pith, and sometimes the rind.
Ernest.—The palate of these animals must surely be made of iron, to be able to chew such a thorny substance without injury.
Fritz.—Why so? Camels and asses are very fond of thistles, and appear to digest them extremely well. It is probable, therefore, that the stomach of these animals is so formed, that these prickly substances occasion in it only an agreeable excitation, favourable to their appetite and their digestion.
Father.—Your idea is not a bad one; and if it be not true, it is at least probable.
Fritz.—Will you tell me, father, the precise difference between true and probable?
Father.—Your question is one of those which have occupied the attention of philosophers for two thousand years. It would therefore be too tedious to discuss at this moment; I will, however, endeavour to make my answer such, as to be of use to you, in the science of logic, or the art of reasoning. Let us see, if you will understand it. What we call true, is that which cannot in any way be contradicted, and which exactly agrees, in every point, with the idea we conceive of a certain object, or as it really exists before our eyes: for example, when I make an impression with my seal on some warm wax, it is absolutely true that the figure impressed on the wax, is the same as that on the seal. A thing is probable, when we have a variety of motives for believing it true, without, however, being able to bring any proof. Again, we call false, that which is in positive contradiction to all our notions, our reason, and our experience. Is it true, probable, or false, that a man can fly up into the air?
All.—It is false, absolutely false.
Father.—How so?
Jack.—Because the thing is impossible.
Father.—Very well, my young philosopher, and why is the thing impossible?
Jack.—Because it is not possible.
Father —Ha, ha, ha! here is a pretty round of possible and impossible. It is false, because no such thing can be done, and no such thing can be done, because it is not possible. Presently you will tell me that it is impossible because it is false. Try again, my lads, we must have some better reasons. What say you, Ernest?
Ernest.—I say, that the thing cannot be done, because it is not in the nature of man to fly; that, having no wings, he is not formed for flying.
Father.—Well, but if some one should assert, that a man is able to make a machine, by the assistance of which he can raise and support himself in the air without wings, and without the machine’s resting upon any thing; would this be probable or improbable? What think you, Fritz?
Fritz.—I think I should have said improbable, if I had not known that people have accomplished what you describe by the invention of balloons.
Father.—And why should you have thought it improbable?
Fritz.—Because man is, in his nature, heavier than the air; and I should have supposed, that a machine of whatever kind, instead of diminishing, would only add to his weight.
Father —Very well reasoned. But you would be told that this machine is of large dimensions, and composed of a close, light kind of silk, and that it is filled with air chemically prepared, which being much lighter than atmospheric air, tends perpetually to ascend, and supports the man in the air, as bladders support you upon the water. Do you understand all this, my boy? and what have you to say in answer?
Fritz.—Yes, father, I understand it; and I perceive how it might be probable, that since man has discovered a means to be sustained upon water, he might also find the means to raise and sustain himself in the air.
Father.—And when a multitude of persons of veracity, and of different ages, shall declare, that with their own eyes they saw a balloon, to which a parachute was fastened filled with men, and that
all mounted in the air together, and disappeared above the clouds; should you still maintain that it is false that a man can fly?
All.—No, to be sure, we should say that it is quite true that he can fly.
Father.—And yet you all said but a minute ago, that it was absolutely false.
Fritz.—Ah! but we said that, father, of a man by himself, independently of any machine he might construct; for though nature has refused him wings, she has not failed to bestow on him an inventive mind, which more than compensates for that deficiency.
Father.—Your observation is perfectly just, and I hope you will not fail to profit by it. With the aid of his intelligence, and his reason, there is scarcely any thing which man cannot attain to. But to return to our example: you will find in it the definition of the words which you ask me about: it is false, that man of himself can fly; it is probable, that by the aid of a machine of his own invention, he may be enabled to mount and sustain himself in the air; and it is absolutely true, that this has been effected by man, though without his having yet found a certain means of guiding these factitious wings; a defect, which in a great measure renders his discovery useless.
My Wife.—Well, now we have had a long lesson upon the subject, during which I have not been able to put in one single little word; I am afraid you will make your boys so learned, that I shall not know on what subjects to converse with them.
Father.—There is no fear of that, my dear; for even should I teach them all I know myself, they would not be very learned. A man should always endeavour to acquire knowledge: if he lives in the world, he is in consequence the more esteemed, the more respected, and knows the better how to manage his affairs: if, as will most likely be the case with our sons, their lot is to live in a kind of solitude, it will be less tiresome to them, if they have cultivated the habit of thinking and reflecting; so that even the little information in my power to give them, may be of use. I have never had occasion to regret that I knew so much, but often that I knew too little, particularly in our present situation, where no other master can be obtained for
them than myself and nature. If the boys could conceive what advantages they would derive from study, they would impose upon themselves the strictest application, while at the age when learning is so easy. Conversing thus, we reached Jackall’s River, which we crossed, stepping with great care from stone to stone, and very shortly arrived at our old habitation, where we found every thing in perfect order as we had left it; and we immediately dispersed, each in pursuit of what he intended to take away. Fritz loaded himself with powder and shot; I and my wife and Francis employed ourselves in filling our pot with butter, the carrying of which on our return it was agreed was to fall on me. Ernest and Jack looked about for the geese and ducks; but as they were become somewhat savage, the boys could not succeed in catching one of them. The idea then occurred to Ernest, of taking a small bit of cheese, and tying it to the end of a piece of string, and holding it to float in the water. The voracious animals hastened eagerly to seize it. In this way, Ernest drew them towards him, one by one, with the cheese in its mouth, till he had caught the whole: he put them in their pocket handkerchiefs, leaving only their heads at liberty; and then we fastened them as a parcel to our game-bags, so that each had his share in carrying them.
We had thought of taking back with us a provision of salt; but we could not carry so much as we wished, the sacks being occupied with potatoes. I, however, thought of throwing in a certain quantity loose into one of them, to fill up the space between the potatoes: in this way we secured a tolerable supply; but it made the sack so heavy, that no one was willing to be incumbered with it. Fritz proposed that our faithful Turk should carry it; and accordingly we took off his superb coat of mail, and left it at Tent House, and the sack was tied on the back of the quiet, kind-tempered animal. Ponto was to carry the monkey as before.
We set out on our return, loaded with treasures, and the appearance of our caravan was even more amusing than it had been before: the ducks and geese, with their heads and necks stretching out at our shoulders, cackling with all their might, gave us a truly singular and ludicrous appearance: we could not help laughing immoderately as we passed the bridge, one after the other, loaded in
so strange a fashion. Our mutual jokes, and the general good humour which prevailed, served to shorten the length of the walk, and we none of us were sensible of fatigue, till we were seated under our tree at Falcon’s Stream. My wife now prepared to console us, by putting some of the potatoes which we so eagerly desired to taste, immediately on the fire. She next milked the cow and the goat, and refreshed us with a draught of their warm milk, giving us a proof how the natural strength may be increased, by the feelings of conjugal and maternal love. The kind-hearted woman was at least as much fatigued as any of us; yet she made no attempt to rest herself, till she had provided us with all she had to give for our refreshment. At length, after dining heartily on our potatoes, on which we bestowed abundance of commendation, we concluded the day with evening-prayers, and then joyfully climbed our ladder to seek the blessing of repose in our aërial castle.
CHAPTER XV.
The imaginary bear The sledge A lesson in natural philosophy.
I remarked the evening before, on our return to the sea-shore, a quantity of wood, of which I thought I could make a kind of conveyance for our cask of butter and other provisions from Tent House to Falcon’s Stream. I had secretly determined to go early the next morning, before my family should be awake, to the spot. I had fixed upon Ernest for my assistant, thinking that his indolent temper required to be stimulated to exertion. I made him feel as a great favour the preference I gave him, and he promised to be ready at a very early hour. I was also desirous to leave Fritz with the family, as, being the tallest and strongest, he was more able to protect the rest.
As soon as I perceived the first dawn of morning, I quietly awoke Ernest. He raised himself, stretching and gaping in his hammock. We descended the ladder without being perceived by the rest of the family, who continued to sleep soundly. The first thing we had to do, was to awake the ass, who was to be of our party; and that he might not go without a load, I made him draw a very large branch of a tree, which I wanted for my undertaking. As we walked along, I asked Ernest if he was not a little out of humour at being obliged to get up so early, to set about a laborious occupation, instead of remaining with his brothers, to shoot at the thrushes and the pigeons on the fig tree?
Ernest.—Not in the least, father: now I am once up and dressed, I do not mind it at all; I like being with you, and assisting you, very
much. My brothers will leave plenty of birds for me to shoot; for I will lay any wager, that their first fire at least will miss.
What makes you think so, my boy?
Because they will all forget to take the balls out of the guns, and to put in shot in their place: besides, I am sure that they will all fire from under the tree, and it is so high, that their shot cannot possibly reach it. I, for my part, have always fired from Tree Castle, which was the only way to succeed.
You may be right in your suspicions, answered I, but I have two remarks to make. The first is, that it would have been kinder and more generous in you, to have told your brothers these particulars, than to triumph in their ignorance; thus exposing them to spend their powder, which is so valuable an article, to no effect. The second is, that though it gives me pleasure to see you act with coolness and reflection, yet I am somewhat apprehensive of your falling into the habit of a certain slowness of decision, which may frequently prove injurious; there are occasions which require instant resolution, and cannot admit of a moment for reflection. He who, in a moment of alarm, of danger, or distress, preserves his presence of mind and decides instantly, has a great advantage over him who waits to calculate every possibility before he begins to act. This presence of mind, joined to great wisdom, is a quality of inestimable value, and it may be acquired by cultivating a habit of cool reflection and inquiry, as to how we should act under such or such a circumstance. If we do not acquire this habit, we suffer ourselves to be under the dominion of fear at the time of danger, and are consequently defeated. Let us see, for example, what you would do if we were suddenly surprised by a bear.
Ernest.—I almost believe I should run away as fast as I could.
Father.—And I believe so too; at least, you frankly assure me that it would be so. But if you were to reflect, you would conclude, that the bear having four legs and you only two, he would run much faster and for a much longer time than you, and would therefore soon overtake you.
Ernest.—Then I would fire upon him, if I had my gun; and now that I reflect upon it, I will not go out any more without it.
Father —This would still be acting without reflection; for your gun might easily miss fire, or you might only slightly wound the animal, and then you would have every thing to fear from his rage.
Ernest.—Well, then, I would wait with coolness till he should be only three steps from me; I would then fire my gun at his head, which would for ever cure him of the inclination to attack me.
Father.—It would cure either you or him, to a certainty; for you would run the risk of your gun’s missing fire, and it would then be too late to try any other expedient; for you would be torn to pieces in a moment.
Ernest.—Well, then, I would try another way I would lie down on the ground, hold my breath, and make believe I was dead, and the bear would turn me over and over; for it is said they will not touch a dead body.
Father.—This is a great mistake; I would advise you not to trust to it. Bears are often known to devour dead animals, and that they are even a powerful attraction to them.
Ernest.—Oh, but I would be prepared with my clasp knife, with which I would settle him in a trice, or I would knock him on the head with the end of my gun.
Father —All ineffectual means, I assure you. Do you think you would have strength enough to destroy so formidable a creature? or that you could penetrate so thick a hide with your clasp knife? Nor would you have the resource of climbing up a tree, for bears climb also. The only means you could use, and I confess it would be most cruel, would be to give up the ass to him, by keeping him before you in readiness. When the bear should begin the attack, you might try to shoot him with your pistol, or to plunge your knife into his throat. But I trust we shall have no such animal to encounter; for I should be sorry to sacrifice our poor ass, even in defence of our own lives.
Ernest.—And I too, father; but if there were no other means?
Father.—In such a case it is permitted to use the remedy, inhuman as it seems; while at the same time we should form a hope that it might be possible to save the ass also.
In this kind of conversation we reached the sea-shore, well content to have met with no bear, and at finding pieces of wood in great abundance, and to obtain which was the object of our walk. I determined to cut such pieces as I wanted, of the proper length, and to lay them cross-ways on the branches which the ass had drawn to the place, and by this means to make them serve as a kind of sledge. We lost no time in setting to work, and we added to the load a little chest, which we found half buried in the sands, quite close to the waves. We also provided ourselves with some poles which lay there, that we might use them as rollers, should we stand in need of them for passing difficult places, and then we set out on our return to Falcon’s Stream. When we were within a certain distance of our abode, we heard a loud firing, which informed us that the attack upon the ortolans was in good train; but on seeing us approach, the cries of joy which were uttered, resounded in every direction, and all ran eagerly to meet us. The chest we had brought was soon opened by a strong hatchet, for all were eager to see what was within. It contained only some sailor’s dresses and some linen, which was quite wet with the sea.
I had to account to my wife for having absented myself with one of the boys, without giving her notice, or bidding her adieu. She had been uneasy, and I confessed I had been to blame. In such a situation as ours, so many unforeseen and painful events might happen! She had discovered, however, that we had taken the ass with us, and this circumstance had consoled her. The sight of so many useful pieces of wood, and the promise of a sledge for better security in conveying her provisions for the table, soon appeased her discontent, and we sat down tranquilly to breakfast.
I next inspected the booty of the three sportsmen, who had shot, in all, no less than fifty ortolans and thrushes. As Ernest had foretold, their first fire missed; afterwards they had had various luck, now missing and now hitting, and had used so large a quantity of powder and shot, that when, by their brother’s advice, they were about to get up the tree and fire from thence, my wife and I stopped them, recommending a more frugal use of those materials, as they were our only means of defence, or of procuring food in future, or at least till we could make another visit to the vessel. I taught them how to
make some snares to be suspended from the branches of the figtree, and advised them to use the thread of the karata, which is as strong as horse-hair, for the purpose. What is new always amuses young persons, and the boys accordingly took a great fancy to this mode of sporting. Jack succeeded in his very first attempt; I left Francis to assist him, and took Fritz and Ernest to help me in making the sledge. As we were all hard at work, for my wife had joined the youngest boys, we suddenly heard a prodigious clatter among the fowls; the cock crowed louder than all the rest together, and the hens ran to and fro, as if they were pursued by a fox. I wonder what is the matter with the creatures, said my wife, rising; every day I hear the hens clucking as if they had been laying eggs. At this moment Ernest happened to look at the monkey, and remarked that he fixed his piercing eyes on the hens; and when he saw my wife approaching, driving the hens before her, he jumped quickly into a hollow place, under one of the roots of the tree, and hid himself. Ernest ran to the place as soon as he, and was fortunate enough to seize him, seeing that he held a new-laid egg in his paw, which he was going to conceal in this place for a future regale. The monkey sprang immediately to such another hole, and Ernest followed; here also he found some eggs, and brought them in his hat to his mother, who received them with great pleasure. The monkey was so greedy of this food, that he was sure to seize the eggs as soon as the hens had laid them. We inflicted no other punishment upon him for this little piece of knavery, than that of tying him up when the hens were about to lay. By this means, my wife soon collected a considerable number of eggs, and we waited with impatience for the time when the hens would sit, in the hope of seeing their species multiplied.
In the mean while, Jack had got up into the tree, and had suspended some of the snares to the branches, to catch the little devourers of our figs; he came down again to bring us the acceptable intelligence, that our pigeons, which we brought from the vessel, had made a sort of nest there of some dry grass, and that it already contained several eggs. I therefore forbade the boys from firing any more in the tree, for fear of alarming or wounding these gentle creatures. I also directed, that the snares should be frequently examined, to see that the pigeons were not caught in them, as they
might be strangled in their efforts to get loose. I should now even have forbidden the use of the snares, if I had not myself made them known to the boys, and that so very lately. It is imprudent at all times, for a tutor to contradict himself, and thus prove to his pupils that he was wrong in issuing such or such a command; a single word revoked on the part of the tutor, will occasion ten to be revoked by the pupil. We should always duly reflect before we lay a command on a child; but when once the word is pronounced, it should never be recalled, whether from caprice, from a disposition to indulge the child, or even from conviction. My sons had all murmured at my prohibition, in regard to the gunpowder; and little Francis with his innocent face came running to tell me, that we need only to sow some of it, and that he and his brothers were ready to bestow any labour, to have a large quantity of it at their own disposal. We all laughed heartily at the idea, and Professor Ernest did not overlook the advantage of the occasion, to display his science. My little sprig of wisdom, cried he, we may judge how much you know of what you are talking about; your field of gunpowder indeed! Do you think then, that gunpowder comes from seeds, like oats?
Father.—How else, then, is it produced, Mr. Professor? At least, you might be so good as to inform your little brother what you yourself know of its nature, since you laugh at his great ignorance on the subject.
Ernest.—I know that it is produced by art, but of the manner in which it is made, I confess I am myself ignorant. I imagine that it is prepared from charcoal, since it is so black, and that sulphur, of which it smells so strong, is mixed with it.
Father.—Add some saltpetre, and your answer will not be amiss; the saltpetre is in reality the principal ingredient; mixed with charcoal, it easily takes fire, and rarefies or expands the air that is mixed with it, by means of its elastic force. Touched with a spark of fire, it acts with extraordinary vehemence, and drives forward with astonishing force, whatever resists its action. So that balls or shot, impelled by this irresistible force, strike the object against which they impinge, so as to take away life: as you and I, and Fritz and Jack, see happen to us every day in letting off our guns.
The boys now had a thousand questions to propose, which brought on a sort of lesson in natural philosophy, as well as I could make it such, with the degree of information I possessed, and without instruments for experiments. The eldest boys understood the lesson pretty well, having previously some notion of the subjects; but little Francis, on hearing me say that the heat contained in bodies was brought out by motion or friction, asked, ludicrously enough, whether, in running very fast, he should not be in danger of being set on fire and burnt?
Your ideas run too fast, my little fellow, said I; but this I can tell you, that when a young boy like you, uses violent exercise, he runs at least the risk of inflaming his blood, and getting into a fever, or some other dangerous disease; and there results something like the burning you talk of, that may prove no less dangerous. But my remark is almost equally applicable to a person who takes too little exercise, and abandons himself to idleness; for such habits tend to vitiate the humours, and to corrupt the blood. Thus, my dear children, in this, as in every thing else, it is advisable to observe a just medium.
During this conversation, I was busily employed upon my sledge, which was soon completed; and I found that necessity had converted a preacher of moderate talents into a tolerably good carpenter. Two bent pieces of wood, the segments of a circle, formed the outline of my machine, which I fixed in their places, by a straight piece of wood, placed across, and firmly fixed to the bent pieces in the middle, and at the rear. I then fastened two ropes to the front of my work, and my sledge was finished. As I had not raised my eyes from my work, I did not know what my wife and the two youngest boys had been about. On looking up, I perceived that they had been stripping off the feathers from a quantity of birds, which the boys had killed, and that they afterwards spitted them on an officer’s sword, which my wife had turned into this useful kitchen utensil. I approved of the idea; but I blamed her profusion of dressing more birds at once than we could eat. She reminded me, that I had myself advised her to half roast the birds before putting into the butter, to be
preserved for future use. She was in hopes, she said, that as I had now a sledge, I should not fail of going to Tent House after dinner, to fetch the cask of butter, and in the mean while, she was endeavouring to be ready with the birds. I had no objection to this, and immediately determined on going to Tent House the same day, and requested my wife to hasten the dinner for that purpose. She replied that this was already her intention, as she also had a little project in her head, which I should be informed of, at my return. I, for my part, had one too, which was to take a bathe in the sea, and thus refresh myself from the heat and fatigue of my laborious occupations. I wished that Ernest, who was to accompany me, should bathe also; while Fritz was to remain at home for the protection of the family.
CHAPTER XVI.
A bathing, a fishing, the jumping hare, and a masquerade.
A soon as Ernest and I had dined, we prepared for our departure. Fritz presented each with one of the best cases of his own workmanship, which we stuck through our belts, and which, in reality, were ingeniously contrived for holding spoons and knives and forks, while room was left in the middle for a little hatchet. I praised Fritz for having thus brought his idea to perfection, and for contriving to make two cases with his skin instead of one. He had used the skin of the two fore-legs of the animal for one, and of the two hind legs for the other, and reserved the place in the middle, for the hatchet. Ernest showed a warmth of gratitude for his share in the benefit, of which I had not thought him capable.
We now set about harnessing the ass and cow to our sledge; each took a piece of bamboo-cane in hand, to serve as a whip; and resting our guns upon our shoulders, we began our journey. Ponto was to accompany us, and Turk to remain behind. We bade adieu to our companions, and put our animals in motion. We took the road by the sea-shore, where the sands afforded better travelling for our vehicle, than the thick wild grass. We reached Family Bridge, on Jackall’s River, and arrived at Tent House, without either obstacle or adventure. We immediately unharnessed the animals to let them graze, while we set to work to load the sledge, with the cask of butter, the cask of cheese, a small barrel of gunpowder, different instruments, some ball, some shot, and Turk’s coat of mail. These exertions had so occupied our thoughts, that it was late when we first
observed that our animals, attracted by the excellent quality of the grass on the other side of the river, had repassed the bridge, and wandered so far as to be out of sight. I was in hopes they would be easily found, and I directed Ernest to go with Ponto and bring them back, intending in the mean time to look for a convenient place, on the other side of Tent House, to bathe in. In a short time I found myself at the extremity of Providence Bay, and which ended, as I now perceived, in a marsh, producing the finest bulrushes it was possible to imagine; and further on, a chain of steep rocks, advancing somewhat into the sea, and forming a kind of creek, as if expressly contrived for bathing. The juttings of the rock even seemed like little separate cabinets, where one might be concealed from one’s companions. Enchanted with this discovery, I called out to Ernest to come and join me, and in the mean time, I amused myself with cutting some of the rushes, and imagining what use I could apply them to. Ernest neither replied nor came: so, after waiting a little, I resolved to go in pursuit of him, for I was unable to refrain from some uneasy sensations at his absence. Looking about in all directions, I at length discovered him at a distance, extended at his length on the ground, in the shade produced by Tent House. I approached him with a beating heart, fearing he might have been attacked by some wild beast; and was agreeably surprised at finding him in a sound and quiet sleep, while the ass and the cow were eating the grass close to the place where he lay.
Come, come, young traveller, you must awake, cried I, shaking him: while you are sleeping here, your animals may once more make their escape. He instantly awoke starting, and was soon on his feet. Oh! but I defy them to escape across the bridge, said he, rubbing his eyes; for I have taken away some of the planks, and left a space which they will have no great inclination to jump over.
Father.—Since your idle fit has rendered you inventive, I forgive it with all my heart; but is it not a pity to lose in sleeping the opportunity of doing something useful? Did you not promise your mother to carry her some salt? Slothfulness is always a fault, where labour is a necessity
Ernest.—But, father, my head was not idle, I assure you. I was planning something all the time.
Father.—Really, Ernest! Why, this is quite a novelty, for a boy of your age. Pray tell me what important and profound study it was, which made you go to sleep.
Ernest.—I will tell you. I was thinking, deeply, how difficult it would be to bring away from the vessel every thing which it contains.
Father.—And did you hit upon some method for removing the difficulty?
Ernest.—No, father, no great things; I fell asleep in the middle of my reflections.
Father.—So, this is the hard work your poor head was engaged in! —Discovering a difficulty, and finding no means for conquering it!
Ernest.—At this very moment an idea strikes me.—We ought to have a large raft; but the beams of the ship are too heavy for the purpose: I think it would be better to take a number of the empty casks, and nail some planks upon them to keep them all together. I have read that the savages of America fill the skins of goats with air, tie them to each other, and are thus enabled to use them as rafts upon the largest rivers.
Father.—This is a sound idea, and one day or other we may perhaps derive advantage from it: but for the present, my boy, we must make up for lost time: run, therefore, and fill this little bag with salt, which you will then empty into the large one that the ass is to carry; and which you will take care to fill equally on each side. During this time, I will take the refreshment of bathing; and then it will be your turn to bathe, and mine to take care of the animals. I returned to the rocks, and was not disappointed in my expectation of an enjoyment the most delicious; but I did not stay long, fearing my boy might be impatient for his share of so new a pleasure. When I had dressed myself, I returned to the place, to see if his work had advanced; but he was not there, and I supposed that he had again fallen asleep in some corner. Presently, however, I heard his voice calling out, father, father, a fish! a fish of monstrous size! Run quickly, father, I can hardly hold him! he is eating up the string of my line! I ran to the place from which the voice proceeded, and found
Ernest lying along the ground on his face, upon the extremity of a point of land, and pulling in his line, to which a large fish was hanging, and beating about with all his strength. I ran hastily and snatched the rod out of his hand, for I had some apprehension that the weight and activity of the fish, would pull him into the water. I gave a certain liberty to the line, to calm the fish, and then contrived to draw him gently along, till I had got him safely into a shallow, from which he could no longer escape, and thus the animal was effectually secured. We next examined him thoroughly, and it appeared to me that it could not weigh less than fifteen pounds; so that our capture was magnificent, and would afford the greatest pleasure to our good steward of provisions at Falcon’s Stream. You have now really laboured, said I to Ernest, not only with your head, but with your whole body; and I would advise you to wipe the perspiration from your face, and keep a little quiet before you venture into the water. You have procured us a dish of great excellence, which will last for several days, and have conducted yourself like a true chevalier, without fear and without reproach.
It was at least fortunate, observed he in a modest tone, that I thought of bringing my fishing-rod.
Father.—Certainly it was. But tell me how you came to see this large fish, and what made you think you could catch it?
Ernest.—I used to remark when we lived at Tent House, that there were innumerable quantities of fish in the water, just hereabout; the recollection of this circumstance made me determine to bring my fishing-tackle with me. In my way to the place where we keep the salt, I perceived a great number of little crabs, upon which fishes feed, near the water’s brink; I thought I would try to bait my hook with one of them; so I hurried my task of fetching the salt, and came to this spot, where at first I caught only about a dozen little fish, which are there in my handkerchief; but at the same time I remarked, that they were chased in the water by fishes of larger size. This gave me the idea of baiting my hook with one of the small ones; but the hook was too small, and my rod too weak. I then took one of the finest of the bulrushes you had just gathered, and put a larger hook to my line, and in a short time the large fish you see there seized upon the
bait, and paid his life for his voracity However, I must confess, that if you had not come to my assistance, I must either have let go my line, or have been dragged into the water; for the fish was stronger than I.
We now examined the smaller fishes he had caught, which for the most part, appeared to me to consist of trout and herrings, while I felt certain that the large one was a salmon. I immediately cut them all open, and rubbed them in the inside with salt, that they might not be injured by the heat. While I was employed in this occupation, Ernest went to the rocks and bathed, and I had time to fill some more bags with salt, before his return. We then set about harnessing and loading our animals; after which we restored the planks which had been taken from the bridge, and then resumed the road to Falcon’s Stream.
When we had proceeded about half way, Ponto, who had been walking quietly on before us, suddenly escaped, and by his barking gave us notice that he scented some game. We soon after saw him pursuing an animal, which seemed endeavouring to escape, and made the most extraordinary jumps imaginable. The dog continuing to follow, the creature in trying to avoid him, passed within gun-shot of the place where I stood. I fired, but its flight was so rapid, that I did not hit. Ernest, who was at a small distance behind, hearing the report of my gun, prepared his own, and fired it off at the instant the singular animal was passing near him, in pursuit of a hiding-place among the tall herbage just by: he had fired so skilfully, that the animal fell dead at the same instant. I ran hastily, and with extreme curiosity, to ascertain what kind of quadruped it might be. We found it, in form and general appearance, the most remarkable possible to conceive. It was of the size of a sheep, with a tail resembling that of a tiger; both its snout and hair were like those of a mouse, and its teeth were like a hare’s, but much larger; the fore legs resembled those of the squirrel, and were extremely short; but to make up of this, its hind legs were as long as a pair of stilts, and of a form strikingly singular. We examined the creature for a long time in silence; I could not be sure that I had ever seen an engraving of it in any Natural History, or a description of it in any book of Travels. Ernest, after a long and close examination, interrupted our silence by
an exclamation of joy: And have I really killed this extraordinary animal? said he, clapping his hands together. What will my mother and my brothers say? How astonished they will be! and how fortunate I am in securing so fine a prize! What do you think is its name, father? I would give all the world to know.
Father.—And so would I, my boy; but I am as ignorant as you. One thing, however, is certain, that this is your lucky day; for you have already performed two wonderful feats, by destroying two monsters, in the course of it; so that I shall be tempted to give you the name of my little Hercules. You also sometimes deserve that of my little Solomon. So let us both examine this interesting stranger with
