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Praise for

SOARING TO GLORY

“All Americans owe Harry Stewart Jr. and his fellow airmen a huge debt for defending our country during World War II. In addition, they have inspired generations of African American youth to follow their dreams.”

HENRY LOUIS GATES JR., Alphonse Fletcher University Professor, Harvard University

“In Soaring to Glory, my friend Harry Stewart’s extraordinary life is beautifully told by another friend, Philip Handleman. e struggles of the Tuskegee Airmen and our success against enormous odds makes for inspiring reading. I strongly recommend this book for anyone who wants to know more about the pioneering flyers who broke barriers and changed the world!”

LIEUTENANT COLONEL ALEXANDER JEFFERSON, USAF (ret.), cofounder, Tuskegee Airmen Inc.

“It is marvelous when a fascinating, well-written book turns out to be socially important as well. Soaring to Glory is exactly that, and arrives at a time when its message is badly needed by the nation. is is a book that can be recommended for a wide variety of reasons, the most important of which is the standard it sets for aviation literature.”

WALTER J. BOYNE, former director, Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum and best-selling author

“Starting in the early 1940s, Tuskegee Institute was at the forefront of helping prepare young African-American pilots to fight for freedom in the skies. Harry Stewart is one of those aspiring aviators who came to our campus as a first step in earning their wings, and then went on to become proudly identified as a Tuskegee Airman. His story of serving our country and overcoming obstacles not to mention the legacy the Tuskegee Airmen leave us with is an inspiration for us all.”

“is book is a masterpiece. It captures the essence of the Tuskegee Airmen’s experience from the perspective of one who lived it. e action sequences make me feel I’m back in the cockpit of my P-51C ‘Kitten’! If you want to know what it was like fighting German interceptors in European skies while winning equal opportunity at home, be sure to read this book!”

Contents

Prologue

Dogfight

Chapter One

“The Guts to Fly This Thing”

Chapter Two

The Sky Beckons

Chapter Three

Aiming High

Chapter Four

Saving the Experiment

Chapter Five

Trains before Planes

Chapter Six

The Quest for Silver Wings

Chapter Seven

“Your Friends of the 332nd Fighter Group”

Chapter Eight

“A Sight to Behold!”

Chapter Nine

Showdown at Five Thousand Feet

Chapter Ten

At the Mercy of the Winds of Fate

Chapter Eleven

The Best of the Best

Chapter Twelve

Harry Truman Keeps His Promise

Chapter Thirteen

A Dream Deferred

Chapter Fourteen An Everlasting Beacon

Chapter Fifteen

A Grateful Nation

Chapter Sixteen Keeping the Dream Alive

Epilogue

Affirming the Legacy

Acknowledgments About the Author

Bibliography

Index

To Delphine and Mary—the loves of our lives and to dreamers everywhere who, refusing to be deterred by the inevitable naysayers, look to the boundless sky and reach for the impossible

Prologue DOGFIGHT

ere can be no courage unless you are scared.

Harry Stewart was five thousand feet over the Luwaffe base at Wels, Germany.

His flight’s element had been reduced to seven planes when the eighth was disabled by mechanical problems. Still, they would be more than a match for the four German fighters they called out below. “Our seven Mustangs cranked over in a mass dive on the enemy aircra, ” Harry recalls.

But suddenly the hunters turned into the hunted as “the sky filled with at least another dozen fighters bearing Luwaffe insignia.”

e German fighters that the American airmen had spotted first were decoys. e Mustangs had been lured into an ambush. e confrontation was certain to end with some of the planes zooming down from the sky in spectacular crashes. Harry began breathing heavily. Everything was happening so fast now.

Barely out of his teens and never before engaged in a dogfight, Harry was almost overwhelmed by the powerful emotions flashing through his mind. ere was the anger at having been suckered into a trap. ere was the terror of the high-stakes dueling about to transpire. en the most primordial urge the instinct for survival kicked in. e young pilot’s feelings of fear and

doubt, a sinking feeling in the pit of his stomach, gave way to an unbounded determination, bolstered by his training.

Just days before, Harry had been promoted to first lieutenant, a sign of his superiors’ confidence in him. But matters of rank were the farthest thing from his mind as he locked eyes on the two enemy planes beneath him. He advanced toward his prospective quarry as individual skirmishes broke out among the other combatants. As Harry bore down on the tails of the planes in front of him, he saw that they were the long-nosed Focke-Wulf Fw 190D9s, the finest piston-powered fighters in the Luwaffe ’ s arsenal!

Indeed, an earlier version of the Fw 190, nicknamed the “butcher-bird,” was described in intelligence reports to Allied pilots as “ one of Germany’s best fighters. . . . ” U.S. military authorities had given the pilots only an incomplete description of this new, technologically superior version though their intelligence manual did include a surprisingly accurate artist’s rendering. e brass were clearly concerned about this stunner of German engineering.

e baseline design had been conceived in 1937 by Focke-Wulf’s brilliant Kurt Tank as a follow-on to the then world-beating Messerschmitt Bf 109. Tank’s original concept incorporated the 1,550-horsepower BMW 139 twinrow radial air-cooled engine, in a departure from the conventional wisdom that favored the newly developed 1,050-horsepower liquid-cooled DB 601A. While the Fw 190 A through C series and the F series had the same general configuration, the D series was a response to the perceived need for a highaltitude fighter.

e D series design returned to the idea of a liquid-cooled engine. FockeWulf selected the 1,776-horsepower Junkers Jumo 213A-1 12-cylinder inverted-V inline engine. e engine was combined with a MW 50 methanol-water injection boost system capable of upping the horsepower rating to 2,250 at sea level for short durations. e Jumo’s size necessitated the elongated nose as well as a lengthened a fuselage with increased tail surface area to enhance stability. e resulting airframe became an instant

classic, one of the most attractively proportioned and aesthetically agreeable to ever roll out of a factory and grace the sky.

And Harry’s element was now facing the ultimate iteration, the D-9 model, known as the “Dora-Nine.” By all accounts, it was a match for the Americans’ Mustangs.

e armament of the German plane was impressive not only for its firepower but for its ingenious placement. Two MG 131 13-mm machine guns were housed in the upper nose, directly in line with the pilot. Additionally, a pair of MG 151 20-mm cannon were installed in the wing roots, one per side. In the hands of a capable pilot, the Dora-Nine could be incredibly lethal against even the most advanced Allied fighters.

e Mustang’s speed brought Harry within firing range. He concentrated on the closer of the two German aircra, then squeezed off a few short bursts from his fighter’s six wing-mounted .50-caliber machine guns.

Smoke and flames suddenly sprouted from the Dora-Nine’s fuselage, a ghastly picture that was permanently imprinted in Harry’s memory.

As events evolved in a sequence defined in fractions of a second, Harry knew only to stay on the fighter’s tail. He contemplated another burst. But the plane in his gunsight had already started to break apart. An eagle’s wings had been clipped; the staff officers at Allied intelligence could scratch off one more Luwaffe fighter, and a damn good one at that!

But there was no time to relax and savor the air-to-air victory. ere was another enemy fighter dead ahead. When the second Luwaffe pilot realized what had happened to his trailing wingman, he yanked his plane hard right in an attempt to shake Harry off his tail. But Harry turned just as tightly, pulling high Gs which stretched the Mustang to the limits of its design envelope and pressed Harry down in his seat.

e high-G maneuvering wrung beads of sweat out of Harry’s upper forehead. e sweat came gushing down Harry’s face like currents cascading down a waterfall, leaving him drenched. He and his opponent were entwined in a primal struggle, gladiators exerting every ounce of brawn to

undo the other contestant; only here the weapons were planes heavily laden with finely engineered barrels pumping out deadly projectiles.

In the minuscule space of another fleeting second, Harry trained his sight on the tail of the bolting fighter. e opportunity to fire looked real, but how could Harry tell for sure in the madness of the fracas, the roughhousing of the planes in the roiled air? He couldn’t be sure, but with nothing to lose, he squeezed off another burst. An instant later in a sight that would also be seared in Harry’s memory the plane started to disassemble “in a cloud of black smoke and orange flame just like the first one. ”

Harry had scored his second victory of the day. But before he could even breathe a sigh of relief, he heard a squadron mate’s urgent call: “Bandit on your tail!” It was Carl Carey, who had scored against two of the Fw 190s himself.

Just then, tracer rounds started to whiz past Harry’s cockpit. ey were frightfully close. e sinking feeling in the pit of his stomach came back, but as before it was quickly suppressed by the imperative of survival.

is time Harry used his fighter’s speed, hoping to outrun his opponent. But the pilot of the Focke-Wulf was tenacious, just like Harry had been moments earlier when he was the pursuer. With the enemy glued to his tail in a sprint at treetop height, Harry reefed his mount over into an extreme right turn, like the one that had served him well moments before—only now it was a desperation maneuver. e German plane followed him, turning and turning in a test of strength and will, the G-forces almost unbearable, but secondary to the lust to come out of this brawl alive.

Men and machines were ratcheted to the limits of their capacity. Something had to give.

Chapter One

“THE GUTS TO FLY THIS THING”

ou shinest on though clouds hide thee from sight, And through each break thou sendest down thy light.

James Weldon Johnson, “Prayer at Sunrise”

On the morning of May 8, 1939, a rickety red-and-cream Lincoln-Page biplane, propitiously yet incongruously nicknamed Old Faithful, rose from Chicago’s Harlem Airport on a mission to change the world. e send-off was hopeful, even joyous. e biplane’s two African American pilots, Chauncey Edward Spencer and Dale Lawrence White, brimmed with high expectations, too rapt by the audacity of their project to entertain its probable limits.

Both Chauncey and Dale belonged to a fledgling group of flying enthusiasts who, despite stinging setbacks, held to the notion that aviation was the means to an emancipatory realm. e members of the mostly black National Airmen’s Association of America (NAAA) and its precursor, the Challenger Air Pilots Association, saw the sky as a medium inherently devoid of the artificial barriers erected by one class of men to block another. e law of the air, their thinking held, is fair and equitable; it applies uniformly without exception to all people regardless of race, color, creed, gender, ethnicity, ancestry, and national origin for it is not man ’ s law but nature’s law.

e sky as a metaphor for freedom was not a new idea. Mythology, poetry, and liturgy had long celebrated the kingdom where the birds sing as an idyllic oasis, a place of unfettered freedom, where the enslaved could escape oppression and the soul could find fulfillment. Up high enough and you were in heaven, utopia, the Elysium.

For dreamers, the airplane was the symbol of ascension come true, the real-life “sweet chariot” in the melodic Negro spiritual that sustained African American congregations at Sunday services with the promise of “coming for to carry me Home.” Chauncey and Dale, riding high on the enthusiasm of their supporters, believed that flight portended great things, not just entry into the previously denied domain of the open air but fruition, wholeness, equality. If only the gateway, the staircase to this near but distant nirvana, could be pried open, all the way open for everybody.

As described by Chauncey in his 1975 autobiography and as reported by Michael Laris in a 2003 feature in the Washington Post, the Spencer-White flight, formally known as the Goodwill Flight, set out to demonstrate that blacks could fly as well as whites, if given a chance. With the government about to roll out the Civilian Pilot Training Program to prevent a pilot shortage in case of war, blacks did not want to be le out. If barriers were going to be shattered, why not the one prohibiting blacks from flying the hottest planes of all those of the Army Air Corps? Aviation, already well out of its infancy and maturing now into a big and enduring enterprise, ought not to be tainted by the prejudice enforced with unwavering certitude in every other part of daily life for African Americans.

e flight plan, such as it was, called for the biplane to wend its way from Chicago to Washington, D.C. Several stops along the way would serve as warm-ups for a triumphal arrival in the nation’s capital. e flight was a unifying event in the black community, a cause to trumpet. Backing came from the black press, starting with a powerful endorsement from the pilots’ hometown newspaper, the Chicago Defender, whose city editor, Enoch P. Waters Jr., knew the key members of the NAAA and had championed the idea of a flight to Washington at one of their meetings.

Chauncey and Dale were breaking new ground, going where black pilots hadn’t gone before. Yes, as chronicled by historian Von Hardesty, there had been other famous long-distance flights by African Americans, like the 1932 transcontinental flight of James Herman Banning and omas Cox Allen and the 1934 Caribbean island-hopping flight of Charles Alfred Anderson and Albert Forsythe. But this time the pilots’ destination was the seat of government, the center of political power. Moreover, this would not be symbolism alone; if the flight unfolded as contemplated, the pilots would roam the halls of Congress pleading the cause of black aviation to any lawmaker willing to lend an ear.

Because the white press reported nary a word on the Goodwill Flight, the flyers ’ progress was known only to African Americans who read black newspapers or who heard about it by word of mouth from those who did. News of each waypoint reached and each leg completed infused blacks who were paying attention with feelings of pride, hope, and inspiration. As the biplane plodded ahead ever so determinedly, its followers were moved to prayer for the two Chicago pilots, frontiersmen on the cusp of a new destiny.

e fact that the flight was underway constituted a near miracle. It almost never happened, for the costs of aircra rental, fuel, lodging, meals, custom khaki flight suits, and assorted other expenses were considerable by Depression-era standards. To help finance the flight, Chauncey’s father Edward reportedly took out a small loan and forwarded the monies to his son, but the amount represented less than half the projected budget.

Chauncey, discussing the lack of funds with a friend, became so worked up that he broke down and cried just as he had as a youth back home in Lynchburg, Virginia, when denied flying lessons on account of his race. e sight of the usually self-assured flyer with tears streaming down his cheeks was too much for his friend to bear. She directed him to the Jones brothers, black businessmen in Chicago whose varied ventures were said to include the city’s numbers racket.

e hardened entrepreneurs of the city’s South Side were unable to resist Chauncey’s pitch. e Joneses chipped in $1,000. According to Janet

Harmon Bragg, a licensed pilot and enthusiastic supporter of the planned flight, members of the NAAA “drained their pockets” to make up the rest of the budget.

While money was tight, Chauncey had an inexhaustible supply of the other ingredient indispensable to the flight: gumption, the moxie to believe that the status quo could be overturned. Chauncey’s belief that conventions could come tumbling down like the walls of Jericho had been planted by his brilliant, compassionate, and tenacious mother, Anne. A school librarian, Anne was also the founder of the Lynchburg NAACP chapter and spent many waking hours laboring for equal rights.

Significantly, she had developed close relationships with the leading lights of the Harlem Renaissance and, writing in a room of her Lynchburg home that overlooked her meticulous flower garden, had proven herself a respected poet. Her verse was first published in the NAACP’s magazine, e Crisis, in February 1920. Leading black poetry anthologies edited by Countee Cullen and other distinguished literary figures of the Harlem Renaissance would include her poems. Anne’s parlor became a magnet for black intellectuals, entertainers, and activists like James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, W.E.B. Du Bois, Zora Neale Hurston, George Washington Carver, Marian Anderson, Paul Robeson, urgood Marshall, and, later on, Martin Luther King Jr.

e guest list at the Spencer home was a veritable who’s who of the African American cutting edge, the black leaders forging change in the larger society. Growing up in the company of these luminaries, Chauncey felt the power of the movement for expression, self-determination, and dignity. When a barnstormer passing overhead in his youth kindled a passion for flight, he was primed to make his own contribution to the cause of freedom in the arena of the sky.

Chicago was the natural launchpad for the Goodwill Flight because in the interwar years it had evolved into a hotbed of black aviation. e history of African American flight in Chicago started to build shortly aer World War I, when a young hairstylist and manicurist on the South Side felt impelled to learn to fly. Twenty-three-year-old Bessie Coleman had arrived in Chicago’s so-called “Black Belt” in 1915 as part of the Great Migration of blacks from the South. Fixing people’s hair and painting their nails was more lucrative and less strenuous than sharecropping in the cotton fields of Texas, but Bessie felt there had to be more to life.

When her brother John returned from military service in a segregated infantry unit at the end of World War I, he had trouble readjusting to civilian life and regularly snapped at Bessie that women in France were far ahead of the women of the South Side. In one particularly humiliating tirade at Bessie’s workplace, exacerbated by his drinking, he added that French women could even fly. According to Bessie’s biographer Doris L. Rich, Bessie took it as a dare. Even when all the flight schools in Chicago refused to give her lessons, she would not be deterred. Her cause was championed by the Chicago Defender, and in late 1920 with donated funds helping to cover the tab she traveled to France for flight training.

On June 15, 1921, Bessie was issued a pilot’s license by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, affording the ambitious beautician the distinction of being the first officially certified African American female pilot. Aer further flight training in France and Germany the next year, she embarked upon an exciting career as a barnstormer and air show performer in a war-surplus Jenny. For her flying exhibitions, she regularly appeared in a tailored military-style jacket with a Sam Browne belt, jodhpurs, knee-high boots, silk scarf, and an officer ’ s cap decorated with custom wings incorporating her initials.

In connection with her roving aerial displays, she made a point to appear at black schools and churches to encourage students and parishioners to consider flight as an avenue of advancement. Her ultimate aim was to establish a flight school for African Americans, so that black women in

America wanting to learn to fly would not need to travel abroad to get their training.

Bessie settled into the groove of the air show performer’s life, perfecting her display routine and her public relations acumen. She thrilled crowds with her flying prowess and inspired children with her lectures. e newspaper that had promoted her aviation aspirations embraced her as a role model and bestowed on her the exalted title “Queen Bess.”

ree and a half years into her air show career, Bessie’s goal of opening a flight school seemed within reach. But during a practice flight at Jacksonville, Florida, on April 30, 1926, her airplane turned upside down when a loose wrench jammed the controls. Not buckled in or wearing a parachute, Bessie fell five hundred feet to the ground and died on impact.

It was a tragic end to a gied life. Bessie’s flight school never opened. But like the mythical phoenix that rose renewed from the ashes, Bessie’s memory lived on, giving succor to those of her race seeking to enter the domain whose door she had cracked open against insuperable odds.

Bessie was buried in Chicago’s Lincoln Cemetery at Kedzie Avenue and 123rd Street. e black press eulogized her rhapsodically. Soon aviation clubs named aer Bessie started to sprout up in black communities around the country. In death as in life, the trailblazing pilot caused African Americans to look to the skies.

A year aer the fatal accident, a memorial stone was unveiled at her grave. e inscription aptly described Bessie as “ one of the first American women to enter the field of aviation.” e absence of any reference to her race spoke volumes about the ideal dear to her heart that the world of flying should be color-blind.

e grave became a shrine of the city’s black community, especially the flyers and would-be flyers within it. In 1931, African American pilots in Chicago began an annual tradition of flying their aircra over the cemetery for the express purpose of dropping flowers on Bessie’s grave to commemorate her life. ree years later, William J. Powell, a former

Chicagoan, published a landmark book to spark interest in aviation among blacks and, fittingly, dedicated it to the memory of Bessie.

Powell, like Bessie’s brother, was a veteran of one of the segregated infantry regiments that had seen action in World War I. During an August 1927 reunion of veterans in Paris, he visited Le Bourget Airport, where Charles Lindbergh had been swarmed by tens of thousands of fans at the end of his solo transatlantic flight only a few months before. Caught up in the lingering excitement while at the airport, Powell purchased a plane ride over the city and instantly became hooked on flight.

Upon his return to Chicago he sold his chain of successful gas stations and packed up for California to launch a new career in aviation. He knew the Golden State’s weather would be more conducive to his new ambitions, and he could only hope the racial climate would also be an improvement. Soon aer he reached the West Coast, he set up a Bessie Coleman Aero Club.

Powell saw aeronautics as ripe for participation by African Americans. He believed that compared to established industries like oil and steel, the aviation industry was new and its major growth lay in the years ahead. He argued that by getting in on the ground floor blacks would be able to play prominent roles.

A full-time proselytizer, he organized the first all-black air show in southern California for Labor Day 1931. Powell was encouraged by the results and sought to build on that success. As aviation writer Phil Scott related in AOPA Pilot, Powell scheduled another air show for December 6 and endeavored to boost attendance by fielding an air-demonstration team comprising five black pilots.

e team, called the Five Blackbirds, flew different light aircra of varied paint schemes. One of the pilots was a woman, Marie Dickerson Coker. e Five Blackbirds performed to boisterous approval from the audience of forty thousand and to rave reviews in the black press, but funds simply dried up.

Powell’s formidable plan for a hundred-city national tour was shelved, and the Five Blackbirds faded into a historical footnote.

In 1934, when Powell came out with his book, titled Black Wings, those who knew him could easily see that it was a thinly veiled autobiographical account of his own introduction to flight. More important, it served as a manifesto calling for blacks to enter careers in aviation or, as he phrased it, “to fill the air with black wings.” By carrying forward and refining Bessie’s message and putting it into printed form, Powell’s book represented a milepost in the espousal of aviation for African Americans.

e book made clear that Powell saw flight as possessing the intrinsic power to liberate those who engage in it. He asserted that for blacks to get into the sky they had to be bold in both thought and deed. He predicted that black involvement in aviation could produce “ one million jobs for Negroes.” His outlook was encapsulated in this statement: “Negroes will never ride as free men and women below the Mason and Dixon Line . . . until they ride in airplanes owned and operated by Negroes.”

Despite Powell’s unstinting optimism, the Depression was in full swing, and nothing he did, including publishing a newsletter and offering classes, attracted the financial support he needed to actualize his objectives. In the late 1930s, heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis visited Powell’s modest aviation workshop in Los Angeles, but even the endorsement of such a celebrity made little difference given the extent of economic hardship.

By 1942, Powell was in failing health from complications of a poison gas attack he had suffered in World War I. He died that year, only forty-three years old. Like Moses, he did not reach the Promised Land, but he got to glimpse some of his adherents crossing into a more hopeful sphere, as barely a year before his death the long-intransigent War Department finally opened the Army’s flight training to blacks.

Meanwhile, back in Chicago, the strongest advocate of Bessie’s vision in the 1930s was pilot and mechanic Cornelius R. Coffey. Bright and industrious, Coffey graduated from the first all-black class at the city’s Curtiss-Wright Aeronautical School, a trade school noted for its instruction in aircra maintenance, which before 1931 had excluded blacks. As a

measure of his raw smarts and mechanical aptitude, he ranked at the top of his class.

e early 1930s brought an existential threat to black aviation in Chicago, when the one airport in the area that had allowed flying privileges to blacks permanently shut its doors. In 1933 Coffey and his friend John C. Robinson, who had graduated second in Coffey ’ s class at the Curtiss-Wright school, led the fledgling Challenger Air Pilots Association in the purchase of land for an airport in Robbins Township, southwest of the city.

But their hopes were dashed when, within a year, a severe storm with fierce winds tore through the property, collapsing the hangar and wrecking the light planes based there. It was a devastating setback. Yet, according to information reported by Air & Space/Smithsonian contributor Giles Lambertson, in the wake of their despair, the group ’ s members were given a new home on the south end of Harlem Airport, a few miles to the north of Robbins at Eighty-Seventh Street and Harlem Avenue in Oak Lawn, thanks to the airport’s enlightened operator. Coffey, who had led the first flower drop over Bessie’s grave, opened his own flight school at the new location. He had never met Bessie, but his school represented the fruition of her dream.

It was only logical that Chauncey Spencer, seeking to realize his longrepressed dream of flight, should journey to Chicago to get his start. In 1934, at twenty-eight years of age, thinking that “time had perhaps passed me by,” it was a now-or-never moment for the Lynchburg native. He had been a truck driver, social worker, and manager of the Harrison eater back in his Virginia hometown, jobs of no particular interest to him except insofar as they supported his marriage, which had now soured.

Oscar S. De Priest, Chicago’s black congressman and a Spencer family friend, was proud that the city’s blacks had begun to build a presence in aviation. Many of those involved lived within his South Side district. He personally counseled Chauncey to come to the city to learn to fly.

In Chicago Chauncey was stewarded by Earl W. Renfroe, a local dentist and budding flyer in the black community. Renfroe introduced Chauncey to

the Coffey Flying School, where his flight training commenced. Also through Renfroe, Chauncey struck up a friendship with Dale White, a black mechanic and pilot who had been certificated four years earlier.

Like many aspiring aviators, Chauncey had a hard time making ends meet. To supplement a stipend from his father, he got a job washing dishes at a restaurant in downtown Chicago. Later he would write that he “ was willing to eat the cheap meals” because the sacrifice enabled him “to get off the ground.”

While a student pilot, Chauncey became an exhibition parachutist. e sideline represented an extra source of income, but more than that, the free falls exhilarated him. Not since his childhood escapades sliding down hills headlong in a makeshi airplane had he experienced such visceral thrills.

He continued public skydiving aer he obtained his pilot’s license; it was a way to spread the word to fellow African Americans about the personal gratification that could be theirs. Photos from 1938 and 1939 show Chauncey attired in full aeronautical regalia and beaming, surrounded by admirers at Harlem Airport and clearly in his element. One of the black air shows in which he performed as a jumper had an estimated twenty-five thousand spectators.

It occurred to members of the black flying group that a publicized flight to targeted cities would bring the talents of African American pilots to the attention of a much larger audience. Newspaperman Enoch Waters, in keeping with the ideals of the Chicago Defender’ s founder Robert Sengstacke Abbott, suggested that the flight should culminate in the nation’s capital with an overt plea for a nondiscriminatory future in aviation. e obvious choices to make the proposed flight were Dale White and Chauncey Spencer.

Dale, with his accumulated flight experience and an ever-serious Rock of Gibraltar steadiness, was a natural for the project. Chauncey’s irrepressible charm and good looks some in the NAAA compared him to film idol Clark Gable—would make him the perfect companion. One would be the solemn operator of the machine, the captain of the ship, while the other would be the affable schmoozer between hops.

ough opposites in style and demeanor, both men were indispensable to the flight. Each contributed his skill set. Dale was the more seasoned pilot, the one who could get through any contingency in the air, while Chauncey, serving as navigator and public relations coordinator, was the supreme communicator, able to disarm anyone with his broad smile and winning personality. In time Dale came to resent being the foil for his more gregarious partner. But much later, aer both had had distinguished careers as civilian employees at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio, they resolved their simmering post-flight rivalry.

e Lincoln-Page joggled along at a respectable eighty-five miles per hour, its five-cylinder Kinner radial engine clanking out its trademark “kaput-ta-ta.” From Chicago, the two flyers needed first to round the drooping coast of Lake Michigan, with the smokestacks at Gary billowing to one side and the greening expanse of spring’s recrudescent cropland to the other. Flying low in the open air, silk scarves flapping in the slipstream, the pilots could whiff a fortifying mix of fragrances rising into the air.

e pastures of the Midwest opened up beneath them, with their simple gridwork of north-south and east-west section lines. Conveniently for navigation, there were also the great railways connecting the nation’s centers of commerce, punctuated by little whistle-stops with names like Walkerton, Nappanee, Cromwell, Kimmell, Albion, and Avilla each of them a dot to be noted or perhaps checked off the chart to confirm the integrity of the navigational plot, for the aircra had only the most rudimentary instrumentation.

But the Chicago-to-Washington flight never really went according to plan. Dale had to set the plane down in Avilla, a tiny hamlet in northeast Indiana, to fix leaking fuel lines. e pilots had traveled a mere 150 miles in what was planned as a trip of more than ten times that distance. e unexpected stop lasted six hours. Because of the loss of fuel, once the

intrepid travelers were airborne again they had to go “ off course to get gas, ” as Dale jotted in his logbook. e duo landed on a dirt road in Fort Wayne, Indiana, hand-pumped gas into the upper wing’s fuel tank, and resumed the adventure.

But no sooner had they crossed the state line into Ohio than trouble struck again. is time the engine’s cranksha broke, causing the plane to buck violently. Dale had to draw on his every resource as a pilot to get the Lincoln-Page down in one piece.

e plane’s ordinarily gentle handling characteristics and control responsiveness, owing to its long moment arms and aileron connector struts, were welcome attributes. Dale picked out a farm pasture within gliding distance as the Lincoln-Page gradually sank closer to the ground. He held it steady in the descent, touched down, and rolled out until, according to Chauncey, the plane “finally rested within a hundred yards of the farmer’s barn.”

e plane was a relic, having been designed in 1929, a decade earlier. It had no brakes and instead of a tailwheel only a spring-leaf tailskid, which drastically limited ground steering. Both men eased themselves out of their respective cockpits with a huge sense of relief that they had dodged the worst possible consequences of their latest mechanical mishap. Except for the engine, their ship remained intact and viable as a flying machine.

Not sure how they would be received by the owner of the farm where they had just landed, the men were further relieved when Edward Miller, in plaid shirt and coveralls, overcame his initial shock upon surveying the scene and welcomed them, saying, “We’re glad you ’ re okay.” Miller, a descendant of German immigrants, drove the black airmen to a tavern for a meal and arranged for their lodging in a rented room on the second floor.

As word spread about the two goggled visitors who had literally dropped from the sky, Chauncey would write, “most of the townspeople came to the cornfield to see us and our plane.” e black pilots were such a novelty in the little village of Sherwood, Ohio, that they became instant celebrities. For the two days it took the NAAA to raise the fiy-four dollars for the parts to

repair the engine and to dispatch Cornelius Coffey to make the repair, Chauncey and Dale feasted with the Millers and their neighbors.

By the time Coffey drove onto the property, a small army of villagers was there to help. Meanwhile, Miller’s wife made fried egg sandwiches for the men. A couple of the Miller children became so attached to Chauncey and Dale during their short stay in Sherwood that when it came time for them to leave, the kids wrapped string around the Lincoln-Page and tied it to the granary, hoping that it would secure the plane in place.

e pilots gave one of Miller’s daughters a plane ride in their rented biplane, but the weather precluded their taking up the other daughter, twelve-year-old Ann. Sixty-four years later, in a poignant interview by Michael Laris in the Washington Post, Ann described her interaction with the air travelers who unexpectedly came into her life. “e experience with Chauncey is the most wondrous thing that happened to me in my whole life. It gives you a good heart.”

ree days aer falling into the friendly fields of Sherwood, Chauncey and Dale were back on their Goodwill Flight, the slender fuselage of the Lincoln-Page cruising eastward again over the next town which, by some quirk of fate, was called Defiance. About the residents of Sherwood and their generosity, Chauncey wrote, “ey were a gracious group of people who paid all our expenses while we were there.”

One can only wonder if the men would have made their ultimate destination without the kindness of the strangers they had encountered by happenstance along their route when dire peril risked ending the whole flight and how their absence from the halls of Congress might have delayed the entry of blacks into the Army Air Corps and aviation generally. e unforeseen pocket of understanding and tolerance at the flyers ’ most pressing time of need bolstered their spirits. If such goodness could be found at the country’s core, there was hope that it might be reflected in the country’s capital.

Not all their stops were so accommodating. At Morgantown, West Virginia, they were denied overnight parking. Forced not down but up and

away into the impending darkness at sunset, they barely managed to find their way over the foreboding Alleghenies to Pittsburgh in the pitch black of night by following the lights of a Pennsylvania Central Airlines 247D passenger transport that just happened to be passing through the same airspace heading into the city’s airport. On May 14, aer several more stops, they finally arrived at Hoover Field on the banks of the Potomac.

In Washington the flyers were shepherded by the goateed Edgar G. “the Goat” Brown, the strong-willed founder of the United Government Employees Union and a noted advocate for civil rights. Up and down the halls of Congress, Brown opened doors for Chauncey and Dale. ey met members of the Illinois congressional delegation, including the baritonevoiced Everett McKinley Dirksen, then a representative from Chicago and later the state’s senior senator, who as leader of the chamber’s Republican minority in the 1960s would throw his weight behind the era ’ s historic civil rights legislation.

Chauncey did not take to Dirksen or Illinois’s other politicos. He saw them as “interested in themselves,” more concerned with photo ops geared to chalk up points with black constituents back home than with listening to him and his partner aer they had surmounted incredible difficulties getting to Washington to make their case. In the words of the Washington Post’ s Michael Laris, it was “ a letdown.” But in retrospect, Chauncey acknowledged that Dirksen deserved credit for introducing the nondiscrimination amendment to the House’s civil aeronautics bill, a key measure that opened the Civilian Pilot Training Program to blacks.

With Chauncey feeling downcast, Brown knew the answer was to keep moving, so he ushered the flyers in the direction of the basement. From that point, a couple different accounts have been told about how things unfolded. According to one version, the three men were making their way down the staircase when a senator who was coming up extended a greeting to Brown. In the other version, the three men rode one of the underground electric trains that connect congressional offices with the Capitol; as they were

exiting their car the senator in question could be seen walking towards them, and Brown reached out to him.

In either version of the chance meeting, the story thereaer plays out the same way. Brown introduced his associates to the senator, a little-known Missourian by the name of Harry S. Truman. Brown is reported to have told Truman that the two black flyers he was escorting wanted to get into the Army Air Corps. Truman was engaged and inquisitive.

Truman being from the “Show-Me” state—wanted to see the plane that the two had flown to Washington. So that aernoon he met with the Goodwill Flyers at the airport. Chauncey invited Truman to go up for a ride, but he declined. Instead, he climbed up on the wing, peered into the cockpits, and then peppered his guides with one question aer another about Old Faithful: its fuel capacity, rental cost, insurance.

In Chauncey’s eyes, Truman was refreshingly genuine. He showed an interest without any photographer around to record the scene for publicity purposes and spent considerable time with a couple of guys who weren’t even voters in his state. e plainspoken fellow could be gruff, but this only proved his authenticity.

Chauncey Spencer with his sister, Alroy Spencer Rivers, beside Old Faithful, the LincolnPage biplane, at Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn during a stop on the Goodwill Flight with Dale White from Chicago to Washington in May 1939. Note the names of the flight’s sponsoring organizations, the National Airmen Association of America and the Chicago Defender newspaper, emblazoned on the rented aircra’ s fuselage. Despite living in the adjoining borough of Queens, Harry would not know of the historic flight and its impact on opening up flying opportunities for blacks until years later. National Air and Space Museum

e visit ended when the senator who would become known as “Give ‘Em Hell Harry” brusquely declared, “If you have the guts to fly this thing to Washington, I have enough guts to back you up. ” e story became legend within the black community. Chauncey relished telling it countless times until he died in 2002 at age ninety-six. ere were other events and considerations that had more to do with ending the prohibitions on blacks in military flying units, but Chauncey summed up his feelings about the flight in his autobiography: “By working within the legal structure, we had effected a change that would, ultimately, make a difference for all Americans. A new era in American history had begun, and we were jubilant.”

Like Queen Bess, the Goodwill Flyers spread the gospel of aviation at every stop on their flight. One of those stops, the day before they landed in Washington, was New York City. ey had originally been scheduled to arrive at Flushing Airport in Queens to be near the World’s Fair, but flooding at the airport forced them to divert to Floyd Bennett Field in southeast Brooklyn.

Chauncey was no stranger to New York. He had lived there for a short while in the 1920s, even acting part-time at the Lafayette eater in Harlem. Back then his older sister Alroy was a student at Hunter College. She had subsequently settled in the city, and when her brother arrived by air amid much hoopla she went to meet him.

As had been planned at the flight’s outset, Chauncey and Dale would be whisked through a series of appearances and interviews to maximize their limited time in New York. ey were greeted in the morning by the wife of tap dancer and honorary Harlem mayor Bill “Bojangles” Robinson. Soon they were off to the Mimo Club in Harlem for a grand soiree celebrating Joe Louis’s twenty-fih birthday to the harmonious strains of Duke Ellington and his band. Later came more jazz music and Lindy Hop dancing at the Savoy Ballroom on Harlem’s main drag, Lenox Avenue.

e black newspapers ran photographs of the Goodwill Flyers and the celebrities they met during their layover in New York, using news of their flight’s progress to dramatize the desire of African American men to be pilots in the Army Air Corps. In pointed language, one of the newspapers opined, “the military leaders of the United States ignore the intrepid black men who would serve their country in the air.” References were made to expatriate Eugene Jacques Bullard, who had joined the French Aeronautique Militaire during World War I; Jimmie Peck, who flew for the Loyalist side in the Spanish Civil War; and Chicago’s own John Robinson, who advised Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie on the formation of an air force as the army of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini threatened the African nation’s independence. It was a powerful message, but at the time only a narrow sliver of the population was on the receiving end.

In a working-class neighborhood of Queens, one borough removed from where Old Faithful had landed, an African American teenager who was completely unaware of the Goodwill Flyers had independently developed a burning passion for flight and begun to fantasize about flying the U.S. Army’s frontline combat planes. Harry T. Stewart Jr. had heard nothing of the Spencer-White flight despite his proximity to it. Because the Stewart family lived in an integrated neighborhood and had neither a subscription to a black newspaper nor membership in an activist black church, young Harry might as well have been a world away when the Lincoln-Page came to New York and its two pilots spent the day doing up the town.

It would be a while before Harry became aware of the Chicago pilots’ journey and its significance for him and other blacks infused with the dream of flight. One day Harry would meet an aged Chauncey Spencer and thank him for helping to pry open the gateway to the skies. But that was many years in the future.

Meanwhile, Harry would face his own challenges rising up into this alluring and still barely accessible domain. He did not know it yet, but he and others would together take the proverbial baton from Chauncey and

Dale to ride the wind in battles to come and, in a manner that would make his aerial antecedents proud, unblock the gateway several notches more.

With the glamorous parts of their extraordinary eleven-day adventure behind the Goodwill Flyers as they thrummed their way back towards their Chicago home, they purposely angled off the straight-line course of their flight between Lima and Fort Wayne. Dale recorded the reason for the course deviation in the “Remarks” column of his logbook: “Via Sherwood O. to salute the Millers.”

In the process of bringing change to their profession, Chauncey and Dale had been touched by the selflessness of the ordinary citizens they chanced upon during their flight. e next chapter in the history of black aviation would be written by young men of color yearning to get their hands on the country’s latest military pursuit ships dreamers like Harry Stewart.

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d’audace extraordinaire, et elle n’est en réalité qu’un acte de raison. » C’est qu’il a le sens du miracle. Il sait, comme tous ceux qui voient l’ensemble d’une forme, traversant d’un coup d’œil la complexité formidable de son organisation pour en saisir l’unité, pourquoi, quand et comment le miracle se produira. Comme il voit clairement le but immédiat et la route et connaît les intérêts communs et les forces morales qui s’y dirigent aussi alors que la plupart n’y aperçoivent que les forces matérielles et les intérêts personnels qui l’en séparent, il paraît, aux regards de tous, être l’homme du miracle, celui qui le déclenche et l’exploite incessamment. Il ne fait que prévoir la solution logique qu’à peu près personne n’aperçoit, parce que la prévoyance et la logique sont loin d’être l’apanage de tous. Il a, d’ailleurs, le sens profond de ce renversement singulier des esprits qui voient le surnaturel dans l’ordre rationnel des choses et à qui le triomphe de la sottise, de la routine et de l’aveuglement semble au contraire naturel : « Le moyen d’être cru, dit-il, est de rendre la vérité incroyable. »

6

Si j’avais à caractériser les évolutions successives de ce génie guerrier qui lui permit, en moins de vingt années, et tout en abolissant pour jamais l’ère gothique en Europe, de donner à la guerre le plus poétique aspect qu’elle ait jamais eu, trois périodes très dessinées m’apparaîtraient nettement. Je vois d’abord l’enfant maigre aux cheveux désordonnés, défaillant d’insomnie, tenu par les nerfs, nourri de romans, d’épopées, solitaire, amoureux, effrayant de passion cachée qui rentre les lèvres, creuse les orbites, tire la peau sur le visage… Je le vois, dans la montée terrible d’une gloire inouïe et neuve, enivrant les hommes, enivrant les femmes, forçant le lyrisme à bondir dans le cœur des musiciens, lui-même ébloui des éclairs qui foisonnent dans sa tête pour lui révéler chaque jour la

guerre comme un poème en action que personne n’a vécu, l’inventant toute dans une inspiration intarissable, bousculant les unes sur les autres les vieilles armées féodales, ramassant à pleins bras leurs canons, leurs drapeaux, les fleurs de leurs villes captives pour les jeter avec amour à ses bandes de va-nu-pieds : c’est la période romantique, ou italienne, celle de Lombardie, d’Égypte aussi, de la marche éclatante vers les sources du soleil, celle où les féeries fantastiques de Carpaccio et de Shakespeare, les grandes figures planantes de Tintoret, de Michel-Ange, les Mille et une Nuits, les marins de Salamine, les phalanges d’Alexandre, Ulysse errant, la Toison d’Or, les grandes trirèmes aux voiles pourpres berçant sur la mer inconnue les hoplites cuirassés porteurs de flûtes et de lyres étaient présents, éveillant dans les âmes vives des soldats de langue d’oc les échos mal assoupis des voix divines qui avaient salué sur tous les rivages du Sud la naissance de l’Illusion…

Je le vois, un peu plus tard, avec la santé rétablie, la certitude de soi et plus de calme dans le cœur, l’amour maîtrisé, les romans, les contes épiques mis de côté pour le Code à rédiger, et tout cela montant au visage d’un blanc mat dont la peau est moins sèche, l’ossature très apparente mais un peu moins accusée, les cheveux courts, toute l’allure à la fois apaisée et dominatrice du maître désormais reconnu, l’uniforme plus net, plus sobre, non plus une petite bande, mais l’armée elle-même et tout un peuple obéissant dans l’enthousiasme et la foi… Je vois le contact plus étroit avec la nation française et les soldats du Rhin organisant ses dons, introduisant dans leurs rapports plus d’harmonie et de mesure, ordonnant sa Grande Armée bien vêtue, bien nourrie, magnifiquement encadrée, heureuse, en un bloc de puissance où toutes les provinces gauloises et rien qu’elles fusionnent pour imposer à l’Europe, en mouvements irrésistibles, l’idée architecturale d’un ordre nouveau à bâtir : c’est la période classique, ou française, de Marengo à Iéna, celle où la discipline de Corneille, les cadences mélodieuses de Racine et de Poussin, la méthode de Descartes étendue jusqu’aux manœuvres de Turenne, aux murailles de Vauban, aux jardins de Versailles, aux grandes routes ombragées

qui portent la vie et la force du centre aux extrémités des membres de la nation donnent au peuple et aux soldats l’impression continue des conquêtes définitives de la raison et de la volonté sur le sentiment et l’instinct…

Je vois enfin, avec la graisse envahissante, une nouvelle agitation au fond du cœur contracté par la puissance souveraine, les sourcils se fronçant sur l’admirable mais impitoyable visage dont les plans s’empâtent un peu, dont la peau s’injecte de bile, tandis que le col de la redingote monte dans le cou épaissi et que le chapeau s’enfonce plus bas sur le crâne où s’éclaircissent les cheveux… Je le vois maniant d’une main qui s’énerve ses immenses troupeaux de vassaux et de mercenaires où le noyau français se dessèche de plus en plus tandis que s’épaissit la chair d’abord indifférente et flasque, puis peu à peu empoisonnée, infiltrée de fiel et de lymphe, saignante, traînée aux hécatombes, lourdes masses obéissant mal à l’impulsion de la grande tête assombrie qui en tire encore, pour décorer le palais mondial qu’elle rêve, des effets somptueux ou sinistres, de riches harmonies barbares, du sang sur la neige infinie ou la poussière tournoyante qui monte des plateaux brûlés : c’est la période mystique, ou orientale, où le sombre cœur espagnol, l’âme slave insaisissable et titubante, la marée à la fois assoupissante et régénératrice de l’Afrique et de l’Asie mêlent leurs lourdes alluvions aux eaux claires de l’Occident, la lutte éternelle, les victoires alternatives de Dionysos et d’Apollon. Et puis, enfin, pour que le démiurge montre qu’il est resté capable d’une renaissance immortelle, d’un renouvellement toujours frais et jaillissant de sa puissance lyrique, non plus une période nouvelle, mais une danse fulgurante au bord de l’abîme ouvert, la soudaine fusion, dans la suprême symphonie, de la grande mesure classique où la France a reconnu ses moyens et ses destinées et de la passion romantique où les sources du vieux Mythe s’étaient brusquement rouvertes à la surface du sol.

XIII

PROMÉTHÉE

1

Un jour que Rœderer entretenait Napoléon des gestes et des intentions de son frère Joseph, il s’attira cette réponse : « Il est bon que vous alliez près de lui. Il continue à faire des choses qui mécontentent l’armée. Il fait juger par des commissions espagnoles les Espagnols qui tuent mes soldats. Il ignore que partout où sont mes armées, ce sont des conseils de guerre français qui jugent les assassinats commis sur mes troupes… Il veut être aimé des Espagnols, il veut leur faire croire à son amour. Les amours des rois ne sont pas des tendresses de nourrice, ils doivent se faire craindre et respecter… Le roi m’écrit qu’il veut revenir à Morfontaine[16] : il croit me mettre dans l’embarras ; il profite d’un moment où j’ai, en effet, assez d’autres occupations… Il me menace quand je lui laisse mes meilleures troupes et que je m’en vais à Vienne seul avec mes petits conscrits, mon nom et mes grandes bottes… Il dit qu’il veut aller à Morfontaine plutôt que de rester dans un pays acheté par du sang injustement répandu. C’est une phrase des libelles anglais. Qu’est-ce donc que Morfontaine ? C’est le prix du sang que j’ai versé en Italie… Oui. J’ai versé le sang. Mais c’est le sang de mes ennemis, des ennemis de la France. Lui convient-il de parler leur langage ? Si le roi est roi d’Espagne, c’est qu’il a voulu l’être. S’il avait voulu rester à Naples, il pouvait y rester… Il croit me mettre dans l’embarras, il se trompe fort. Rien ne m’arrêtera. Mes desseins s’accompliront. J’ai la volonté et la force nécessaires. Rien ne

m’embarrasse. Je n’ai pas besoin de ma famille. Je n’ai point de famille, si elle n’est française… Mes frères ne sont pas Français. Je le suis seul…

[16] Morfontaine ou Mortefontaine, près Ermenonville (Oise), propriété de Joseph Bonaparte.

J’aime le pouvoir, moi. Mais c’est en artiste que je l’aime… Je l’aime comme un musicien aime son violon. Je l’aime pour en tirer des sons, des accords, de l’harmonie ; je l’aime en artiste. Le roi de Hollande parle aussi de sa vie privée !… Celui des trois qui serait le plus capable de vivre à Morfontaine, c’est moi. Il y a en moi deux hommes distincts, l’homme de tête et l’homme de cœur. Je joue avec les enfants, je cause avec ma femme, je leur fais des lectures, je leur lis des romans… »

J’ai rapporté ces paroles puissantes parce que ce livre est sorti d’elles, parce qu’elles prennent, dans la bouche de cet homme, un sens presque surnaturel, parce que tout le siècle dont il sortait, sauf Montesquieu, peut-être Diderot, en tout cas Rousseau, Voltaire et leurs élèves, se fût insurgé contre elles, parce que nul, à son époque, pas même Rœderer sans doute — Gœthe étant toujours excepté — n’eût pu les comprendre, parce que notre temps luimême se prépare tout juste à en mesurer la grandeur. Que quelques-uns commencent à sentir que Napoléon est un poète, que l’art est de l’action rêvée, l’action de l’art vécu, c’est chose qui devient possible après que la plus vaste enquête scientifique a ramené l’esprit à ses sources permanentes, réhabilité le Mythe, dénoncé l’insuffisance et les méfaits de la morale, démontré l’identité des mobiles sous les prétextes, découvert le même principe à toutes les formes d’expression. Mais qu’il l’ait su, lui, et qu’il l’ait dit, que cette vie fabuleuse ait eu la conscience profonde de l’harmonie désespérée à laquelle elle tendait à travers son propre drame, ceci est fait pour le réconfort de quiconque sait que le drame n’est qu’une aspiration du cœur à la conciliation définitive de toutes les contradictions qu’il n’abolira jamais.

Il faut sans cesse le redire. On voit le sang répandu, non les cervelles asservies. Parce qu’il a tué, celui-ci n’appartient pourtant pas à une autre famille que ceux qui ne cessent pas de regarder ou d’écouter l’informe bloc de pierre d’où il faut tirer la statue, l’abîme de rumeurs à ordonner en symphonie, les cris de volupté et de souffrance à faire entrer dans les cadences du poème ou à purifier à la flamme que la prose va surprendre dans la profondeur des mots. La curiosité, l’inquiétude, l’angoisse, l’abandon, l’oubli, la guerre, sont les conditions de l’ordre que la fatalité de leur nature leur commande d’introduire dans l’univers, — ordre qui chancelle un moment à l’heure où leurs yeux se ferment, que d’autres redressent, ou modifient, qui dure un, ou cinq, ou vingt siècles, finit toujours par crouler presque tout entier, mais que la réserve d’illusion des humanités futures recommence et persistera à poursuivre, à travers le chaos sanglant d’une éternelle aventure, jusqu’à la fin. Comme la leur, sa structure morale entière est édifiée autour du noyau central qu’est la passion, et la hantise, et le tourment de l’ordre à découvrir et qui la détermine de partout. Ceux qui ne portent pas en eux cette puissance épouvantable ne sont pas dangereux, sans doute. Mais ils ne sont pas.

« Etre inaccessible…, abrégé du monde, dit Gœthe, pour lui, la lumière qui illumine l’esprit ne s’est pas éteinte un instant. » La tyrannie de l’ordre, et de son ordre à lui est telle, que demeurant toujours maître d’en modifier l’image à sa guise dans les moyens dont il use pour l’atteindre dans son cœur, il est forcé, à mesure qu’il avance, comme tous ceux qui l’expriment dans le poème ou le tableau, de l’extérioriser sous un aspect systématique, qui fait peser sur tous cette tyrannie qu’ils acceptent ou contre laquelle ils s’insurgent, mais dont la nécessité les imprègne pour toutes les générations. Ce qui le distingue du despote, c’est la continuité dans les desseins. Ce n’est pas par un caprice aussitôt détourné par un autre caprice qu’il emprisonne le pape, confisque des royaumes et improvise des rois, c’est pour défendre et affirmer, envers et contre tous, une personnalité capable de comprendre et d’embrasser l’universel. Néron est tantôt comique et tantôt sinistre, parce qu’il

joue l’artiste sans l’être. Avec Napoléon, on n’a pas souvent envie de rire, et jamais de pleurer. Toujours, partout, en toutes circonstances, il sacrifie son intérêt à son rêve et son repos à sa grandeur. Et ce qui frappe, quand on étudie profondément cet homme en apparence dissimulé, calculateur et fourbe, c’est sa formidable innocence. Sa volonté lyrique recouvre le monde irrité d’un voile qui le transfigure. Et c’est lui, voyez-vous, qui a raison contre le monde. Comparativement à un grand artiste, ses contemporains semblent sages, parce que ses contemporains suivent les plans d’une folie ancienne. Le grand artiste semble fou, parce qu’il suit les plans d’une sagesse en devenir. Dieu, qui n’est qu’un promeneur, change de marche de temps à autre pour ne pas se fatiguer. Napoléon reste d’accord avec l’ingénuité de Dieu dont il est le pas sur la route.

Contre la résistance intéressée, le préjugé et l’habitude, il impose un nouveau rythme qui finit par les briser. La force qu’il emploie, c’est SA force. Elle est fonction de son esprit. Et comme il est un grand individu et qu’il fait craquer les frontières de l’individu pour rejoindre, au travers, l’universel et le social, elle est fonction de l’Esprit même. Ce qu’il en dit lui-même est applicable à tous les créateurs : « C’est la volonté, le caractère, l’application et l’audace qui m’ont fait ce que je suis. » Audace dans la conception, application dans l’étude et l’épreuve des matériaux, volonté de réalisation, caractère à opposer aux gredins de l’ordre intellectuel qui se décernent eux-mêmes l’épithète d’« honnêtes gens », cela est suffisant mais aussi nécessaire à la confrontation décisive et féconde du grand individu et du grand besoin qu’il traduit. Comme le poète dans le sentiment, il cherche l’absolu dans l’action. Réaliste profond dans le maniement même de sa matière à lui, qui est politique et guerrière, la réalité, comme chez le poète, devient avec lui très vite, et nécessairement, le symbole de ses visions. Il la triture à sa guise. Le monde entier des vivants et des morts, de l’Histoire et du Mythe, des races et des passions n’est bientôt plus pour lui qu’un dictionnaire qu’il ne fait que consulter pour chercher le mot ou la rime à incorporer à l’image où son illusion incurable voit le terme de son effort. Il lance dans l’espace des lignes idéales que sa

sensualité matérialise et qu’ordonne sa raison. Son imagination poursuit, avec ses facultés de prévoyance et de contrôle, un équilibre tragique qu’il atteint chaque fois le moment d’un éclair, mais au delà duquel lancé trop violemment il tombe, et dont le désir, aussitôt, renaît plus tyrannique dans son cœur. La limite de sa puissance, du moins de sa puissance de réalisation, — et c’est en cela seulement qu’il se sépare de celui qui œuvre dans le monde abstrait, mais qu’il le dépasse en un sens, le risque étant plus redoutable, — c’est l’instinct de moindre effort des hommes qui finit par s’insurger contre lui. L’avantage de la pensée pure, c’est que les faits et les événements actuels n’ont pas de prise sur elle quand le son, le verbe, la couleur ou la forme sont à ses ordres immédiats. Mais s’il est d’un lyrisme encore plus émouvant, peut-être, d’enchaîner les faits même à la pensée et de diriger l’action dans les voies de l’imagination avec une telle puissance que les événements sont contraints de s’élancer sur ses pas, une heure arrive où les événements barrent sa route et où les faits trouvent dans leur propre inertie les moyens de résister… Vaincu par la matière, comme Michel-Ange, il n’achève pas ses tombeaux.

2

Quand je cherche à évoquer sa marche dans l’Histoire, qu’il remplit, et qui laisse pourtant une impression d’épouvantable solitude, je songe à la phrase de Chateaubriand contant la fameuse séance où Louis XVIII, reçu par les acclamations de tous, vint se solidariser avec ses Chambres à l’approche de l’usurpateur : « Les cris cessent, tout se tait. Dans cet intervalle de silence, on croyait entendre les pas lointains de Napoléon. »

Son pas reste lointain. J’en ai parlé souvent, ici. Mais c’est qu’on ne s’en est pas rendu compte, bien que cet isolement singulier constitue la marque la plus imposante de son génie et livre le sens

profond de son exil parmi nous. Il le cherchait dans sa jeunesse, attribuant ingénûment le besoin qu’il avait de lui « aux maux qu’avaient souffert la Corse et sa famille »[17] . Il aimait le désert, cet « Océan de pied ferme, l’image de l’infini[Z] . » Et c’est le sort de ceux que la solitude attire et qui recherchent avidement ses conditions extérieures, de la sentir monter en eux à mesure que le bruit du succès augmente ou que la rumeur de la gloire vient les environner.

Le voici. Il est isolé de l’Europe par le rideau de flamme de la guerre. Il est isolé de la France par sa qualité d’Italien. Il est isolé du futur par la haine de ses détracteurs et l’imbécillité de ses thuriféraires. Il est isolé des artistes par leur dédain de l’action. Il est isolé des hommes positifs par la qualité lyrique de cette action. Il est isolé de la démocratie par ses instincts d’aristocrate. Il est isolé de l’aristocratie par sa volonté de démocrate. Il est isolé en même temps des croyants et des incrédules par cette foi informulable du poète qui est la plus vaste de toutes mais qui, par cela même, fait éclater les cadres de la foi. Et tout cela n’est pas assez. Tout cela n’est rien. Il est isolé de tous les cœurs par la nature de son cœur.

Certes, il n’a pas l’air d’être seul, maître qu’il est de la moitié d’un continent, seigneur des bras, seigneur des âmes, presque des intelligences, jouant d’une armée formidable, son nom connu dans les solitudes américaines, répété des foules asiatiques, l’univers occupé exclusivement de lui. Et cependant, à mesure que sa puissance lui soumet l’impuissance des autres, elle l’éloigne d’eux. « Il avait l’air, dit Cambacérès, de se promener au milieu de sa gloire. » Le monde entier faisant silence, je pense que, quand il marchait, il n’entendait dans son cœur que le bruit de ses éperons. Il était d’autant plus seul que personne ne le sentait, et qu’on eût fait bien rire celui auquel on l’aurait dit. Ceux qui répondent à un grand homme, s’il vient à se plaindre de ne pas être compris, qu’il est le centre des regards, qu’on le loue, même en son absence, qu’on l’admire, qu’on l’aime, que le monde a besoin de lui, ne comprennent

pas la qualité réelle de la solitude. La solitude d’un grand homme augmente tandis que le nombre s’accroît des hommes qui tournent les yeux vers sa force, sa propre loi intérieure l’obligeant à se séparer d’eux sans cesse et l’en prévenant d’autant plus que le contraste s’accuse entre les besoins de son âme et la nature des louanges qu’on lui prodigue, des intentions qu’on lui prête, des définitions qu’on donne de l’idée qui le conduit. On limite son rôle, on définit son génie, on arrête son destin alors que ses désirs ignorent leurs frontières, que ses moyens ignorent leur puissance et qu’il ne connaît pas la mission dont il est chargé. Vous croyez donc que cela lui suffit, dix trônes, la terreur, l’enivrement du monde, le plus grand des destins connus ? Indigents que vous êtes ! Sans cesse, pour monter, il doit s’arracher à l’amour. Plus l’acclamation grandit autour du héros en marche, plus le silence s’établit et se fait profond dans son cœur. N’essayez pas d’explorer la solitude de cet homme sur lequel les regards de TOUS LES HOMMES sont fixés.

« Mendiant de l’infini, demandant à qui passait le petit sou de l’empire du monde »[18] , il n’y eut jamais, dans tous les siècles, un homme plus malheureux. Il paya l’incomparable ivresse d’être lui par l’incomparable souffrance d’être seul à le savoir. Son mot à Gœthe est un cri de soulagement. Quand la gloire, après avoir atteint les extrêmes limites matérielles de la conscience et de la mémoire des hommes s’estime inassouvie, sa rançon est le désespoir. Mais alors, et seulement alors, Dieu l’accueille.

[18] Léon Bloy.

3

Ce combat, dont il est le théâtre, entre l’aspiration vers un but inaccessible et l’inertie implacable du fait qui l’oblige à le tordre entre ses mains comme un métal peu docile, nous force à le considérer

avec les sentiments contradictoires que la méditation sur la vie même écartèle dans notre cœur. C’est qu’il est lui-même la vie portée à son plus haut degré d’intensité et de puissance, éveillant tour à tour ou simultanément selon l’heure et le point de vue l’amour ou la haine, mais s’affirmant irrépressible contre la morale et la mort. La destinée de cet « être incompréhensible qui trouvait le secret d’abaisser, en les dédaignant, ses plus dominantes actions, et qui élevait jusqu’à sa hauteur ses actions les moins élevées »[19] , est un conflit pascalien projeté du domaine de la conscience dans celui de l’événement. La raison moyenne le condamne, mais il subjugue l’instinct qui lui ramène la raison supérieure triomphant de ses propres scrupules opposés à son essor.

« Le héros parfait », disait Gœthe, qui refusait de ne voir le héros qu’à travers l’image un peu fade du saint selon le christianisme, c’est-à-dire de l’homme écrasant ses passions, souvent assez peu tyranniques, pour ne pas avoir à en souffrir. Celui-là possédait la force de les mettre en ordre, et d’imposer leur ordre à tous. La conquête de l’héroïsme est d’autant plus ardue que le chaos des passions est plus terrible dans un cœur Le « héros parfait » est celui qui aimant la guerre réduit le meurtre, aimant l’amour maîtrise les femmes, aimant le pouvoir en dédaigne les caprices, aimant la gloire méprise la louange, aimant la vie risque la mort. Un seul écueil, l’amour du clan, que Jésus sut broyer en lui et qui perdit Napoléon. Et cette morale publique, dont il se sert sans croire à ses fondements absolus, parce que son « système » le veut. Hors ces faiblesses incurables, Gœthe a raison. Il ne s’agit pas de souffrir. Il ne s’agit pas de jouir. Il s’agit d’obéir aux fatalités de sa nature en les cultivant par le redoutable contact de la vie acceptée avec ses pleines conséquences, même si elle vous commande le drame intérieur quotidien pour dominer ses assauts. Il est trop facile de se jeter les yeux fermés dans la mêlée. Il est trop facile de la fuir. Il la regarde en face, et y consent. Et il a la puissance rare d’empêcher qu’elle dépasse le niveau montant de son cœur. Ne l’enviez pas. Ne

le plaignez pas. Il n’entendrait point votre langage : « Mon cœur se refuse aux joies communes comme à la douleur ordinaire. »

C’est là une force autonome, qui donne au monde beaucoup plus qu’elle n’en reçoit. C’est de lui qu’il nourrit la vie en la forçant de bout en bout, comme un fleuve irrésistible qui laisse sur les faits et les êtres des alluvions plus larges à mesure qu’il se rapproche de l’heure où il se perdra dans la mort. Une foi géante l’anime, foi personnelle, obscure, mais absolument invulnérable et qui n’a rien à voir avec les croyances communes, se développant, bien au contraire, sur un fond de scepticisme radical. En Italie il est seul à croire, quand personne ne croit encore. En 1814 il est seul à croire, quand personne ne croit plus. Par là, vraiment, il semble une pensée de Dieu, chargée par lui de modeler la matière humaine en poème. Sa traversée du monde coïncide avec un drame gigantesque dont il devient le principal acteur, auquel son imagination ajoute des scènes nouvelles et à la hauteur duquel il ne cesse de se trouver. Elle crée des mythes grandioses, afin de lui prêter par cela même le pouvoir d’en faire passer dans les faits la partie réalisable. Il veut refouler l’Orient, fonder la nation d’Occident. Ainsi révèle-t-il l’Occident à luimême et aspire-t-il l’Orient tout entier dans l’orbite de l’Occident. Ainsi est-il, en même temps, contre l’Asie, le champion de la raison et de la volonté occidentales, et le nouvel annonciateur, en Europe, du mysticisme oriental. Je ne sais s’il le voit clairement. Mais il le sent, ce qui est mieux. Et même il en rit, comme Hercule : « Tout le temps, j’ai porté le monde sur mes épaules, et ce métier, après tout, ne laisse pas d’avoir sa fatigue. »

Fatigue immense, la nôtre même, celle de l’Homme en marche vers un destin qui ne se lasse pas de fuir. Fatigue au-dessus de laquelle le cœur de l’Homme ne se hausse que quand il a chance de battre entre les parois d’un grand cœur. Ne semble-t-il pas qu’on entende Eschyle lui-même jetant la lamentation formidable de l’Homme condamné à dépasser parfois dans son élan les frontières de Dieu sans jamais pouvoir l’atteindre, et à retomber sanglant dans l’orgueil de ses souvenirs ? « Nouveau Prométhée, je suis cloué à un roc et un vautour me ronge. Oui, j’avais dérobé le feu du ciel pour en

doter la France : le feu est remonté à sa source, et me voilà ! L’amour de la gloire ressemble à ce pont que Satan jeta sur le chaos pour passer de l’enfer au paradis : la gloire joint le passé à l’avenir dont il est séparé par un abîme immense. Rien à mon fils, que mon nom. »

XIV

L’EMPREINTE

1

L’empreinte que laisse un homme n’est pas si facile à déterminer qu’on le suppose. On voit ses contours, sa forme extérieure. Mais il est moins aisé d’explorer le sol autour d’elle, d’apprécier le tassement de l’humus sous son poids, la qualité des racines écrasées ou refoulées, l’obscure circulation des forces souterraines qui, grâce au bouleversement qu’elle y apporte, se mêlent ou se séparent et jaillissent à l’air ailleurs qu’on ne le pensait. Même ses contours, sa forme extérieure trompent sur sa vertu réelle. On y fait couler du plâtre. On place sur des étagères les moulages obtenus. Ceux qui visitent le musée, le dimanche, contemplent religieusement la relique poudreuse que des jeunes gens bruyants, mais dociles, et de vieilles demoiselles sages copient toute la semaine peur l’ornement des cheminées, des magazines et des instituts d’orthopédie. Si quelques-uns entendent le bruit du torrent au dehors, combien sont-ils à se douter que ce torrent ne serait pas si l’empreinte n’avait déplacé quelque source invisible ?

Que l’influence de Napoléon ait été néfaste dans le domaine politique et sentimental apparents, voilà qui semble démontré. Que son souvenir ait engendré une imagerie populaire écœurante, provoqué trop souvent la fureur des cuivres et tambours de la fanfare hugolesque, tenté même l’inspiration de l’ivrogne sentimental et du poivrot élégiaque qui, sous les noms de Musset et de Béranger, ont anémié d’effusions solitaires et couperosé d’ardeurs

patriotiques des millions de collégiens, de marchands de cassonnade et de filles sur le retour, voilà qui est triste, à coup sûr, mais surtout pour les critiques qui ont pris au sérieux ces effroyables sornettes. Qu’on charge sa conscience posthume des pronunciamentos vénézuéliens, du déchaînement des pédagogies, mascarades et bouffonneries militaires, de l’institution de ce second empire qui n’est pas seulement la caricature, mais la contre-partie du sien, voilà encore qui est regrettable, mais surtout pour les historiens et moralistes qui n’ont pas su discerner la qualité des gestes sous leur apparente identité. Le fait que Napoléon est un poète condamne irrévocablement ses descendants en simili qui débarquent sur le rivage avec un aigle empaillé, les notaires de cheflieu munis des tables de sa Loi qui prétendent la lui apprendre, les héros de garnison dont le grand sabre, au nom de L’ORDRE, coupe le poing du gamin qui leur fait la nique, les bardes de music-hall nasillant la gloire ou l’exécration du massacre pour amener au refrain, dans la salle, le capitaine d’habillement en retraite ou le zingueur libéré.

L’ombre de Napoléon a servi tour à tour à tous les partis d’épouvantail ou de drapeau, chacun d’eux ramassant minutieusement dans sa vie, afin de la mettre au niveau de ses passions intéressées, les faits et les anecdotes les plus propres à le servir. Aidés de la basse littérature, ils en ont fait tour à tour un négrier ou un tambour-major. Mais voilà. Napoléon n’est pas plus responsable du bonapartisme que Michel-Ange de l’académisme ou Jésus du cléricalisme. L’interprétation du monde repose sur un malentendu séculaire, et incurable. Un masque le recouvre, que décorent les profiteurs pour leur clientèle de sots, et sous lequel son vrai visage cache ses convulsions ou sa sérénité. L’empire spirituel d’un homme commence exactement aux bornes que lui assignent, comme extrêmes frontières, ses adversaires intéressés et surtout ses imitateurs. Il n’est pas difficile de dénoncer l’influence de Montaigne sur Pierre Charron ou sur les innombrables écrivailleurs anglais qui ont bravement intitulé « Essais » leurs élucubrations de valeurs fort inégales. Mais je ne sais si on se rend bien compte que

Shakespeare, Cervantès et Pascal n’eussent pas ouvert, sans Montaigne, les portes de l’esprit moderne à l’Occident. Nul n’ignore l’action de Rubens sur Van Dyck. Mais qui dira l’ébranlement secret, et décisif, qu’il a imprimé après deux siècles à l’idée de Lamarck lequel, selon toute vraisemblance, connaissait à peine son nom ? Un enfant qui donne à un pauvre le sou qu’on vient de lui remettre pour acheter un sucre d’orge, est bien plus près du Christ que le prêtre qui vit de lui. Un autre enfant qui copie avec un morceau de charbon, sur la cloison d’une bicoque, la silhouette d’un chien levant la patte au pied d’un mur, n’est pas si loin de Raphaël que tel académicien qui professe, en son nom, à l’École des Beaux-Arts. L’esprit est invisible, et c’est là qu’est sa force. Je ne sais si Chateaubriand l’a bien vu à propos de Napoléon, et pourtant je ne puis croire qu’un homme de sa taille ait pu songer aux aspects extérieurs de l’action napoléonienne quand il a écrit ceci, qui précisément néglige son caractère matériel pour montrer les régions où il faut en chercher la trace : « Vivant, il a manqué le monde. Mort, il le possède. »

2

J’écarte même l’action pour ainsi dire mécanique que son terrible apostolat a immédiatement exercé sur l’Europe en y semant des ferments invincibles, et dont j’ai dit, après tant d’autres, les effets. Il y a quelque chose de plus utile aux peuples que l’unité nationale et l’égalité civile qu’ils lui doivent à peu près tous et que d’ailleurs ils ne réalisent vraiment que s’ils sont dignes de s’en emparer par le fer. De plus utile même que l’énorme circulation des valeurs et des produits, l’essor prodigieux d’invention technique et de conquête industrielle, l’immense réseau nerveux dont le globe va se couvrir, les répercussions redoutables de ces événements sur l’organisation du travail, toutes choses que l’unité nationale et l’égalité civile déchaînent en créant de grands corps nouveaux, de grandes

classes nouvelles et des sources insoupçonnées d’énergies et de besoins. De plus immédiatement utile, dans le domaine spirituel tout au moins, puisque ces besoins et ces énergies engendrent à leur tour des forces invisibles qui transforment et fécondent de proche en proche les cerveaux… C’est le visage inattendu pris par le monde sous l’angle que révèle aux âmes profondes l’effort spirituel et guerrier qu’il faut faire pour conquérir cette unité, cette égalité et leurs conséquences obscures. Que Fichte, à cinquante ans, descende de sa chaire pour rejoindre son bataillon, non seulement cela n’est pas indifférent à la marche de la vie, mais cela lui inflige un sens qui provoque dans les esprits des combats intérieurs susceptibles d’en accroître, où même d’en modifier radicalement la valeur. Que Chateaubriand, Laplace, Mme de Staël, Benjamin Constant en France, Fox, Burke, Walter Scott en Angleterre, Gœthe et Beethoven en Allemagne, Alfieri, Manzoni en Italie, Goya en Espagne aient suspendu la destinée morale des peuples à la victoire ou à la chute de Napoléon, cela n’a pas été sans exercer sur cette destinée morale même un immense ébranlement. En est-il responsable ? Il me semble. On ne se hausse pas de l’obscurité et de la pauvreté complètes à la plus éclatante vie qu’ait connue le monde sans être pour quelque chose dans la ferveur spirituelle que les âmes y puisent par le moyen de la haine ou de l’admiration.

Mais il y a plus. Ici, je pense, un merveilleux mystère est contenu, et qu’on n’ose explorer parce qu’il ouvre trop de routes et renverse trop de clôtures entre des territoires qu’on croyait réservés et délimités pour toujours. Celui qui crée le drame dans les événements crée le drame dans les cœurs. L’ivresse, l’inquiétude, la cupidité, l’esprit d’aventure, l’esprit de sacrifice règnent. L’amour rôde, s’allume, sème le risque et la douleur Si l’amante et l’amant unis dans l’exécration ou l’enthousiasme ou séparés, au contraire, par ces sentiments que la volupté déchire, réconcilie, exalte, créent l’enfant parmi le délire de la séparation ou du retour, l’enfant a quelque chance d’être une force d’exception, cœur bondissant, âme éperdue, fureur de vivre et de connaître, surtout quand il grandit dans le tumulte même qu’une aventure exceptionnelle soulève et fait

gronder autour de lui. Éblouies des contes épiques que le père ou le frère aîné entrevu entre deux campagnes dans son uniforme éclatant rapporte dans le bruit des salves, impressionnées par les silences et les larmes des sœurs, des mères, nourries des mirages lointains qu’éveillent des noms de pays et de villes qu’on ne peut se représenter sans voir des coupoles d’or monter sur des champs de neige, des minarets pointer au-dessus des eaux et des palmes, des forêts gravir les montagnes jusqu’aux glaciers miroitants, des escaliers et des statues au milieu des cyprès et des roses, de belles créatures qui ont des fleurs dans les cheveux et dont les yeux sombres luisent, l’amour, la mort, la gloire attendant sur tous les chemins, les jeunes imaginations ne peuvent pas ne pas subir l’empreinte ineffaçable, et angoissante pour la vie, de l’existence fabuleuse qui fut le prétexte, le centre, l’âme, la conscience de tout cela. Bonaparte apparaît en 1796. Napoléon atteint vers 1809 le sommet de la période triomphale d’une carrière à la fin de laquelle l’anémie commence pour son peuple que le reflux du monde vient heurter. Il est impressionnant de constater que tous les grands romantiques français, — ces puissantes natures qui semblèrent recommencer par l’imagination et la pensée, à travers l’Histoire et le Monde, le voyage lyrique que le héros avait accompli dans l’action, — Hugo, Balzac, Dumas, Vigny, Michelet, George Sand, SainteBeuve, Corot, Barye, Delacroix, Auguste Comte, Barbier, Mérimée, Berlioz, Daumier, Proud’hon, naissent entre ces deux dates extrêmes. Il est impressionnant de constater que dans cette Angleterre opiniâtre qui refusa de déposer les armes avant qu’il fût abattu, Keats, Carlyle, Macauley, Stuart Mill, les deux Browning, Darwin, Tennyson, Dickens naissent pendant cette période-là. Il est impressionnant de constater que Mendelssohn, Schumann, Wagner naissent à l’instant où l’Allemagne entière se roidit contre lui dans sa souffrance et sa fureur. Il est impressionnant de constater que Chopin venait de naître d’un homme de France et d’une femme de Pologne quand l’Andromède polonaise vit en Napoléon un Persée descendant du ciel. Il est impressionnant de constater que Léopardi naît au moment où finissait cette campagne d’Italie qui bouleversa violemment l’esprit de la péninsule, que Mazzini et Garibaldi

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