Research Methods for Social Work Allen Rubin
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Council on Social Work Education Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards by Chapter The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards requires all social work students to develop nine competencies and recommends teaching and assessing 31 related component behaviors, listed as Educational Policy (EP) Competencies 1–9 below. The multicolor icons (see figure at right) and end of chapter “Competency Notes” connect these important standards to class work in the chapters identified below with bold blue type.
The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015)
Competency 1—Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior:
Chapter(s) Where Referenced
1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 11
a. Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision-making, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12
b. Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations
c. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic communication
d. Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes 5
e. Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior
Competency 2—Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice: 2, 6
a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels
b. Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own experiences
c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies
Competency 3—Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice:
a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels
b. Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice
Competency 4—Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
2, 6
3, 18, 19
3, 18, 19
3, 18, 19
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23
a. Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 1, 2
b. Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23
c. Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23
Competency 5—Engage in Policy Practice: 2, 4, 11, 12, 14
a. Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services
b. Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services
c. Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice
The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015)
Competency 6—Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies
b. Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and constituencies
Competency 7—Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and constituencies
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies
c. Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies
d. Select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies
Competency 8—Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities of clients and constituencies
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies
c. Use inter-professional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes
d. Negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies
e. Facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals
Competency 9—Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
a. Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes
c. Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes
Chapter(s) Where Referenced
2, 8, 9, 10, 19
2, 8, 9, 10, 19
2, 21, 22
2
2, 8, 9, 10, 19
2, 4
2, 4
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23
2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23
2, 3, 6
2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23
d. Apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels 1, 2, 23
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AllenRubin
UniversityofHouston
EarlR.Babbie
ChapmanUniversity
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ResearchMethodsforSocialWork, NinthEdition
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Toourwives CHRISTINARUBIN SUZANNEBABBIE CONTENTSINBRIEF PART1
AnIntroductiontoScientificInquiryin SocialWork1
Chapter1 WhyStudyResearch?2
Chapter2 Evidence-BasedPractice24
Chapter3 FactorsInfluencingtheResearch Process43
Chapter4 Quantitative,Qualitative,andMixed MethodsofInquiry66
PART2
TheEthical,Political,andCulturalContextof SocialWorkResearch81
Chapter5 TheEthicsandPoliticsofSocialWork Research82
Chapter6 CulturallyCompetentResearch112
PART3 ProblemFormulationandMeasurement139
Chapter7 ProblemFormulation140
Chapter8 ConceptualizationinQuantitative andQualitativeInquiry162
Chapter9 Measurement191
Chapter10 ConstructingMeasurement Instruments218
PART4
DesignsforEvaluatingPrograms andPractice241
Chapter11 CausalInferenceandExperimental Designs243
Chapter12 Quasi-ExperimentalDesigns272
Chapter13 Single-CaseEvaluationDesigns292
Chapter14 ProgramEvaluation320
PART5 DataCollectionMethodswithLargeSources ofData347
Chapter15 Sampling349
Chapter16 SurveyResearch378
Chapter17 AnalyzingExistingData:Quantitative andQualitativeMethods403
PART6 QualitativeResearchMethods433
Chapter18 QualitativeResearch:General Principles434
Chapter19 QualitativeResearch:Specific Methods455
Chapter20 QualitativeDataAnalysis478
PART7 AnalysisofQuantitativeData503
Chapter21 DescriptiveDataAnalysis504 Chapter22 InferentialDataAnalysis528
PART8
WritingResearchProposalsandReports551
Chapter23 WritingResearchProposals andReports552
AppendixA UsingtheLibrary577
AppendixB StatisticsforEstimatingSampling Error584
AppendixC CriticallyAppraising Meta-Analyses593
Glossary 596 Bibliography 617 Index 637
CONTENTSINDETAIL Prefacexvi
PART1
AnIntroductiontoScientificInquiryinSocial Work1
Chapter 1
WHYSTUDYRESEARCH?2
Introduction 3
AgreementReality3
ExperientialReality4
TheScientificMethod 4
AllKnowledgeIsTentativeandOpento Question4
Replication5
Observation5
Objectivity6
Transparency6
OtherWaysofKnowing 6
Tradition7
Authority8
CommonSense8
PopularMedia8
RecognizingFlawsinUnscientificSourcesofSocial WorkPracticeKnowledge 10
Overgeneralization10
SelectiveObservation10
ExPostFacto Hypothesizing12
EgoInvolvementinUnderstanding12
OtherFormsofIllogicalReasoning13
ThePrematureClosureofInquiry14
Pseudoscience14
TheUtilityofScientificInquiryinSocialWork 16
WillYouEverDoResearch?16
ReviewsofSocialWorkEffectiveness 17
EarlyReviews17
StudiesofSpecificInterventions17
TheNeedtoCritiqueResearchQuality 19 PublicationDoesNotGuaranteeQuality19 DistinguishingandFacilitatingMoreUseful Studies19
CompassionandProfessionalEthics 19
UtilityofResearchinAppliedSocialWork Settings 20
ResearchMethodsYouMaySomedayUseinYour Practice20
NationalAssociationofSocialWorkersCodeof Ethics21
MainPoints 21
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 22
InternetExercises 22
Chapter 2
EVIDENCE-BASEDPRACTICE24
Introduction 25
CriticalThinkinginEBP 25
EBPImpliesCareer-LongLearning 26
StepsintheEBPProcess 27
Step1.FormulateaQuestiontoAnswerPractice Needs27
Step2.SearchfortheEvidence29
Step3.CriticallyAppraisetheRelevantStudiesYou Find33
Step4.DetermineWhichResearch-Supported InterventionorPolicyIsMostAppropriatefor YourParticularClient(s)33
Step5.ApplytheChosenIntervention34
Step6.ProvideEvaluationandFeedback35 DistinguishingtheEvidence-BasedProcessfrom Evidence-BasedPractices 35
ControversiesandMisconceptionsaboutEBP 37
EBPIsBasedonStudiesofAtypicalClients37
EBPIsOverlyRestrictive37
EBPIsJustaCost-CuttingTool38
EvidenceIsinShortSupply38
TheTherapeuticAllianceWillBeHindered38
CommonFactorsandtheDodoBird 38
Real-WorldObstaclestoImplementingEBPin
EverydayPractice 39
AlleviatingFeasibilityObstaclestoEBP40
MainPoints 40
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 41
InternetExercises 41
Chapter 3
FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHERESEARCH PROCESS43
Introduction 44
ThePhasesoftheResearchProcess 44
TheoryandValues 47
UtilityofTheoryinSocialWorkPractice andResearch47
SocialWorkPracticeModels48
AtheoreticalResearchStudies49
PredictionandExplanation49
TheComponentsofTheory50
TheRelationshipbetweenAttributes andVariables51
TwoLogicalSystems:ComparingDeduction andInduction 53
ProbabilisticKnowledge 56
TwoCausalModelsofExplanation 57
UseofNomotheticandIdiographicResearch inSocialWorkPractice58
IdeologiesandParadigms 59
ContemporaryPositivism61 Interpretivism62
EmpowermentParadigm63
ParadigmaticFlexibilityinResearch63
MainPoints 64
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 65
InternetExercises 65
Chapter 4
QUANTITATIVE,QUALITATIVE,ANDMIXED METHODSOFINQUIRY66
Introduction 67
ObjectivityandSubjectivityinScientific Inquiry 67
AComparisonofQualitativeandQuantitative MethodsofInquiry 68
MixedMethodsofInquiry 70
TypesofMixed-MethodsDesigns71
ThreeBasicMixed-MethodsDesigns74
ThreeAdvancedMixed-MethodsDesigns77
ReasonsforUsingMixedMethods77
MainPoints 78
Practice-RelatedExercises 79
InternetExercises 79
PART2 TheEthical,Political,andCulturalContext ofSocialWorkResearch81
Chapter 5
THEETHICSANDPOLITICSOFSOCIAL WORKRESEARCH82
Introduction 83
InstitutionalReviewBoards 84
VoluntaryParticipationandInformed Consent85
NoHarmtotheParticipants86
AnonymityandConfidentiality87
DeceivingParticipants90
AnalysisandReporting90
WeighingBenefitsandCosts91
RighttoReceiveServicesversusResponsibility toEvaluateServiceEffectiveness92
NationalAssociationofSocialWorkersCode ofEthics93
IRBProceduresandForms94
TrainingRequirement94
ExpeditedReviews94
OverzealousReviewers97
FourEthicalControversies 98
ObservingHumanObedience98
TroubleintheTearoom100
“WelfareStudyWithholdsBenefitsfrom800 Texans” 101
SocialWorkerSubmitsBogusArticletoTestJournal Bias102
BiasandInsensitivityRegardingSex,Gender Identity,andCulture 105
ThePoliticsofSocialWorkResearch 106
SocialResearchandRace107
MainPoints 109
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 110
InternetExercises 111
Chapter 6
CULTURALLYCOMPETENTRESEARCH112 Introduction 113
ResearchParticipants113
Measurement113
DataAnalysisandInterpretation114
Acculturation115
ImpactofCulturalInsensitivityonResearch Climate116
DevelopingCulturalCompetence 116
RecruitingandRetainingtheParticipation ofMinorityandOppressedPopulationsin ResearchStudies119
ObtainEndorsementfromCommunity Leaders119
UseCulturallySensitiveApproachesRegarding Confidentiality120
EmployLocalCommunityMembersasResearch Staff120
ProvideAdequateCompensation120
AlleviateTransportationandChild-Care Barriers121
ChooseaSensitiveandAccessibleSetting121
UseandTrainCulturallyCompetent Interviewers121
UseBilingualStaff122
UnderstandCulturalFactorsInfluencing Participation122
UseAnonymousEnrollmentwithStigmatized Populations122
UtilizeSpecialSamplingTechniques123
LearnWheretoLook123
ConnectwithandNurtureReferralSources124
UseFrequentandIndividualizedContacts andPersonalTouches124
UseAnchorPoints125
UseTrackingMethods125
CulturallyCompetentMeasurement 126
CulturallyCompetentInterviewing126
LanguageProblems127
CulturalBias128
MeasurementEquivalence 130
LinguisticEquivalence130
ConceptualEquivalence131
MetricEquivalence131
AssessingMeasurementEquivalence132 MethodsforImprovingMeasurement Equivalence133
TheValueofQualitativeInterviews133 ProblematicIssuesinMakingResearchMore CulturallyCompetent 133
MainPoints 135
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 137
InternetExercises 137 PART3 ProblemFormulationandMeasurement139
Chapter 7
PROBLEMFORMULATION140 Introduction 141
PurposesofSocialWorkResearch 141 Exploration141
Description141
Explanation142
Evaluation142
ConstructingMeasurementInstruments143
MultiplePurposes 143
SelectingTopicsandResearchQuestions 143
NarrowingResearchTopicsintoResearch Questions 145
AttributesofGoodResearchQuestions 146
Feasibility147
InvolvingOthersinProblemFormulation 149
LiteratureReview 150
WhyandWhentoReviewtheLiterature150
HowtoReviewtheLiterature151
SearchingtheWeb152
BeThorough152
TheTimeDimension 156
Cross-SectionalStudies156
LongitudinalStudies156
UnitsofAnalysis 158
MainPoints 160
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 161
InternetExercises 161
Chapter 8
CONCEPTUALIZATIONINQUANTITATIVE ANDQUALITATIVEINQUIRY162
Introduction 163
ContrastingQuantitativeandQualitative Conceptualization 163
ConceptualExplicationinQuantitative Inquiry 164
DevelopingaProperHypothesis165
DifferencesbetweenHypothesesandResearch Questions166
TypesofRelationshipsbetweenVariables166
ExtraneousVariables167
ModeratingVariables168
Constants169
MediatingVariables169
TheSameConceptCanBeaDifferentTypeof VariableinDifferentStudies170
OperationalDefinitions 172
OperationallyDefiningAnythingThatExists173
Conceptualization174
IndicatorsandDimensions175
ClarifyingConcepts176
TheInfluenceofOperationalDefinitions178
SexandCulturalBiasinOperational Definitions178
OperationalizationChoices 179
RangeofVariation179
VariationsbetweentheExtremes180 ANoteonDimensions180
ExamplesofOperationalizationinSocial Work 180
ExistingScales 182
OperationalizationGoesOnandOn 186
LevelsofMeasurement 186
ConceptualizationinQualitativeInquiry 187
MainPoints 189
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 190
InternetExercises 190
Chapter 9 MEASUREMENT191
Introduction 192
CommonSourcesofMeasurementError 192
SystematicError192 RandomError195
ErrorsinAlternateFormsofMeasurement195
AvoidingMeasurementError 197
Reliability 199
TypesofReliability200
InterobserverandInterraterReliability200
Test–RetestReliability201
InternalConsistencyReliability201
Validity 202
FaceValidity203
ContentValidity203
Criterion-RelatedValidity204
ConstructValidity206
FactorialValidity207
AnIllustrationofReliableandValidMeasurement inSocialWork:TheClinicalMeasurement Package 208
RelationshipbetweenReliabilityandValidity 211
ReliabilityandValidityinQualitative Research 214
MainPoints 216
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 217
InternetExercises 217
Chapter 10
CONSTRUCTINGMEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS218
Introduction 219
GuidelinesforAskingQuestions 219
QuestionsandStatements220
Open-EndedandClosed-EndedQuestions220
MakeItemsClear221
AvoidDouble-BarreledQuestions221
RespondentsMustBeCompetentto Answer221
RespondentsMustBeWillingto Answer222
QuestionsShouldBeRelevant222
ShortItemsAreBest222
AvoidWordsLike No or Not 222
AvoidBiasedItemsandTerms223
QuestionsShouldBeCulturallySensitive223
QuestionnaireConstruction 223
GeneralQuestionnaireFormat223
FormatsforRespondents225
ContingencyQuestions225
MatrixQuestions227
OrderingQuestionsinaQuestionnaire227
QuestionnaireInstructions228
PretestingtheQuestionnaire229
ConstructingScales 229
LevelsofMeasurement230
SomeProminentScalingProcedures231
ItemGenerationandSelection232
HandlingMissingData234
ConstructingQualitativeMeasures 235
MainPoints 237
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 238
InternetExercises 238
PART4 DesignsforEvaluatingPrograms andPractice241
Chapter 11 CAUSALINFERENCEANDEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS243
Introduction 244
CriteriaforInferringCausality 244
TimeSequence245
Correlation246
RulingOutAlternativeExplanations246
StrengthofCorrelation246
PlausibilityandCoherence246
ConsistencyinReplication248
InternalValidity 248
PreexperimentalPilotStudies 252
One-ShotCaseStudy252
One-GroupPretest–PosttestDesign252
Posttest-OnlyDesignwithNonequivalentGroups (Static-GroupComparisonDesign)253
ExperimentalDesigns 254
Randomization259
Matching259
ProvidingServicestoControlGroups261
AdditionalThreatstotheValidityofExperimental Findings 262
MeasurementBias262
ResearchReactivity262
DiffusionorImitationofTreatments264
CompensatoryEqualization,CompensatoryRivalry, orResentfulDemoralization266
Attrition(ExperimentalMortality) 266
ExternalValidity 268
MainPoints 270
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 271
InternetExercises 271
Chapter 12
QUASI-EXPERIMENTALDESIGNS272
Introduction 273
NonequivalentComparisonGroupsDesign 273
WaystoStrengthentheInternalValidityofthe NonequivalentComparisonGroups Design 274
MultiplePretests275
SwitchingReplication276
SimpleTime-SeriesDesigns 276
MultipleTime-SeriesDesigns 279
Cross-SectionalStudies 280
CaseControlStudies 283
PracticalPitfallsinCarryingOutExperiments andQuasiExperimentsinSocialWork Agencies 284
FidelityoftheIntervention285
ContaminationoftheControlCondition286
ResistancetotheCaseAssignmentProtocol286
ClientRecruitmentandRetention286
MechanismsforAvoidingorAlleviatingPractical Pitfalls287
QualitativeTechniquesforAvoidingorAlleviating PracticalPitfalls 288
MainPoints 290
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 290
InternetExercises 291
Chapter 13
SINGLE-CASEEVALUATIONDESIGNS292
Introduction 293
OverviewoftheLogicofSingle-CaseDesigns 293
Single-CaseDesignsinSocialWork 295
UseofSingle-CaseDesignsasPartofEvidenceBasedPractice 296
MeasurementIssues 298
OperationallyDefiningTargetProblems andGoals298
WhattoMeasure299
Triangulation299
DataGathering 300 WhoShouldMeasure?300
SourcesofData301
ReliabilityandValidity301
DirectBehavioralObservation301
UnobtrusiveversusObtrusiveObservation302
DataQuantificationProcedures303
TheBaselinePhase303
AlternativeSingle-CaseDesigns 306
AB:TheBasicSingle-CaseDesign306
ABAB:Withdrawal/ReversalDesign307
Multiple-BaselineDesigns309
Multiple-ComponentDesigns312
DataAnalysis 313
InterpretingAmbiguousResults314
AggregatingtheResultsofSingle-CaseResearch Studies315
BandB+Designs 316
TheRoleofQualitativeResearchMethods inSingle-CaseEvaluation 317
MainPoints 318
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 319
InternetExercises 319
Chapter 14 PROGRAMEVALUATION320
Introduction 321
HistoricalOverview 321
TheImpactofManagedCare322 Evidence-BasedPractice323 PlanninganEvaluationandFosteringIts Utilization 323 LogicModels324
PurposesandTypesofProgramEvaluation 327
SummativeandFormativeEvaluations327 EvaluatingOutcomeandEfficiency328 Cost-EffectivenessandCost–BenefitAnalyses329 ProblemsandIssuesinEvaluatingGoal Attainment330 MonitoringProgramImplementation331 ProcessEvaluation332
EvaluationforProgramPlanning:Needs Assessment333 FocusGroups336
AnIllustrationofaQualitativeApproachto EvaluationResearch 337
ThePoliticsofProgramEvaluation 339 In-HouseversusExternalEvaluators340
UtilizationofProgramEvaluationFindings342
LogisticalandAdministrativeProblems343
MainPoints 344
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 345
InternetExercises 346
PART5
DataCollectionMethodswithLargeSources ofData347
Chapter 15
SAMPLING349
Introduction 350
PresidentAlfLandon351
PresidentThomasE.Dewey351
PresidentJohnKerry352
NonprobabilitySampling 352
RelianceonAvailableSubjects353
PurposiveorJudgmentalSampling355
QuotaSampling356
SnowballSampling356
SelectingInformantsinQualitativeResearch 357
TheLogicofProbabilitySampling 357
ConsciousandUnconsciousSamplingBias357
RepresentativenessandProbabilityof Selection358
RandomSelection359
CanSomeRandomlySelectedSamplesBe Biased? 360
SamplingFramesandPopulations360
NonresponseBias362
ReviewofPopulationsandSamplingFrames363
SampleSizeandSamplingError 363
EstimatingtheMarginofSamplingError363
OtherConsiderationsinDeterminingSample Size365
TypesofProbabilitySamplingDesigns 366
SimpleRandomSampling366
SystematicSampling366
StratifiedSampling368
ImplicitStratificationinSystematicSampling369
ProportionateandDisproportionateStratified Samples369
MultistageClusterSampling 371
MultistageDesignsandSamplingError372
StratificationinMultistageCluster Sampling373
Illustration:SamplingSocialWorkStudents 374
SelectingthePrograms374
SelectingtheStudents374
ProbabilitySamplinginReview 375
AvoidingSexBiasinSampling 375
MainPoints 376
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 376
InternetExercises 377
Chapter 16
SURVEYRESEARCH378 Introduction 379
TopicsAppropriatetoSurveyResearch380
Self-AdministeredQuestionnaires 381
MailDistributionandReturn381
CoverLetter382
MonitoringReturns384
Follow-UpMailings384
ResponseRates385
IncreasingResponseRates386
ACaseStudy386
InterviewSurveys 387
TheRoleoftheSurveyInterviewer387
GeneralGuidelinesforSurveyInterviewing388 CoordinationandControl390
TelephoneSurveys 392
TheInfluenceofTechnologicalAdvances393
OnlineSurveys 394
OnlineDevices394
InstrumentDesign395
ImprovingResponseRates395
Mixed-ModeSurveys 396
ComparisonofDifferentSurveyMethods 397
StrengthsandWeaknessesofSurveyResearch 398
MainPoints 400
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 401
InternetExercises 401
Chapter 17
ANALYZINGEXISTINGDATA:QUANTITATIVE ANDQUALITATIVEMETHODS403
Introduction 404
ACommentonUnobtrusiveMeasures 404
SecondaryAnalysis 405
TheGrowthofSecondaryAnalysis405
TypesandSourcesofDataArchives406
SourcesofExistingStatistics407
AdvantagesofSecondaryAnalysis407
LimitationsofSecondaryAnalysis410
IllustrationsoftheSecondaryAnalysisofExisting StatisticsinResearchonSocialWelfare Policy413
DistinguishingSecondaryAnalysisfrom OtherFormsofAnalyzingAvailable Records415
ContentAnalysis 415
SamplinginContentAnalysis417
SamplingTechniques418
CodinginContentAnalysis418
ManifestandLatentContent418
ConceptualizationandtheCreationofCode Categories419
CountingandRecordKeeping420
QualitativeDataAnalysis421
QuantitativeandQualitativeExamplesofContent Analysis422
StrengthsandWeaknessesofContent Analysis424
HistoricalandComparativeAnalysis 424
SourcesofHistoricalandComparative Data425
AnalyticTechniques428
UnobtrusiveOnlineResearch 428
MainPoints 429
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 430
InternetExercises 430
PART6 QualitativeResearchMethods433
Chapter 18
QUALITATIVERESEARCH:GENERAL PRINCIPLES434
Introduction 435
TopicsAppropriateforQualitativeResearch 435
ProminentQualitativeResearchParadigms 436 Naturalism436
GroundedTheory436
ParticipatoryActionResearch440
CaseStudies441
QualitativeSamplingMethods 443
StrengthsandWeaknessesofQualitative Research 446
DepthofUnderstanding446
Flexibility447
Cost448
SubjectivityandGeneralizability448
StandardsforEvaluatingQualitativeStudies 449
ContemporaryPositivistStandards450
SocialConstructivistStandards451
EmpowermentStandards452
ResearchEthicsinQualitativeResearch 452
MainPoints 453
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 454
InternetExercises 454
Chapter 19
QUALITATIVERESEARCH:SPECIFICMETHODS455
Introduction 456
PreparingfortheField 456
SearchtheLiterature456
UseKeyInformants456
EstablishInitialContact456
EstablishRapport457
ExplainYourPurpose457
TheVariousRolesoftheObserver 457
CompleteParticipant457
ParticipantasObserver459
ObserverasParticipant460
CompleteObserver460
RelationstoParticipants:EticandEmic
Perspectives 460
EticPerspective461
EmicPerspective461
AdoptingBothPerspectives461
Reflexivity 461
QualitativeInterviewing 462
InformalConversationalInterviews463
InterviewGuideApproach465
StandardizedOpen-EndedInterviews467
LifeHistory 467
FeministMethods 468
FocusGroups 468
Sampling468
TypesandSequenceofQuestions469
Advantages469
Disadvantages471
RecordingObservations 471
VoiceRecording473
Notes473
AdvancePreparation473
RecordSoon473
TakeNotesinStages475
DetailsCanBeImportant475
Practice475
MainPoints 475
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 476
InternetExercises 477
Chapter 20
QUALITATIVEDATAANALYSIS478
Introduction 479
LinkingTheoryandAnalysis 479
DiscoveringPatterns479
GroundedTheoryMethod480
Semiotics481
ConversationAnalysis483
QualitativeDataProcessing 483
Coding483
Memoing487
ConceptMapping488
ComputerProgramsforQualitativeData 489
QualitativeDataAnalysisPrograms489
LeviticusasSeenthroughQualrus491
N-Vivo493
MainPoints 501
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 501
InternetExercises 502
PART7
AnalysisofQuantitativeData503
Chapter 21
DESCRIPTIVEDATAANALYSIS504
Introduction 505
Coding 505
DevelopingCodeCategories505
DataEntry 507
DataCleaning 507
UnivariateAnalysis 508
Distributions508
ImplicationsofLevelsofMeasurement509
CentralTendency510
Dispersion512
BivariateAnalysis 514
InterpretingBivariateTables514
InterpretingMultivariateTables 515
ConstructingTables 516
TableTitlesandLabels516
DetailversusManageability517
HandlingMissingData518
PercentagingBivariateandMultivariate Tables518
MeasuringtheStrengthofRelationships 519
Correlation519
EffectSize520
Cohen’s d 521
DescriptiveStatisticsandQualitative Research 522
MainPoints 525
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 526
InternetExercises 527
Chapter 22
INFERENTIALDATAANALYSIS528
Introduction 529
ChanceasaRivalHypothesis 529
RefutingChance531
StatisticalSignificance 531
TheoreticalSamplingDistributions531
SignificanceLevels533
One-TailedandTwo-TailedTests534
TheNullHypothesis537
TypeIandTypeIIErrors538
TheInfluenceofSampleSize540
InterpretingRelationshipStrength 540
Strong,Medium,andWeakEffectSizes541
SubstantiveSignificance 542
StatisticalPowerAnalysis 543
SelectingandCalculatingTestsofStatistical Significance 546
Meta-Analysis 547
MainPoints 548
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 549
InternetExercises 549
PART8
WritingResearchProposalsandReports551
Chapter 23
WRITINGRESEARCHPROPOSALS ANDREPORTS552
Introduction 553
WritingResearchProposals 553
FindingaFundingSourceandRFPs 553
Large-ScaleandSmall-ScaleRFPsand Proposals554
GrantsandContracts554
BeforeYouStartWritingtheProposal556
ResearchProposalComponents557
CoverMaterials557
ProblemandObjectives557
LiteratureReview558
ConceptualFramework559
Measurement559
StudyParticipants(Sampling)560
DesignandDataCollectionMethods560
DataAnalysis563
Schedule564
Budget564
AdditionalComponents564
WritingSocialWorkResearchReports 565
SomeBasicConsiderations565
OrganizationoftheReport 570
Title570
Abstract570
IntroductionandLiteratureReview570
Methods571
Results571
DiscussionandConclusions572
ReferencesandAppendices573
AdditionalConsiderationsWhenWriting QualitativeReports 573
MainPoints 574
ReviewQuestionsandExercises 575
InternetExercises 575
Appendix A
USINGTHELIBRARY 577
Introduction 577
AccessingandExaminingLibraryMaterials Online 577
GettingHelp 577
ReferenceSources 577
UsingtheStacks 578
Abstracts 578
ProfessionalJournals 580
Appendix B
STATISTICSFORESTIMATINGSAMPLING
ERROR 584
TheSamplingDistributionof10Cases 584
SamplingDistributionandEstimatesofSampling Error 585
ConfidenceLevelsandConfidenceIntervals 591
Appendix C
CRITICALLYAPPRAISINGMETA-ANALYSES 593
PotentialFlawsinMeta-Analyses 593
ConflictsofInterest593
LumpingTogetherStrongandWeak Studies593
ProblemsinRatingsofMethodological Quality594
FileDrawerEffect594
WhattoLookforWhenAppraising Meta-Analyses 595
Transparency595
MethodologiesofIncludedStudies595
UnpublishedStudies595
Comprehensiveness595
Conclusion 595
Glossary 596
Bibliography 617
Index 637
PREFACE Aswithpreviouseditionsofthistext,thisnintheditioncontainssignificantimprovementstokeepup withadvancesinthefieldandrespondtotheexcellentsuggestionsfromcolleagues.Oneofthethings thathasn’tchangedisourpresentationofboxesto illustrateconceptsthatbringresearchcontenttolife andillustrateitsrelevancetosocialworkandits utilityininformingsocialworkpractice.Inthat connection,wehaveaddedsomenewboxesinthis edition.Herearesomeofourothermostnoteworthychangestothisedition.
CSWEEPASCoreCompetencies.Aswewere writingthisnewedition,theCouncilonSocial WorkEducationwasintheprocessofrevisingits EducationalPolicyandAccreditationStandards (EPAS)CoreCompetencies.Accordingly,wehave changedthewayweshowhowthecontentsofour bookpertaintothosecorecompetencies.
BookLength. Inresponsetoreviewerconcerns aboutthelengthandcostofthebook,westrivedto shortenthiseditioninwaysthatwillnotsacrifice oneofitschiefvirtues:itscomprehensivenessand useofmanysocialworkpracticeexamplesand illustrations.Althoughtheshorteningrevisions occurredinmanychapters,theyaremostnoteworthyinthecontentoninferentialstatistics,inwhich twochapterswereshortenedandcombinedintoone (Chapter22).
SignificantAdditions. Atthesametime,we mademanyadditionsthroughoutthebook.The mostsignificantadditionsareasfollows:
• Expandedcoverageofmixed-methods
• NewcontentonLGBTQpopulationsinseveral chapters
• Expandedcontentonscaledevelopment
• Newcontentoncriteriaforinferringcausality inepidemiologicalresearch
• Moreemphasisonhowtoconductsuccessful programevaluations
• New,updatedcontentonhowadvancesin technologyareaffectingsurveysandqualitative research
• Newcontentonhowtoconductfocusgroup interviewing
• AnewAppendixoncriticallyappraisingmetaanalyses
Belowisachapter-by-chapterdescriptionofour mostnoteworthychanges.
• Chapter1.Severalreviewersofferedusefulrecommendationsregardingtheneedtoshorten thislengthychapter.Weagreedwithandfollowedtheiradvice.Atthesametime,however, wemanagedtoaddahumorousphotoanda newboxlistingsomeinterventionswithstrong researchsupport.
• Chapter2.Throughoutourdiscussionofevidence-basedpractice(EBP),wehaveincreased contentshowinghowEBPappliestothemacro andpolicylevelsofsocialworkpractice.Also throughoutwehavereplacedwordingabout EBP guiding practicewithwordingaboutEBP informing practicedecisions.Wereplacedthe modelofEBPinFigure2-1withanupdatedversionofthemodel.Weelaboratedourdiscussion ofsystematicreviewsandmeta-analysesand addedFigure2-2oncriteriaforcriticallyappraisingthem.WealsoupdatedourboxonGoogle Scholarresults.
• Chapter3.Inresponsetosuggestionsfromour reviewersandothercolleagues,extensivechanges weremadetothischapterinanefforttomakeit lessoverwhelmingandmorerelevanttosocial workstudents.Inparticular,wehaveshortened thecoverageofphilosophicalissues,madeitless esoteric,andmodifieditsothatinsteadofdwellingonparadigmwarsitputsmoreemphasis ontheflexibleuseofeachparadigm,depending ontheresearchquestionandstudypurpose.
Inkeepingwiththisnewemphasis,wehave renamedthechapter,replacingphilosophyand theoryinthetitlewith “FactorsInfluencingthe ResearchProcess.” Thephilosophicalcontentno longerappearsatthebeginningofthechapter. Instead,thechapterstartsbycoveringthephases oftheresearchprocess,movingcoverageofphilosophicalissuesfromtheendofChapter4inthe previouseditiontothestartofChapter3inthis one.Thepreviousfigurediagramingtheresearch processhasbeenreplacedwithonethatisless clutteredandcomplex onethatwethinkstudentswillfindmorerelevantandeasiertofollow. Oneofthesuggestionswehavereceivedfrom colleaguesistoaddmoreLGBTQcontenttovariouspartsofthebook.Inthatconnection,we havealteredthewaywecoversexandgender variablesinthischapter.
• Chapter4.Wehavereceivedenthusiasticpraise forthischapterfromvariouscolleagues,who haveaddedthatthey’dliketoseethecontenton mixed-methodsexpandedabit.So,wehave expandedourdiscussionofmixed-methods,includingcoverageofadditionaltypesofmixed methodsdesignsandanewboxprovidinga caseexampleofapublishedmixed-methods studyofclientsandpractitionersinachildwelfareagency.
• Chapter5.Weaddedcontentongetting informedconsenttovideorecord,elaborated onIRBdebriefingrequirementswhendeception isinvolvedintheresearch,addedcontenton federalregulationsregardingvulnerablepopulations,andmodifiedoursectiononbiasand insensitivitytobetterdistinguishtheconcepts ofsexandgenderidentityandthusmakethe sectionmoreappropriateregardingLGBTQ people.Alsobolsteringthechapter’sattention toresearchethicsconcerningLGBTQpopulations,weaddedaboxtitled “IRBImperfections RegardingResearchwithLesbian,Gay,and BisexualPopulations.” InadditiontoillustratingmistakesthatIRBboardmemberscan make,thatboxshowshowbesttorespondto suchmistakestoenhancechancesforeventual IRBapproval.Inresponsetorequestsfrom reviewers,weshortenedsomewhatthevery lengthysectiononpolitics,reducingtheamount ofattentiongiventoobjectivityandideology. Wethinkthatnowstudentswillbebetterable
tocomprehendandappreciatetherelevanceof thatsection.
• Chapter6.Wehaveaddedsubstantialcontent regardingculturalcompetencewithregardto LGBTQindividuals.
• Chapter7.Inresponsetoareviewer’srequest formorecontentonresearchquestiondevelopmentwe’veaddedanewboxillustratingthe processofformulatingagoodresearchquestion. Inkeepingwithouroverallefforttoshortenthis bookwithoutlosingisessentialcomprehensiveness,wealsohaveimplementedreviewersuggestionstomakethecoverageofunitsofanalysis lessextensiveandlessdetailed.Insodoing,we thinkstudentswillfindcoverageofthattopic morerelevantandeasiertocomprehend.
• Chapter8.Weclarifiedwhatismeantbytruisms.Weaddedaboxprovidingmoreexamples ofspuriousrelationships.Wesimplifiedsomewhatourdiscussionofconceptionsandreality andclarifiedthattheconsequencesofabstract constructsarereal.Inresponsetosuggestions fromcolleagues,wehavemovedupthesection onlevelsofmeasurementfromChapter21to thischapter.Contentontheimplicationsof levelsofmeasurementforstatisticalanalysis remainsinChapter21.
• Chapter9.Weaddedabriefexplanationofthe term correlation tothesectiononinterraterreliabilityandanewboxtofurtherillustratethe differencebetweenreliabilityandvalidity.
• Chapter10.Wesignificantlyexpandedourdiscussionofscaledevelopment,includingalarge newsectionongeneratinganinitialpoolof itemsandhowtoselectitemsfromthatpool. Wealsoexpandedsomewhatourdiscussionof double-barreleditems,partlytoenhancereader understandingofsomeofthenuancesinvolved andpartlytocompensatefortheremovalofthe outdatedboxonthesubject.Inresponseto reviewer suggestions,andalsototrytoreduce thelengthandcostofthisedition,wereplaced one3-pagelongandsomewhatoutdatedfigure ofacompositeillustrationwithamuchshorter (one-halfpage)figureandreplacedthe4.5page figuredisplayingexcerptsfromalengthystandardizedopen-endedinterviewschedulewitha briefsummaryofthatscheduleandareproductionofjustoneitemfromit.
• Chapter11.Wesignificantlyexpandedourdiscussionofcriteriaforinferringcausality,especiallyinregardtoadditionalcriteriausedin epidemiologicalresearch,suchasstrengthof correlation,plausibilityandcoherence,and consistencyinreplication.Wealsoaddedsome commentsaboutethicsandIRBapprovalin regardtocontrolgroups.
• Chapter12.Ourcolleaguesexpressedpraisefor thischapterandhadonlyafewminorsuggestionsfortweakingit.Onefoundthebriefbox nearthebeginningofthechaptertobeunnecessary.Weagreedanddeleteditinkeepingwith ourefforttoreducethelengthandcostofthe book.
• Chapter13.Witheachneweditionofthisbook wereceiveconsistentlypositivefeedbackabout thischapter.Wefoundlittleneedtoupdateor otherwisemodifythischapter,withoneexception.Oneofourreviewerspointedouttheneed toaddresstheimplicationsofdisagreements amongtriangulateddatagatherers.Sowe addedthatforthisedition.
• Chapter14.Thiswasoneofourmoreextensivelyrevisedchapters.Therevisionswere primarilyintheorganizationandtoneofthe chapter,althoughsomenewcontentwas added,aswell.Whilekeepingmostofthepreviouscontentonthepoliticsofprogramevaluationandthedifficultiesthatcanposefor evaluators,wewantedtoimprovethechapter’s emphasisonhowtoconductsuccessfulevaluations.Inthatconnection,wemovedmostofthe politicscontenttowardthebackofthechapter, clarifiedthatitpertainsmainlytooutcomeevaluations,andmovedothersectionsclosertothe front.Logicmodels,forexample,previouslyappearedinthepenultimatesectionofthechapter andnowappearearlyinit,rightafteramovedupsectiononplanninganevaluation.Wealso updatedandshortenedourcoverageofthe impactofmanagedcare.Asectiononevidencebasedpracticewasaddedtoourhistorical overview.Itintroducesreaderstotheutilityof meta-analysesandeffect-sizestatistics concepts coveredmorecomprehensivelyinlaterchapters. Wealsoexpandedourdiscussionofsummative andformativeevaluations.
• Chapter15.Ourcolleaguesappeartoberelativelypleasedwiththischapter.Weimplementedseveralminortweaksthattheysuggestedas wellasarequestbysomeforamoresubstantial revision:ashortenedandlesscomplexdiscussionofmultistageclustersampling.
• Chapter16.Thischapterreceivedextensive revisionstotrytokeeppacewithnewtechnologicaladvancesaffectingtelephoneand onlinesurveys.Wealsoreferreadersto sourcesforkeepingabreastofthesedevelopments.Fournewsectionswereaddedregarding:(1)theimplicationsoftheseadvancesfor telephonesurveys;(2)instrumentdesignfor onlinesurveys;(3)improvingresponserates inonlinesurveys;and(4)mixed-modesurveys combiningonline,telephone,andpostalmail methods.
• Chapter17.Thisisanotherchapterwithnew contentregardingthewaysinwhichour onlineworldisaffectingresearch.Themain changeistheadditionofasectionononline unobtrusiveresearch,whichincludesexamples ofstudiesthatmonitorsocialmediapoststo identifywordsandphrasesthatarepredictive ofactualsuicideattemptsandotherself-harm behaviors.
• Chapter18.Varioustweaksweremadeinthis chapter,assuggestedbyreviewers;however, therewerenomajoradditionstoit.
• Chapter19.Themainrevisionstothischapter wereasfollows:(1)theadditionofasectionon thetypesandsequencingoffocusgroupquestions,and(2)anewboxsummarizingafocus groupstudy publishedinthe Journalof GerontologicalSocialWork thatassessedthe psychosocialneedsoflesbianandgayeldersin long-termcare.
• Chapter20.Themainrevisioninthischapter wasanexpansionofcontentonopencoding.
• Chapter21.Wemademanysignificantchanges toourchaptersonquantitativedataanalysisin anefforttoshortenandsimplifythiscontentin waysthatbetterfithowmostinstructorshandle itintheircourses.Inthischapter,forexample, weremovedmostofthecontentonlevelsof measurementinlinewithrequeststomove
thatcontentuptoChapter8(seeabove). What’sleftisthecontentontheimplications ofthoselevelsforthekindsofdescriptivestatisticsthatareappropriatetocalculate.Aspartof ourefforttocollapseourtwoinferentialdata analyseschaptersintoonechapterandreduce theoveralllengthandcomplexityoftheinferentialcontent,wemovedthecoverageofmeasuresofassociationfromChapter22intothis chapter.Wealsoexpandedourcoverageof tableconstructionandreplacedseveraltables withonesfocusingonillustrationsofmore directrelevancetosocialwork.
• Chapter22.Inkeepingwithoureffortto improvethefitbetweenourcoverageofinferentialdataanalysisandhowthatcontentiscoveredinmostresearchmethodscourses,we removedthecontentthatismuchmorelikely tobecoveredinstatisticscourses.Insodoing, wewereabletocollapseandcombineourprevioustwochaptersonthiscontentintoone chapter.Asmentionedabove,wemovedmost ofthecoverageofmeasuresofassociationup intoChapter21,retaininginthischapteronly thepartdealingwiththeinterpretationofrelationshipstrength.Wemovedthecoverageof statisticalpoweranalysisupfromChapter23 intothischapter.Wecutmostofthecontent ontestsofsignificanceandmoveditupinto thischapter,aswell,althoughweaddedabox thatidentifiesthepurposeofsomesignificance testscommonlyusedinoutcomestudiesrelevanttoevidence-basedpractice.Alsomoved upisourcoverageofmeta-analyses.Wetook thecontentonhowtocriticallyappraisemetaanalysesoutofthischapterandputan expandedversionofthatcontentinanew Appendix.
• Chapter23.Inthischapter(whichusedtobe Chapter24),wehaveaddedasectioncomparinglarge-scaleandsmall-scaleRFPsandproposals,includinganewboxillustratingasmallscaleRFPaimedatstudentswhowantto conductresearchonLGBTfamilyissues.
• AppendixA.We’veupdatedtheappendixon usingthelibrarytomakeitmoreconsistent withtoday’sonlineworld.
• AppendixB.Weupdatedthediscussionof selectingrandomnumbersinregardtogeneratingrandomnumbersonline.
• AppendixC.Thisnewappendixcontains expandedcoverageoncriticallyappraising meta-analyses.
ANCILLARYPACKAGE MindTap ResearchMethodsforSocialWorkcomeswith MindTap,anonlinelearningsolutioncreatedto harnessthepoweroftechnologytodrivestudent success.Thiscloud-basedplatformintegratesa numberoflearningapplications(“apps”)intoan easy-to-useandeasytoaccesstoolthatsupportsa personalizedlearningexperience.MindTapcombinesstudentlearningtools-readings,multimedia, activitiesandassessmentsintoasingularLearning Paththatguidesstudentsthroughthecourse.This MindTapincludes:
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Weowespecialthankstothefollowingcolleagues whomadevaluablesuggestionsforimprovingthis edition:
NikolaAlenkin,CaliforniaStateUniversity,Los Angeles
JuanAraque,UniversityofCalifornia
KathleenBolland,UniversityofAlabama
AnnaleaseGibson,AlbanyStateUniversity
SusanGrossman,LoyolaUniversity
RichardHarris.UniversityofTexas,San Antonio
MaryJaneTaylor,UniversityofUtah
DanielWeisman,RhodeIslandCollege
MollyWolf,StateUniversityofNewYork, Buffalo
AllenRubin EarlR.Babbie
Science isawordeveryoneuses.Yetpeople’simages ofsciencevarygreatly.Forsome,scienceismathematics;forothers,scienceiswhitecoatsandlaboratories.Thewordisoftenconfusedwith technology orequatedwithchallenginghighschoolorcollege courses.
Ifyoutellstrangersthatyouaretakingacourse dealingwithscientificinquiryandaskthemtoguess whatdepartmentit’sin,theyarealotmorelikelyto guesssomethinglikebiologyorphysicsthansocial work.Infact,manysocialworkersthemselvesoften underestimatetheimportantrolethatscientific inquirycanplayinsocialworkpractice.Butthisis changing.Moreandmore,socialworkersarelearninghowtakingascientificapproachcanenhance theirpracticeeffectiveness.
Althoughscholarscandebatephilosophical issuesinscience,forthepurposesofthisbookwe willlookatitasamethodofinquiry thatis,a wayoflearningandknowingthingsthatcanguide thedecisionsmadeinsocialworkpractice.When contrastedwithotherwaysthatsocialworkpractitionerscanlearnandknowthings,scientificinquiry hassomespecialcharacteristics mostnotably,a searchforevidence.
Inthisopeningsetofchapters,we’llexaminethe natureofscientificinquiryanditsrelevanceforsocial work.We’llexplorethefundamentalcharacteristics andissuesthatmakescientificinquirydifferentfrom otherwaysofknowingthingsinsocialwork.
InChapter1,we’llexaminethevalueofscientificinquiryinsocialworkpracticeandhowithelps safeguardagainstsomeoftherisksinherentinalternativesourcesofpracticeknowledge.
Chapter2willdelveintoevidence-based practice amodelofsocialworkpracticethat emphasizestheuseofthescientificmethodandscientificevidenceinmakingpracticedecisions.
Chapter3willexaminetheresearchprocessin socialworkandvariousfactorsthatcaninfluence thewaythatprocessiscarriedout.Chapter4will provideanoverviewofandcomparethethreecontrastingyetcomplementaryoverarchingmodelsof socialworkresearch:onethatusesquantitative methodstoproducepreciseandgeneralizablestatisticalfindings;onethatusesmoreflexible,qualitative methodstodelveintodeeperunderstandingsofphenomenanoteasilyreducedtonumbers;andonethat integratesquantitativeandqualitativeapproaches withinthesamestudy.
1 WhyStudy Research? INTRODUCTION
THESCIENTIFICMETHOD
OTHERWAYSOFKNOWING
RECOGNIZINGFLAWSINUNSCIENTIFIC SOURCESOFSOCIALWORKPRACTICE KNOWLEDGE
THEUTILITYOFSCIENTIFICINQUIRY INSOCIALWORK
REVIEWSOFSOCIALWORKEFFECTIVENESS
THENEEDTOCRITIQUERESEARCHQUALITY
COMPASSIONANDPROFESSIONALETHICS
UTILITYOFRESEARCHINAPPLIEDSOCIAL WORKSETTINGS
MAINPOINTS
REVIEWQUESTIONSANDEXERCISES
INTERNETEXERCISES
EPASCompetenciesforThisChapter
Competency1 DemonstrateEthicaland ProfessionalBehavior: Youwilllearnwhystudying researchispartofpreparingtobeethicalandprofessional inyoursocialworkpractice.
Competency4 EngageinPractice-Informed ResearchandResearch-InformedPractice: Asa researchtextthatemphasizespracticeapplications,allof itschaptersaddressaspectsofthiscompetency.
Competency9 EvaluatePracticewithIndividuals Families,Groups,Organizations,andCommunities: Youwilllearnwhystudyingresearchisanessentialpartof evaluatingpractice.
WhatYou’llLearninThisChapter Youmaybewonderingwhysocialworkstudentsare requiredtotakearesearchcourse.We’llbegintoanswer thatquestioninthischapter.We’llexaminethewaysocial workerslearnthingsandthemistakestheymakealong theway.We’llalsoexaminewhatmakesscientificinquiry differentfromotherwaysofknowingthingsandits utilityinsocialworkpractice.Wewillprefacethisand theremainingchaptersofthisbookbylistingthe competenciesrelevanttoeachchapterthatstudentsare expectedtodevelopaccordingtotheCouncilonSocial WorkEducationEducationalPolicyandAccreditation Standards(EPAS).Eachcompetencywillbeaccompanied byabriefstatementonitsrelevancetothechapter.
INTRODUCTION Socialworkers likedoctors,lawyers,nurses,or anyothertypeofprofessional needtoknow thingsthatwillmaketheirprofessionalpractice effective.Althoughitseemsreasonabletosuppose thatallsocialworkerswouldagreewiththatstatement,theywouldnotallagreeaboutthe best ways togoaboutlearningthethingstheyneedtoknow. Somemightfavorlearningthingsbyrelyingon whatmostoftheirteachers,supervisors,andmore experiencedsocialworkersingeneralagreeto betrue.Othersmightassertthatlearningthings throughwhattheyobserveandexperienceintheir professionalpracticeisatleastasvaluableasis learningaboutwhatotherrespectedsourcesagree tobetrue.
Bothofthesetwowaysofknowingthingshave valuenotonlyinguidingsocialworkpracticebut alsoinguidingdecisionsthroughoutourpersonal lives.Aswegrowup,wemustrelyonwhatthepeoplewerespecttellustokeepussafeandhealthy.We shouldn’tanddon’thavetoexperiencetheharmful orpainfuleffectsofdoingunsafeorunhealthythings beforewelearnnottodothem.Atthesametime,we learnotherthingsthroughourdirectexperienceand observation.
Thetwowaysofknowingthingsthatwe’ve beendiscussingaretermed agreementreality and experientialreality.Althougheachisinvaluablein guidingourpersonalandprofessionalbehavior, let’snowlookathowrelyingonthemexclusively canberisky.
AgreementReality Mostofwhatweknowisamatterofagreement andbelief.Littleofitisbasedonpersonalexperienceanddiscovery.Abigpartofgrowingupinany society,infact,istheprocessoflearningtoaccept whateverybodyaroundyou “knows” isso.
Youknowthatit’scoldontheplanetMars. Howdoyouknow?Unlessyou’vebeentoMars lately,youknowit’scoldtherebecausesomebody toldyouandyoubelievedwhatyouweretold.Perhapsyourphysicsorastronomyinstructortoldyou itwascoldonMars,ormaybeyoureadaboutit somewhere.
However,relyingexclusivelyonagreementrealitycanberiskybecausesomeofthethingsthat
everyoneagreesonarewrong.Forexample,at onetimeeveryone “knew” thattheworldisflat. Throughoutthehistoryofthesocialworkprofession,therehavebeenthingsthatmostsocialworkersandothermentalhealthprofessionalsagreedon thatwerenotonlywrongbutalsoharmful.
Inthemid-20thcentury,forexample,therewas widespreadagreementthatthemaincauseofschizophreniawasfaultyparentingorotherdysfunctional familydynamics.Havingwhatwascalleda schizophrenigenicmother waswidelyseenasamainreason whyachild perhapslaterasanadult eventually cametohaveschizophrenia.Suchmotherswereportrayedascold,domineering,andoverprotectivein waysthatdidnotpermittheirchildrentodevelop individualidentities.Nocompellingresearchevidence supportedtheseconcepts,buttheywerenonetheless widelyacceptedbymentalhealthpractitioners.Asa result,socialworkersandothermentalhealthprofessionalsoftendealtwiththefamilyasacauseofthe problemratherthandevelopatreatmentalliance withthefamily.Manyparentsconsequentlyreported feelingsofself-recriminationfortheillnessesoftheir offspring.Asyoucanimagine,thiswaspainfulfor manyparents.
Scientificresearchstudiesduringthe1970sand 1980sdebunkedthenotionthatschizophreniais causedbyschizophrenigenicmothersorotherdysfunctionalfamilydynamics.Somestudiesuncovered thebiologicalbasisofschizophrenia.Otherstudies showedhowpractitionerswhowereguidedbythe notionoffaultyparenting(orotherdysfunctional familydynamics)whentreatingpeoplewithschizophreniaandtheirfamilieswereactuallyincreasing theriskofrelapseandunnecessarilyexacerbating theburdenthatsuchfamilieshadtobearwhencaringfortheirsickrelative(Rubin&Bowker,1986).
Anotherexampleofineffectiveorharmfulprofessionalpracticesthatwereguidedbyagreement realityincludes “ScaredStraight” programs.These programswereoncepopularasaneffectivewayto preventfutureviolationsofthelawbyjuveniles.It wasthoughtthatbyvisitingprisonsandinteracting withadultinmates,juvenileswouldbesofrightened thattheirfearwoulddeterthemfromfuturecriminalbehavior.Butvariousscientificresearchstudies foundthatScaredStraightprogramsnotonlywere ineffectivebutactuallyincreasedtheriskofdelinquency(Petrosino,Turpin-Petrosino,&Buehler, 2002).
ExperientialReality Incontrasttoknowingthingsthroughagreement, wecanalsoknowthingsthroughdirectexperience andobservation.However,justasrelyingexclusivelyonagreementrealitycanberisky,socan relyingexclusivelyonexperientialreality.That’s becausesomeofthethingsthatweexperienceare influencedbyourpredilectionsthatarebasedon agreementsthatmayormaynotbeaccurate.
Let’stakeanexample.Imagineyou’reata party.It’sahigh-classaffair,andthedrinksand foodareexcellent.Youareparticularlytakenby onetypeofappetizerthehostbringsaroundona tray.It’sbreaded,deep-fried,andespeciallytasty. Youhaveacouple,andtheyaredelicious!You havemore.Soonyouaresubtlymovingaround theroomtobewhereverthehostarriveswitha trayofthesenibbles.
Finally,youcan’tcontainyourselfanymore. “Whatarethey?” youask. “HowcanIgetthe recipe?” Thehostletsyouinonthesecret: “You’ve beeneatingbreaded,deep-friedworms!” Your responseisdramatic:Yourstomachrebels,andyou promptlythrowupalloverthelivingroomrug. Awful!Whataterriblethingtoserveguests!
Thepointofthestoryisthatbothfeelingsabout theappetizerwouldbereal.Yourinitiallikingfor them,basedonyourowndirectexperience,wascertainlyreal,butsowasthefeelingofdisgustyouhad whenyoufoundoutthatyou’dbeeneatingworms. Itshouldbeevident,however,thatthefeelingofdisgustwasstrictlyaproductoftheagreementsyou havewiththosearoundyouthatwormsaren’tfitto eat.That’sanagreementyoubeganthefirsttime yourparentsfoundyousittinginapileofdirtwith halfawrigglingwormdanglingfromyourlips. Whentheypriedyourmouthopenandreached downyourthroattofindtheotherhalfofthe worm,youlearnedthatwormsarenotacceptable foodinoursociety.
Asidefromtheagreementswehave,what’s wrongwithworms?They’reprobablyhighinproteinandlowincalories.Bitesizedandeasilypackaged,they’readistributor’sdream.Theyarealsoa delicacyforsomepeoplewholiveinsocietiesthat lackouragreementthatwormsaredisgusting. Otherpeoplemightlovethewormsbutbeturned offbythedeep-friedbread-crumbcrust.
Analogiestothiswormexamplehaveabounded inthehistorysocialworkpractice(aswellasinthe
practiceofotherhelpingprofessions).Decades ago,forexample,practitionerswhobelievedinthe schizophrenigenicmotherconceptwerelikelytobe predisposedtolookfor,perceive,andinterpret maternalbehaviorsinwaysthatfittheiragreement reality.Wehaveknownclinicalpractitionerswho willlookforandperceiveevenfairlyinconsequential clientbehaviorsasevidencethattheirfavoredtreatmentapproachisbeingeffectivewhileoverlooking otherbehaviorsthatmightraisedoubtabouttheir effectiveness.Laterinthischapter,we’lldiscussthis phenomenonintermsoftheconceptofselective observation,whichisonecommonwayinwhich ouragreementrealityinfluencesourexperiential reality.
Reality,then,isatrickybusiness.Although whenwestartoutinlifeorinourprofessional careers,wemustinescapablyrelyheavilyonagreementrealityandexperientialrealityasstarting pointsfor “knowing” things,someofthethings you “know” may notbetrue.Buthowcanyou reallyknowwhat’sreal?Peoplehavegrappled withthatquestionforthousandsofyears.Science isoneofthestrategiesthathavearisenfromthat grappling.
THESCIENTIFICMETHOD Scienceoffersanapproachtobothagreementrealityandexperientialreality.Thatapproachiscalled the scientificmethod*.Whensocialworkersquestionthingsandsearchforevidenceasthebasisfor makingpracticedecisions,theyareapplyingthescientificmethod.Let’snowexaminethekeyfeatures ofthescientificmethod,beginningwithaprinciple thatrequireskeepinganopenmind.
AllKnowledgeIsTentativeandOpen toQuestion
Inourquesttounderstandthings,weshouldstrive tokeepan openmind abouteverythingthatwe thinkweknoworthatwewanttobelieve.In otherwords,weshouldconsiderthethingswecall “knowledge” tobe tentative and subjecttorefutation.Thisfeaturehasnoexceptions.Nomatterhow longaparticulartraditionhasbeenpracticed,no
*Wordsinboldfacearedefinedintheglossaryattheendofthe book.
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kyphosis of, 444 lordosis of, 461 operations on, 636
Pott’s disease of, 444 causes of, 445 complications of, 446 diagnosis of, 448 prognosis of, 448 sequelæ of, 446 symptoms of, 445 treatment of, 448 by apparatus, 448 by forcible contraction, 450 spondylitis of, 444 traumatic, 462 spondylolisthesis, 462 diagnosis of, 463 symptoms of, 462 treatment of, 463 tuberculosis of, 424 typhoid, 462 wounds of, gunshot, 624 penetrating, 624
Spirochæta pallida, 123
Splay-foot, 468
Spleen, abscess of, 941 anomalies of, 940 carcinoma of, 943 cysts of, 943 displacements of, 942 gangrene of, 941 hypertrophies of, 941 injuries of, 941 neoplasms of, 943 operations on, 943 splenectomy, 943 splenopexy, 942
splenotomy, 943
sarcoma of, 943
syphilis of, 138 wounds of, 233
Splenectomy, 943
Splenic anemia, 31 fever, 106. See Anthrax.
Splenitis, suppurative, 941
Splenomedullary leukemia, 32
Splenomegaly, 942
Splenopexy, 942
Splenotomy, 943
Spondylitis, 444 suppurative, of abdominal wall, 783 traumatic, 462
Spondylolisthesis, 462 diagnosis of, 463 symptoms of, 462 treatment of, 463
Sponges, sterilization of, 247
Sprains of joints, 380 symptoms of, 380 treatment of, 380 of muscles, 329 of spinal column, 628 treatment of, 629
Sprengel’s deformity, 458
Staffordshire knot, 241
Staphylococcus pyogenes albus, 52 aureus, 52 epidermidis, 52
Staphyloma, 598
Staphylorrhaphy, 654
Status lymphaticus, 163 diagnosis of, 164 treatment of, 165 thymicus, 163
Steatomas, 310
Stenosis, pyloric, operations for, 808
Stenson’s duct, cysts of, 641
Stercoremia, 83
Sterilization by boiling water, 244 of dressings, 247 by formalin, 244 fractional, 244 of hands, 245 by heat, 243 of instruments, 246 by mustard flour, 245 of sponges, 247 of suture materials, 247
Sternum, dislocations of, 528 fractures of, 491 symptoms of, 492 treatment of, 492 malformations of, 718
Stillicidium, 982
Stokes’ method of amputation of thigh, 1043
Stomach, anastomosis of, 816 cancer of, 801 symptoms of, 802 treatment of, 803 dilatation of, acute, 795 symptoms of, 796 treatment of, 796 chronic, 796 operations for, 811 fistulas of, 801 foreign bodies in, 794 operations for, 806 symptoms of, 794 treatment of, 794 hour-glass, 793 injuries of, 793
leather-bottle, 793
malformations of, acquired, 793
congenital, 793
nerves of, 793
operations on, 805
gastrectomy, 813
gastro-enterostomy, 811, 817
gastrojejunostomy, 816
gastrorrhaphy, 806
gastrostomy, 806
gastrotomy, 806
pylorectomy, 813
pylorus of, stenosis of, 799 symptoms of, 799 treatment of, 799 rupture of, 794 syphilis of, 795 tetany of, 798 tuberculosis of, 795 tumors of, 801 ulcer of, 799
symptoms of, 800 treatment of, 800
wall of, inflammation of, 804 wounds of, 794
penetrating, operations for, 805
Stomatitis, 657
gangrenous, 75, 658
ulcerative, 657
Stovaine, 207
Strains of muscles, 329
Strangulated hernia, diagnosis of, from appendicitis, 858
intestinal obstruction from, 829
Strawberry growths, 367
Streptococcus erysipelatis, 52 pyogenes, 53
Streptothrix maduræ, 100
Stretching of nerves, 612
Stricture of biliary ducts, 921 of esophagus, 742 of intestines, large, 870 obstruction from, 832 symptoms of, 828 treatment of, 828 small, 827 of larynx, 684 symptoms of, 684 treatment of, 684 of rectum, 877 treatment of, 877 of ureter, 973 of urethra, 1011
Struma, 283, 712 fibrosa, 284 parenchymatosa nodosa, 284
Strumitis, 717
Stye, 600
Stypticin, 235
Styptics for control of hemorrhage, 235
Subclavian artery, aneurysm of, 345 ligation of, 354
Subclavicular dislocations, 531
Subcoracoid dislocations, 531
Subcutaneous tubercle, painful, of skin, 313
Subdiaphragmatic abscess, 753 treatment of, 754
Subdural hemorrhages, 564
Subglenoid dislocations, 531
Subhyoid pharyngotomy, 664
Subluxation, 524 See Dislocations
Submaxillary angina, infectious, 703
Subphrenic abscess, 753 treatment of, 754
Subspinous dislocations, 532
Subungual exostoses, 272
Sunburn, 303
Suppression of urine, 982
Suppuration, 57
Supracondyloid amputations, 1043 fracture of humerus, 497
Supra-orbital nerve operations on, 613
Suprapubic prostatectomy, 998
Suprarenal epithelioma, 292
Surgical diseases, 79 common to man and animals, 97 fever, 85 cause of, 85 diagnosis of, from poisoning by drugs, 85 erysipelas, 93 pyemia, 90 sapremia, 86 chronic, 87 septicemia, 87 cryptogenetic, 87 spontaneous, 87 methods, 177 principles, 177 sequelæ of disease, 166 cholera, 166 dental caries, 169 diphtheria, 168 dysentery, 166 endocarditis, 169 gonorrhea, 169 influenza, 167 measles, 167 mumps, 168 pneumonia, 167 puerperal state, 169 scarlatina, 167 syphilis, 169
typhoid fever, 167 variola, 169
Sutures, 240
Billroth’s chain-stitch, 241 of bloodvessels, 349 end-to-end, 350 lateral, 349 continuous, 241 of heart wounds, 335 (note) interrupted, 241 of intestines, 840 modified plate, 241 quill, 241 of nerves, 612 removal of, 242 of tendons, 324 transfixion, 241
Swelling, acute, 22 chronic, 22
Sylvester’s method of artificial respiration, 204 Symblepharon, 603
Sympathectomy, 714
Sympathetic ophthalmitis, 595 treatment of, 596
Syncheilia, 639
Syncytioma, 292
Synovial cysts, 262
Synovitis, 382 acute, 383 treatment of, 383 chronic, 386 treatment of, 386 dry, 383 gonorrheal, 385 of jaws, acute, 667 purulent, 383 symptoms of, 383
treatment of, 385 treatment of, 385
Syphilides, 130 pustular, 132
ecthyma, 132 rupia, 132 pustulocrustaceous, 132 squamous, 131
Syphilis, 122 of abdominal wall, 783 of axilla, 751 of bones, 135, 426 of brain, 138 of breast, 759 of bursæ, 136 of cervical lymph nodes, 705 chancre, 126 bubo, 128
diagnosis of, from epithelioma, 127 dry papule, 126 extragenital, 127
Hunterian, 127 lymphatic involvement in, 128 mixed, 127 pathology of, 128 superficial erosion, 127 treatment of, 128 in children, 139
Colles’ law, 139
Profeta’s law, 139 of colon, 869 constitutional, 129, 132 of cornea, 137 of corpora cavernosa, 138 of ear, 137 eruptions of, 130 papular, 131
lenticulo, 131 miliary, 131 pustular, 132 pustulocrustaceous, 132 evolution of, 123 of eye, 136, 597 of face, 640 of genitalia, 138 gumma of, 133 Hutchinson’s teeth in, 140 induration of, 126 initial lesion in, 126 of intestines, 827 of joints, 135 of kidneys, 138, 964 of larynx, 138, 686 treatment of, 686 lesions of, 124 of liver, 138, 914 of lymph nodes, 376 manner of contagion of, 123 of mesentery, 939 of mouth, 657 of mucous membranes, 132 of muscles, 136, 331 of nervous system, 138 of orbit, 597 of oropharynx, 137 primary lesion, location of, 125 of rectum, 138, 876 secondary infection in, 169 lesion, 129 secretions of, 124 of skin, 130, 308 of spermatic cord, 1019 of spinal cord, 138 of spleen, 138
of stomach, 795 teeth in, 140 of tendons, 136 tertiary, 132 of skin, 133 of testicle, 138, 1016 of tongue, 659 of tonsils, 662 treatment of, 140 ulcer of, symptoms of, 125 of uvula, 683 of vascular system, 135 virus of, 123
Syphilitic arthritis, 385 bubo, 128 gumma of lung, 732
Syphilodermas, 130
Syringomyelia, 621
Syringomyelocele, 263, 626
TT mesenterica, 939
Tænia solium, 310
Tagliacozzi’s method of rhinoplasty, 644
Talipes, 465 calcaneus, 471
equinovarus, 466 treatment of, 466 equinus, 470 causes of, 470 treatment of, 471 valgus, 468 etiology of, 468 treatment of, 469
Talma’s operation on omentum, 936
Tapping, paracentesis by, 185
Tarantula, poisoning by, 172
Tarsectomy, 467
Tartar on teeth, 657
Tattoo marks, 318, 720
Taxis, 899
T-bandage, 191
Teale’s method of amputation of foot, 1042
Teeth, caries of, 657, 664 treatment of, 665 cysts of, 666 eruption of, faulty, 665 extraction of, 666 accidents from, 666 instruments required, 666 malformations of, 652 odontoma of, 665 re-implantation of, 667 tartar of, 657 tumors of, 665
Telangiectasis, 277
Temporal artery, ligation of, 352
Temporomaxillary joint, ankylosis of, 667 dislocation of, 667 postgonorrheal arthritis of, 667 resection of, 668 synovitis of, acute, 667
Temporosphenoidal abscess, 569
Tendon sheaths, tuberculosis of, 118
Tendons, dislocation of, 330 grafting of, 324 injuries of, 218 ligation of, 326 surgical diseases of, 321 suture of, 324 syphilis of, 136 transplantation of, 324
Tendoplasty, 322
Tendosynovitis, 321 chronic, 322
treatment of, 322
suppurative, 321
treatment of, 321
Tendovaginitis, gonococcus of, 331
Tenorrhaphy, 324
Tenotomy, 327
Teratomas, 268
embryonal adenosarcoma, 268 of thyroid, 712
Tertiary syphilis, 132
Testicle, absence of, 1015
atrophy of, 1015 cancer of, 1017
chondroma of, 1017
congenital abnormalities of, 1014 contusions of, 1015
cystic degeneration of, 260 cysts of, 1016
epididymitis, 1016
treatment of, 1017
fibroma of, 1017
gonorrhea of, 151 hematoma of, 1015
hydrocele of, encysted, 260 injuries to, 1015 lipoma of, 1017 orchitis, 1017
treatment of, 1017
retained, 1014
treatment of, 1014
syphilis of, 138, 1016
tuberculosis of, 118, 1015
treatment of, 1016 tumors of, 1017
Tetanin, 98
Tetanotoxin, 98
Tetanus, 97 cephalicus, 99 chronic, 100 death in, 100 diagnosis of, 101 from hysteria, 101 etiology of, 97 hydrophobicus, 99 of newborn, 97, 99 parasitic nature of, 98
postmortem appearances in, 100 prognosis of, 100 toy-pistol, 97 treatment of, 101
Tetany, bacillus of, 54 gastric, 798
Thecitis, 328
Thiersch method of skin grafting, 188
Thigh, amputation of, 1043 above knee, 1044 fracture of, 509 diagnosis of, 511 prognosis of, 511 treatment of, 512
Thoracentesis, 736, 746
Thoracic duct, injuries to, 725 treatment of, 726
viscera, injuries to, 724 walls, diseases of, 726
Thoracoplastic operations, 748
Thoracotomy, 747 drainage in, 747 irrigation in, 747
Thorax, actinomycosis of, 729 carcinoma of, 730
chondroma of, 730
fibroma of, 729 granuloma of, 729 injuries to, 721 lipoma of, 729 malformations of, 718, 719 operations on, 746 osteoma of, 730 sarcoma of, 730 tumors of, 729 treatment of, 730 wounds of, gunshot, 230
Thrombo-arteritis, 91
Thrombophlebitis, 37, 90
Thrombosis, 34 annular, 35 causes of, 35 following abdominal operations, 784 gangrene from, 73 infective, 36, 570 marasmic, 36, 570 mechanical, 36 of mesenteric vessels, 938 obstructive, 36 parietal, 35 primary, 35 propagated, 36 sinus, 570 diagnosis of, 571 prognosis of, 571 symptoms of, 570 treatment of, 573 traumatic, 36 valvular, 35
Thrombus, calcification of, 36 decolorization of, 36 organization of, 36
softening of, 37
Thrush, oïdium albicans of, 657
Thumb, amputation of, 1029
Thymic asthma, 163
Thymus, hypertrophy of, 717, 751 inflammation of, 717
Thyroglossal duct, 710
Thyrohyoid cysts of neck, 707
Thyroid arteries, inferior, ligation of, 353 body, adenoma of, 712
bronchocele, 712
congenital affections of, 710
endothelioma of, 712
goitre of, 712
hypertrophy of, acute idiopathic, 711
intra-uterine, 711
sarcoma of, 712
struma of, 712
teratomas of, 712 tumors of, 711
dermoids, 267
Thyroidectomy, 715
Thyroidism, 82
Thyroiditis, 711
Thyroids, accessory, 710
Thyrotomy, 674, 688
Tibia, dislocations of, 543 fractures of, 518 treatment of, 521
Tibial arteries, ligation of, 360 nerve, operations on, 623
Tibiotarsal amputations, 1037
Tic douloureux, 640
Toe-nail, ingrowing, 318
Toes, amputation of, 1034 hammer, 321
treatment of, 321
Tongue, absence of, 652
actinomycosis of, 659
bifid, 652
cysts of, retention, 659
epithelioma of, 660
treatment of, 660
gangrene of, 659
inflammation of, 658
leukoplakia of, 659
treatment of, 659
macroglossia of, 660 malformations of, 652
nevi of, 659
operations on, 661
Kocher’s, 661
Langenbeck’s, 662
Regnoli-Billroth’s, 661
Sédillot’s, 662
Whitehead’s, 661
papilloma of, 659
ranula of, 660
syphilis of, 659 -tie, 652
tuberculosis of, 659 tumors of, 659
Tonometer, use of, 177
Tonsillotomy, 663
Tonsils, absence of, 662
calculi of, 663
enlarged, 662
foreign bodies in, 663
hypertrophy, 662
infection through, 49
syphilis of, 662
tuberculosis of, 662 tumors of, 664
Torsion, control of hemorrhage by, 236
of omentum, 935
Torticollis, 457 diagnosis of, 458 pathology of, 457 treatment of, 458
Tourniquet for control of hemorrhage, 234
Toxic antiseptics, 175
Toy-pistol tetanus, 97
Trachea, operations on, 691 rupture of, 699 scabbard, 713 tumors of, 687 wounds of, 699
Tracheal tugging, 345
Tracheocele, 707
Tracheotomy, 691
Trachoma, 599
Transfixion suture, 241
Transfusion of blood, 185
Transhyoid pharyngotomy, 664
Transplantation of bone, 431 of tendons, 324
Transudates, 23
Trauma as cause of tumor, 255
Traumapnea, 724
Traumatic abscess of brain, 567 erysipelas, 93, 94 fever, 85. See Surgical fever. hematoma of scalp, 218 hernia, 890 insanity, surgical treatment of, 582 intraventricular hemorrhage, 564 mania, 175 neuroma, 280 othematoma, 605 peritonitis, 786 spondylitis, 462
thrombosis, 36 Treatment of abscess, 60 of bone, 426 of brain, 573 of liver, 912 of rectum, 879 of actinomycosis, 110 of acute catarrh of biliary passages, 918 cholecystitis, 921 pancreatitis, 948 after abdominal operations, 777 of adenoids of pharynx, 680 of aneurysm of abdominal aorta, 346 of angioma of veins, 367 of ankylosis, 405 of anthrax, 107 of arthritis, chronic, 386 deformans, 389 tuberculous, 398 of atrophy of muscles, 332 of biliary calculi, 926 of boils, 304 of bow-leg, 465 of bunions, 311 of burns, 301 x-ray, 304 of carbuncle, 305 of carcinoma, 295 of breast, 763 of intestines, 828 of rectum, 887 of stomach, 803 of cardiospasm, 798 of caries of hip, 454 of cerebral palsies, 478 of cervical lymph-node affections, 706 of chancre, 128
of chancroid, 145 of cholelithiasis, 926 of chondroma, 272 of chronic affections of pancreas, 951 pancreatitis, 950 prostatitis, 995 sapremia, 87 tendosynovitis, 322 of cold abscess, 114 peri-articular, 399 of compression of brain, 562 of concussion of brain, 559 of chest, 722 of spine, 629 of congenital anomalies of neck, 698 club-foot, 466 dislocation of hip, 474 of congestion, 23 of contraction of fasciæ, 320 of muscles, 332 of contusions, 212 of brain, 560 of chest, 722 of cryptorchidism, 1014 of curvature of spine, 460 of cutaneous horns, 311 of cystitis, 985 of cysts of pancreas, 952 of skin, 310 of dacryocystitis, 600 of delirium tremens, 174 of dental caries, 665 of dermatitis calorica, 299 of desmoids, 271 of dilatation of stomach, 796 of dislocations, 527 of clavicle, 529
of elbow, 536 of foot, 544 of hip, 539 of jaw, 528 of knee, 544 metacarpophalangeal, 537 of patella, 543 of shoulder, 532 of spine, 632 of duodenal ulcers, 826 of Dupuytren’s contraction, 320 of ectopia of bladder, 978 of epididymitis, 1017 of epistaxis, 681 of epithelioma of skin, 315 of tongue, 660 of erysipelas, 95 of exophthalmic goitre, 714 of exophthalmos, 594 of exstrophy of bladder, 978 of fat embolism, 40 of fibroma molluscum, 313 of fistula, 63 of rectum, 880 of floating liver, 911 of foreign bodies in esophagus, 740 in pharynx, 673 in stomach, 794 of fractures, 486 of clavicle, 493 Colles’, 504 of femur, 513 of fibula, 521 of forearm, 501 of humerus, 495 of inferior maxilla, 490 of leg, 521