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Research Methods for Social Work

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Council on Social Work Education Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards by Chapter

The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards requires all social work students to develop nine competencies and recommends teaching and assessing 31 related component behaviors, listed as Educational Policy (EP) Competencies 1–9 below. The multicolor icons (see figure at right) and end of chapter “Competency Notes” connect these important standards to class work in the chapters identified below with bold blue type.

The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015)

Competency 1—Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior:

Chapter(s) Where Referenced

1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 11

a. Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision-making, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12

b. Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations

c. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and electronic communication

d. Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes 5

e. Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior

Competency 2—Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice: 2, 6

a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels

b. Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own experiences

c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies

Competency 3—Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice:

a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels

b. Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice

Competency 4—Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:

2, 6

3, 18, 19

3, 18, 19

3, 18, 19

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23

a. Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 1, 2

b. Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23

c. Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23

Competency 5—Engage in Policy Practice: 2, 4, 11, 12, 14

a. Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services

b. Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services

c. Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice

The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015)

Competency 6—Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:

a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies

b. Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and constituencies

Competency 7—Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:

a. Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and constituencies

b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies

c. Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies

d. Select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies

Competency 8—Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:

a. Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities of clients and constituencies

b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies

c. Use inter-professional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes

d. Negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies

e. Facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals

Competency 9—Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:

a. Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes

b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-inenvironment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes

c. Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes

Chapter(s) Where Referenced

2, 8, 9, 10, 19

2, 8, 9, 10, 19

2, 21, 22

2

2, 8, 9, 10, 19

2, 4

2, 4

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23

2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23

2, 3, 6

2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23

d. Apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels 1, 2, 23

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AllenRubin

UniversityofHouston

EarlR.Babbie

ChapmanUniversity

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ResearchMethodsforSocialWork, NinthEdition

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CHRISTINARUBIN SUZANNEBABBIE

CONTENTSINBRIEF

PART1

AnIntroductiontoScientificInquiryin SocialWork1

Chapter1 WhyStudyResearch?2

Chapter2 Evidence-BasedPractice24

Chapter3 FactorsInfluencingtheResearch Process43

Chapter4 Quantitative,Qualitative,andMixed MethodsofInquiry66

PART2

TheEthical,Political,andCulturalContextof SocialWorkResearch81

Chapter5 TheEthicsandPoliticsofSocialWork Research82

Chapter6 CulturallyCompetentResearch112

PART3 ProblemFormulationandMeasurement139

Chapter7 ProblemFormulation140

Chapter8 ConceptualizationinQuantitative andQualitativeInquiry162

Chapter9 Measurement191

Chapter10 ConstructingMeasurement Instruments218

PART4

DesignsforEvaluatingPrograms andPractice241

Chapter11 CausalInferenceandExperimental Designs243

Chapter12 Quasi-ExperimentalDesigns272

Chapter13 Single-CaseEvaluationDesigns292

Chapter14 ProgramEvaluation320

PART5 DataCollectionMethodswithLargeSources ofData347

Chapter15 Sampling349

Chapter16 SurveyResearch378

Chapter17 AnalyzingExistingData:Quantitative andQualitativeMethods403

PART6 QualitativeResearchMethods433

Chapter18 QualitativeResearch:General Principles434

Chapter19 QualitativeResearch:Specific Methods455

Chapter20 QualitativeDataAnalysis478

PART7 AnalysisofQuantitativeData503

Chapter21 DescriptiveDataAnalysis504 Chapter22 InferentialDataAnalysis528

PART8

WritingResearchProposalsandReports551

Chapter23 WritingResearchProposals andReports552

AppendixA UsingtheLibrary577

AppendixB StatisticsforEstimatingSampling Error584

AppendixC CriticallyAppraising Meta-Analyses593

Glossary 596 Bibliography 617 Index 637

CONTENTSINDETAIL

Prefacexvi

PART1

AnIntroductiontoScientificInquiryinSocial Work1

Chapter 1

WHYSTUDYRESEARCH?2

Introduction 3

AgreementReality3

ExperientialReality4

TheScientificMethod 4

AllKnowledgeIsTentativeandOpento Question4

Replication5

Observation5

Objectivity6

Transparency6

OtherWaysofKnowing 6

Tradition7

Authority8

CommonSense8

PopularMedia8

RecognizingFlawsinUnscientificSourcesofSocial WorkPracticeKnowledge 10

Overgeneralization10

SelectiveObservation10

ExPostFacto Hypothesizing12

EgoInvolvementinUnderstanding12

OtherFormsofIllogicalReasoning13

ThePrematureClosureofInquiry14

Pseudoscience14

TheUtilityofScientificInquiryinSocialWork 16

WillYouEverDoResearch?16

ReviewsofSocialWorkEffectiveness 17

EarlyReviews17

StudiesofSpecificInterventions17

TheNeedtoCritiqueResearchQuality 19 PublicationDoesNotGuaranteeQuality19 DistinguishingandFacilitatingMoreUseful Studies19

CompassionandProfessionalEthics 19

UtilityofResearchinAppliedSocialWork Settings 20

ResearchMethodsYouMaySomedayUseinYour Practice20

NationalAssociationofSocialWorkersCodeof Ethics21

MainPoints 21

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 22

InternetExercises 22

Chapter 2

EVIDENCE-BASEDPRACTICE24

Introduction 25

CriticalThinkinginEBP 25

EBPImpliesCareer-LongLearning 26

StepsintheEBPProcess 27

Step1.FormulateaQuestiontoAnswerPractice Needs27

Step2.SearchfortheEvidence29

Step3.CriticallyAppraisetheRelevantStudiesYou Find33

Step4.DetermineWhichResearch-Supported InterventionorPolicyIsMostAppropriatefor YourParticularClient(s)33

Step5.ApplytheChosenIntervention34

Step6.ProvideEvaluationandFeedback35 DistinguishingtheEvidence-BasedProcessfrom Evidence-BasedPractices 35

ControversiesandMisconceptionsaboutEBP 37

EBPIsBasedonStudiesofAtypicalClients37

EBPIsOverlyRestrictive37

EBPIsJustaCost-CuttingTool38

EvidenceIsinShortSupply38

TheTherapeuticAllianceWillBeHindered38

CommonFactorsandtheDodoBird 38

Real-WorldObstaclestoImplementingEBPin

EverydayPractice 39

AlleviatingFeasibilityObstaclestoEBP40

MainPoints 40

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 41

InternetExercises 41

Chapter 3

FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHERESEARCH PROCESS43

Introduction 44

ThePhasesoftheResearchProcess 44

TheoryandValues 47

UtilityofTheoryinSocialWorkPractice andResearch47

SocialWorkPracticeModels48

AtheoreticalResearchStudies49

PredictionandExplanation49

TheComponentsofTheory50

TheRelationshipbetweenAttributes andVariables51

TwoLogicalSystems:ComparingDeduction andInduction 53

ProbabilisticKnowledge 56

TwoCausalModelsofExplanation 57

UseofNomotheticandIdiographicResearch inSocialWorkPractice58

IdeologiesandParadigms 59

ContemporaryPositivism61 Interpretivism62

EmpowermentParadigm63

ParadigmaticFlexibilityinResearch63

MainPoints 64

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 65

InternetExercises 65

Chapter 4

QUANTITATIVE,QUALITATIVE,ANDMIXED METHODSOFINQUIRY66

Introduction 67

ObjectivityandSubjectivityinScientific Inquiry 67

AComparisonofQualitativeandQuantitative MethodsofInquiry 68

MixedMethodsofInquiry 70

TypesofMixed-MethodsDesigns71

ThreeBasicMixed-MethodsDesigns74

ThreeAdvancedMixed-MethodsDesigns77

ReasonsforUsingMixedMethods77

MainPoints 78

Practice-RelatedExercises 79

InternetExercises 79

PART2

TheEthical,Political,andCulturalContext ofSocialWorkResearch81

Chapter 5

THEETHICSANDPOLITICSOFSOCIAL WORKRESEARCH82

Introduction 83

InstitutionalReviewBoards 84

VoluntaryParticipationandInformed Consent85

NoHarmtotheParticipants86

AnonymityandConfidentiality87

DeceivingParticipants90

AnalysisandReporting90

WeighingBenefitsandCosts91

RighttoReceiveServicesversusResponsibility toEvaluateServiceEffectiveness92

NationalAssociationofSocialWorkersCode ofEthics93

IRBProceduresandForms94

TrainingRequirement94

ExpeditedReviews94

OverzealousReviewers97

FourEthicalControversies 98

ObservingHumanObedience98

TroubleintheTearoom100

“WelfareStudyWithholdsBenefitsfrom800 Texans” 101

SocialWorkerSubmitsBogusArticletoTestJournal Bias102

BiasandInsensitivityRegardingSex,Gender Identity,andCulture 105

ThePoliticsofSocialWorkResearch 106

SocialResearchandRace107

MainPoints 109

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 110

InternetExercises 111

Chapter 6

CULTURALLYCOMPETENTRESEARCH112

Introduction 113

ResearchParticipants113

Measurement113

DataAnalysisandInterpretation114

Acculturation115

ImpactofCulturalInsensitivityonResearch Climate116

DevelopingCulturalCompetence 116

RecruitingandRetainingtheParticipation ofMinorityandOppressedPopulationsin ResearchStudies119

ObtainEndorsementfromCommunity Leaders119

UseCulturallySensitiveApproachesRegarding Confidentiality120

EmployLocalCommunityMembersasResearch Staff120

ProvideAdequateCompensation120

AlleviateTransportationandChild-Care Barriers121

ChooseaSensitiveandAccessibleSetting121

UseandTrainCulturallyCompetent Interviewers121

UseBilingualStaff122

UnderstandCulturalFactorsInfluencing Participation122

UseAnonymousEnrollmentwithStigmatized Populations122

UtilizeSpecialSamplingTechniques123

LearnWheretoLook123

ConnectwithandNurtureReferralSources124

UseFrequentandIndividualizedContacts andPersonalTouches124

UseAnchorPoints125

UseTrackingMethods125

CulturallyCompetentMeasurement 126

CulturallyCompetentInterviewing126

LanguageProblems127

CulturalBias128

MeasurementEquivalence 130

LinguisticEquivalence130

ConceptualEquivalence131

MetricEquivalence131

AssessingMeasurementEquivalence132 MethodsforImprovingMeasurement Equivalence133

TheValueofQualitativeInterviews133 ProblematicIssuesinMakingResearchMore CulturallyCompetent 133

MainPoints 135

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 137

InternetExercises 137 PART3 ProblemFormulationandMeasurement139

Chapter 7

PROBLEMFORMULATION140

Introduction 141

PurposesofSocialWorkResearch 141 Exploration141

Description141

Explanation142

Evaluation142

ConstructingMeasurementInstruments143

MultiplePurposes 143

SelectingTopicsandResearchQuestions 143

NarrowingResearchTopicsintoResearch Questions 145

AttributesofGoodResearchQuestions 146

Feasibility147

InvolvingOthersinProblemFormulation 149

LiteratureReview 150

WhyandWhentoReviewtheLiterature150

HowtoReviewtheLiterature151

SearchingtheWeb152

BeThorough152

TheTimeDimension 156

Cross-SectionalStudies156

LongitudinalStudies156

UnitsofAnalysis 158

MainPoints 160

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 161

InternetExercises 161

Chapter 8

CONCEPTUALIZATIONINQUANTITATIVE ANDQUALITATIVEINQUIRY162

Introduction 163

ContrastingQuantitativeandQualitative Conceptualization 163

ConceptualExplicationinQuantitative Inquiry 164

DevelopingaProperHypothesis165

DifferencesbetweenHypothesesandResearch Questions166

TypesofRelationshipsbetweenVariables166

ExtraneousVariables167

ModeratingVariables168

Constants169

MediatingVariables169

TheSameConceptCanBeaDifferentTypeof VariableinDifferentStudies170

OperationalDefinitions 172

OperationallyDefiningAnythingThatExists173

Conceptualization174

IndicatorsandDimensions175

ClarifyingConcepts176

TheInfluenceofOperationalDefinitions178

SexandCulturalBiasinOperational Definitions178

OperationalizationChoices 179

RangeofVariation179

VariationsbetweentheExtremes180 ANoteonDimensions180

ExamplesofOperationalizationinSocial Work 180

ExistingScales 182

OperationalizationGoesOnandOn 186

LevelsofMeasurement 186

ConceptualizationinQualitativeInquiry 187

MainPoints 189

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 190

InternetExercises 190

Chapter 9 MEASUREMENT191

Introduction 192

CommonSourcesofMeasurementError 192

SystematicError192 RandomError195

ErrorsinAlternateFormsofMeasurement195

AvoidingMeasurementError 197

Reliability 199

TypesofReliability200

InterobserverandInterraterReliability200

Test–RetestReliability201

InternalConsistencyReliability201

Validity 202

FaceValidity203

ContentValidity203

Criterion-RelatedValidity204

ConstructValidity206

FactorialValidity207

AnIllustrationofReliableandValidMeasurement inSocialWork:TheClinicalMeasurement Package 208

RelationshipbetweenReliabilityandValidity 211

ReliabilityandValidityinQualitative Research 214

MainPoints 216

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 217

InternetExercises 217

Chapter 10

CONSTRUCTINGMEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS218

Introduction 219

GuidelinesforAskingQuestions 219

QuestionsandStatements220

Open-EndedandClosed-EndedQuestions220

MakeItemsClear221

AvoidDouble-BarreledQuestions221

RespondentsMustBeCompetentto Answer221

RespondentsMustBeWillingto Answer222

QuestionsShouldBeRelevant222

ShortItemsAreBest222

AvoidWordsLike No or Not 222

AvoidBiasedItemsandTerms223

QuestionsShouldBeCulturallySensitive223

QuestionnaireConstruction 223

GeneralQuestionnaireFormat223

FormatsforRespondents225

ContingencyQuestions225

MatrixQuestions227

OrderingQuestionsinaQuestionnaire227

QuestionnaireInstructions228

PretestingtheQuestionnaire229

ConstructingScales 229

LevelsofMeasurement230

SomeProminentScalingProcedures231

ItemGenerationandSelection232

HandlingMissingData234

ConstructingQualitativeMeasures 235

MainPoints 237

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 238

InternetExercises 238

PART4

DesignsforEvaluatingPrograms andPractice241

Chapter 11 CAUSALINFERENCEANDEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS243

Introduction 244

CriteriaforInferringCausality 244

TimeSequence245

Correlation246

RulingOutAlternativeExplanations246

StrengthofCorrelation246

PlausibilityandCoherence246

ConsistencyinReplication248

InternalValidity 248

PreexperimentalPilotStudies 252

One-ShotCaseStudy252

One-GroupPretest–PosttestDesign252

Posttest-OnlyDesignwithNonequivalentGroups (Static-GroupComparisonDesign)253

ExperimentalDesigns 254

Randomization259

Matching259

ProvidingServicestoControlGroups261

AdditionalThreatstotheValidityofExperimental Findings 262

MeasurementBias262

ResearchReactivity262

DiffusionorImitationofTreatments264

CompensatoryEqualization,CompensatoryRivalry, orResentfulDemoralization266

Attrition(ExperimentalMortality) 266

ExternalValidity 268

MainPoints 270

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 271

InternetExercises 271

Chapter 12

QUASI-EXPERIMENTALDESIGNS272

Introduction 273

NonequivalentComparisonGroupsDesign 273

WaystoStrengthentheInternalValidityofthe NonequivalentComparisonGroups Design 274

MultiplePretests275

SwitchingReplication276

SimpleTime-SeriesDesigns 276

MultipleTime-SeriesDesigns 279

Cross-SectionalStudies 280

CaseControlStudies 283

PracticalPitfallsinCarryingOutExperiments andQuasiExperimentsinSocialWork Agencies 284

FidelityoftheIntervention285

ContaminationoftheControlCondition286

ResistancetotheCaseAssignmentProtocol286

ClientRecruitmentandRetention286

MechanismsforAvoidingorAlleviatingPractical Pitfalls287

QualitativeTechniquesforAvoidingorAlleviating PracticalPitfalls 288

MainPoints 290

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 290

InternetExercises 291

Chapter 13

SINGLE-CASEEVALUATIONDESIGNS292

Introduction 293

OverviewoftheLogicofSingle-CaseDesigns 293

Single-CaseDesignsinSocialWork 295

UseofSingle-CaseDesignsasPartofEvidenceBasedPractice 296

MeasurementIssues 298

OperationallyDefiningTargetProblems andGoals298

WhattoMeasure299

Triangulation299

DataGathering 300 WhoShouldMeasure?300

SourcesofData301

ReliabilityandValidity301

DirectBehavioralObservation301

UnobtrusiveversusObtrusiveObservation302

DataQuantificationProcedures303

TheBaselinePhase303

AlternativeSingle-CaseDesigns 306

AB:TheBasicSingle-CaseDesign306

ABAB:Withdrawal/ReversalDesign307

Multiple-BaselineDesigns309

Multiple-ComponentDesigns312

DataAnalysis 313

InterpretingAmbiguousResults314

AggregatingtheResultsofSingle-CaseResearch Studies315

BandB+Designs 316

TheRoleofQualitativeResearchMethods inSingle-CaseEvaluation 317

MainPoints 318

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 319

InternetExercises 319

Chapter 14 PROGRAMEVALUATION320

Introduction 321

HistoricalOverview 321

TheImpactofManagedCare322 Evidence-BasedPractice323 PlanninganEvaluationandFosteringIts Utilization 323 LogicModels324

PurposesandTypesofProgramEvaluation 327

SummativeandFormativeEvaluations327 EvaluatingOutcomeandEfficiency328 Cost-EffectivenessandCost–BenefitAnalyses329 ProblemsandIssuesinEvaluatingGoal Attainment330 MonitoringProgramImplementation331 ProcessEvaluation332

EvaluationforProgramPlanning:Needs Assessment333 FocusGroups336

AnIllustrationofaQualitativeApproachto EvaluationResearch 337

ThePoliticsofProgramEvaluation 339 In-HouseversusExternalEvaluators340

UtilizationofProgramEvaluationFindings342

LogisticalandAdministrativeProblems343

MainPoints 344

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 345

InternetExercises 346

PART5

DataCollectionMethodswithLargeSources ofData347

Chapter 15

SAMPLING349

Introduction 350

PresidentAlfLandon351

PresidentThomasE.Dewey351

PresidentJohnKerry352

NonprobabilitySampling 352

RelianceonAvailableSubjects353

PurposiveorJudgmentalSampling355

QuotaSampling356

SnowballSampling356

SelectingInformantsinQualitativeResearch 357

TheLogicofProbabilitySampling 357

ConsciousandUnconsciousSamplingBias357

RepresentativenessandProbabilityof Selection358

RandomSelection359

CanSomeRandomlySelectedSamplesBe Biased? 360

SamplingFramesandPopulations360

NonresponseBias362

ReviewofPopulationsandSamplingFrames363

SampleSizeandSamplingError 363

EstimatingtheMarginofSamplingError363

OtherConsiderationsinDeterminingSample Size365

TypesofProbabilitySamplingDesigns 366

SimpleRandomSampling366

SystematicSampling366

StratifiedSampling368

ImplicitStratificationinSystematicSampling369

ProportionateandDisproportionateStratified Samples369

MultistageClusterSampling 371

MultistageDesignsandSamplingError372

StratificationinMultistageCluster Sampling373

Illustration:SamplingSocialWorkStudents 374

SelectingthePrograms374

SelectingtheStudents374

ProbabilitySamplinginReview 375

AvoidingSexBiasinSampling 375

MainPoints 376

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 376

InternetExercises 377

Chapter 16

SURVEYRESEARCH378

Introduction 379

TopicsAppropriatetoSurveyResearch380

Self-AdministeredQuestionnaires 381

MailDistributionandReturn381

CoverLetter382

MonitoringReturns384

Follow-UpMailings384

ResponseRates385

IncreasingResponseRates386

ACaseStudy386

InterviewSurveys 387

TheRoleoftheSurveyInterviewer387

GeneralGuidelinesforSurveyInterviewing388 CoordinationandControl390

TelephoneSurveys 392

TheInfluenceofTechnologicalAdvances393

OnlineSurveys 394

OnlineDevices394

InstrumentDesign395

ImprovingResponseRates395

Mixed-ModeSurveys 396

ComparisonofDifferentSurveyMethods 397

StrengthsandWeaknessesofSurveyResearch 398

MainPoints 400

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 401

InternetExercises 401

Chapter 17

ANALYZINGEXISTINGDATA:QUANTITATIVE ANDQUALITATIVEMETHODS403

Introduction 404

ACommentonUnobtrusiveMeasures 404

SecondaryAnalysis 405

TheGrowthofSecondaryAnalysis405

TypesandSourcesofDataArchives406

SourcesofExistingStatistics407

AdvantagesofSecondaryAnalysis407

LimitationsofSecondaryAnalysis410

IllustrationsoftheSecondaryAnalysisofExisting StatisticsinResearchonSocialWelfare Policy413

DistinguishingSecondaryAnalysisfrom OtherFormsofAnalyzingAvailable Records415

ContentAnalysis 415

SamplinginContentAnalysis417

SamplingTechniques418

CodinginContentAnalysis418

ManifestandLatentContent418

ConceptualizationandtheCreationofCode Categories419

CountingandRecordKeeping420

QualitativeDataAnalysis421

QuantitativeandQualitativeExamplesofContent Analysis422

StrengthsandWeaknessesofContent Analysis424

HistoricalandComparativeAnalysis 424

SourcesofHistoricalandComparative Data425

AnalyticTechniques428

UnobtrusiveOnlineResearch 428

MainPoints 429

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 430

InternetExercises 430

PART6

QualitativeResearchMethods433

Chapter 18

QUALITATIVERESEARCH:GENERAL PRINCIPLES434

Introduction 435

TopicsAppropriateforQualitativeResearch 435

ProminentQualitativeResearchParadigms 436 Naturalism436

GroundedTheory436

ParticipatoryActionResearch440

CaseStudies441

QualitativeSamplingMethods 443

StrengthsandWeaknessesofQualitative Research 446

DepthofUnderstanding446

Flexibility447

Cost448

SubjectivityandGeneralizability448

StandardsforEvaluatingQualitativeStudies 449

ContemporaryPositivistStandards450

SocialConstructivistStandards451

EmpowermentStandards452

ResearchEthicsinQualitativeResearch 452

MainPoints 453

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 454

InternetExercises 454

Chapter

19

QUALITATIVERESEARCH:SPECIFICMETHODS455

Introduction 456

PreparingfortheField 456

SearchtheLiterature456

UseKeyInformants456

EstablishInitialContact456

EstablishRapport457

ExplainYourPurpose457

TheVariousRolesoftheObserver 457

CompleteParticipant457

ParticipantasObserver459

ObserverasParticipant460

CompleteObserver460

RelationstoParticipants:EticandEmic

Perspectives 460

EticPerspective461

EmicPerspective461

AdoptingBothPerspectives461

Reflexivity 461

QualitativeInterviewing 462

InformalConversationalInterviews463

InterviewGuideApproach465

StandardizedOpen-EndedInterviews467

LifeHistory 467

FeministMethods 468

FocusGroups 468

Sampling468

TypesandSequenceofQuestions469

Advantages469

Disadvantages471

RecordingObservations 471

VoiceRecording473

Notes473

AdvancePreparation473

RecordSoon473

TakeNotesinStages475

DetailsCanBeImportant475

Practice475

MainPoints 475

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 476

InternetExercises 477

Chapter 20

QUALITATIVEDATAANALYSIS478

Introduction 479

LinkingTheoryandAnalysis 479

DiscoveringPatterns479

GroundedTheoryMethod480

Semiotics481

ConversationAnalysis483

QualitativeDataProcessing 483

Coding483

Memoing487

ConceptMapping488

ComputerProgramsforQualitativeData 489

QualitativeDataAnalysisPrograms489

LeviticusasSeenthroughQualrus491

N-Vivo493

MainPoints 501

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 501

InternetExercises 502

PART7

AnalysisofQuantitativeData503

Chapter 21

DESCRIPTIVEDATAANALYSIS504

Introduction 505

Coding 505

DevelopingCodeCategories505

DataEntry 507

DataCleaning 507

UnivariateAnalysis 508

Distributions508

ImplicationsofLevelsofMeasurement509

CentralTendency510

Dispersion512

BivariateAnalysis 514

InterpretingBivariateTables514

InterpretingMultivariateTables 515

ConstructingTables 516

TableTitlesandLabels516

DetailversusManageability517

HandlingMissingData518

PercentagingBivariateandMultivariate Tables518

MeasuringtheStrengthofRelationships 519

Correlation519

EffectSize520

Cohen’s d 521

DescriptiveStatisticsandQualitative Research 522

MainPoints 525

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 526

InternetExercises 527

Chapter 22

INFERENTIALDATAANALYSIS528

Introduction 529

ChanceasaRivalHypothesis 529

RefutingChance531

StatisticalSignificance 531

TheoreticalSamplingDistributions531

SignificanceLevels533

One-TailedandTwo-TailedTests534

TheNullHypothesis537

TypeIandTypeIIErrors538

TheInfluenceofSampleSize540

InterpretingRelationshipStrength 540

Strong,Medium,andWeakEffectSizes541

SubstantiveSignificance 542

StatisticalPowerAnalysis 543

SelectingandCalculatingTestsofStatistical Significance 546

Meta-Analysis 547

MainPoints 548

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 549

InternetExercises 549

PART8

WritingResearchProposalsandReports551

Chapter 23

WRITINGRESEARCHPROPOSALS ANDREPORTS552

Introduction 553

WritingResearchProposals 553

FindingaFundingSourceandRFPs 553

Large-ScaleandSmall-ScaleRFPsand Proposals554

GrantsandContracts554

BeforeYouStartWritingtheProposal556

ResearchProposalComponents557

CoverMaterials557

ProblemandObjectives557

LiteratureReview558

ConceptualFramework559

Measurement559

StudyParticipants(Sampling)560

DesignandDataCollectionMethods560

DataAnalysis563

Schedule564

Budget564

AdditionalComponents564

WritingSocialWorkResearchReports 565

SomeBasicConsiderations565

OrganizationoftheReport 570

Title570

Abstract570

IntroductionandLiteratureReview570

Methods571

Results571

DiscussionandConclusions572

ReferencesandAppendices573

AdditionalConsiderationsWhenWriting QualitativeReports 573

MainPoints 574

ReviewQuestionsandExercises 575

InternetExercises 575

Appendix A

USINGTHELIBRARY 577

Introduction 577

AccessingandExaminingLibraryMaterials Online 577

GettingHelp 577

ReferenceSources 577

UsingtheStacks 578

Abstracts 578

ProfessionalJournals 580

Appendix B

STATISTICSFORESTIMATINGSAMPLING

ERROR 584

TheSamplingDistributionof10Cases 584

SamplingDistributionandEstimatesofSampling Error 585

ConfidenceLevelsandConfidenceIntervals 591

Appendix C

CRITICALLYAPPRAISINGMETA-ANALYSES 593

PotentialFlawsinMeta-Analyses 593

ConflictsofInterest593

LumpingTogetherStrongandWeak Studies593

ProblemsinRatingsofMethodological Quality594

FileDrawerEffect594

WhattoLookforWhenAppraising Meta-Analyses 595

Transparency595

MethodologiesofIncludedStudies595

UnpublishedStudies595

Comprehensiveness595

Conclusion 595

Glossary 596

Bibliography 617

Index 637

PREFACE

Aswithpreviouseditionsofthistext,thisnintheditioncontainssignificantimprovementstokeepup withadvancesinthefieldandrespondtotheexcellentsuggestionsfromcolleagues.Oneofthethings thathasn’tchangedisourpresentationofboxesto illustrateconceptsthatbringresearchcontenttolife andillustrateitsrelevancetosocialworkandits utilityininformingsocialworkpractice.Inthat connection,wehaveaddedsomenewboxesinthis edition.Herearesomeofourothermostnoteworthychangestothisedition.

CSWEEPASCoreCompetencies.Aswewere writingthisnewedition,theCouncilonSocial WorkEducationwasintheprocessofrevisingits EducationalPolicyandAccreditationStandards (EPAS)CoreCompetencies.Accordingly,wehave changedthewayweshowhowthecontentsofour bookpertaintothosecorecompetencies.

BookLength. Inresponsetoreviewerconcerns aboutthelengthandcostofthebook,westrivedto shortenthiseditioninwaysthatwillnotsacrifice oneofitschiefvirtues:itscomprehensivenessand useofmanysocialworkpracticeexamplesand illustrations.Althoughtheshorteningrevisions occurredinmanychapters,theyaremostnoteworthyinthecontentoninferentialstatistics,inwhich twochapterswereshortenedandcombinedintoone (Chapter22).

SignificantAdditions. Atthesametime,we mademanyadditionsthroughoutthebook.The mostsignificantadditionsareasfollows:

• Expandedcoverageofmixed-methods

• NewcontentonLGBTQpopulationsinseveral chapters

• Expandedcontentonscaledevelopment

• Newcontentoncriteriaforinferringcausality inepidemiologicalresearch

• Moreemphasisonhowtoconductsuccessful programevaluations

• New,updatedcontentonhowadvancesin technologyareaffectingsurveysandqualitative research

• Newcontentonhowtoconductfocusgroup interviewing

• AnewAppendixoncriticallyappraisingmetaanalyses

Belowisachapter-by-chapterdescriptionofour mostnoteworthychanges.

• Chapter1.Severalreviewersofferedusefulrecommendationsregardingtheneedtoshorten thislengthychapter.Weagreedwithandfollowedtheiradvice.Atthesametime,however, wemanagedtoaddahumorousphotoanda newboxlistingsomeinterventionswithstrong researchsupport.

• Chapter2.Throughoutourdiscussionofevidence-basedpractice(EBP),wehaveincreased contentshowinghowEBPappliestothemacro andpolicylevelsofsocialworkpractice.Also throughoutwehavereplacedwordingabout EBP guiding practicewithwordingaboutEBP informing practicedecisions.Wereplacedthe modelofEBPinFigure2-1withanupdatedversionofthemodel.Weelaboratedourdiscussion ofsystematicreviewsandmeta-analysesand addedFigure2-2oncriteriaforcriticallyappraisingthem.WealsoupdatedourboxonGoogle Scholarresults.

• Chapter3.Inresponsetosuggestionsfromour reviewersandothercolleagues,extensivechanges weremadetothischapterinanefforttomakeit lessoverwhelmingandmorerelevanttosocial workstudents.Inparticular,wehaveshortened thecoverageofphilosophicalissues,madeitless esoteric,andmodifieditsothatinsteadofdwellingonparadigmwarsitputsmoreemphasis ontheflexibleuseofeachparadigm,depending ontheresearchquestionandstudypurpose.

Inkeepingwiththisnewemphasis,wehave renamedthechapter,replacingphilosophyand theoryinthetitlewith “FactorsInfluencingthe ResearchProcess.” Thephilosophicalcontentno longerappearsatthebeginningofthechapter. Instead,thechapterstartsbycoveringthephases oftheresearchprocess,movingcoverageofphilosophicalissuesfromtheendofChapter4inthe previouseditiontothestartofChapter3inthis one.Thepreviousfigurediagramingtheresearch processhasbeenreplacedwithonethatisless clutteredandcomplex onethatwethinkstudentswillfindmorerelevantandeasiertofollow. Oneofthesuggestionswehavereceivedfrom colleaguesistoaddmoreLGBTQcontenttovariouspartsofthebook.Inthatconnection,we havealteredthewaywecoversexandgender variablesinthischapter.

• Chapter4.Wehavereceivedenthusiasticpraise forthischapterfromvariouscolleagues,who haveaddedthatthey’dliketoseethecontenton mixed-methodsexpandedabit.So,wehave expandedourdiscussionofmixed-methods,includingcoverageofadditionaltypesofmixed methodsdesignsandanewboxprovidinga caseexampleofapublishedmixed-methods studyofclientsandpractitionersinachildwelfareagency.

• Chapter5.Weaddedcontentongetting informedconsenttovideorecord,elaborated onIRBdebriefingrequirementswhendeception isinvolvedintheresearch,addedcontenton federalregulationsregardingvulnerablepopulations,andmodifiedoursectiononbiasand insensitivitytobetterdistinguishtheconcepts ofsexandgenderidentityandthusmakethe sectionmoreappropriateregardingLGBTQ people.Alsobolsteringthechapter’sattention toresearchethicsconcerningLGBTQpopulations,weaddedaboxtitled “IRBImperfections RegardingResearchwithLesbian,Gay,and BisexualPopulations.” InadditiontoillustratingmistakesthatIRBboardmemberscan make,thatboxshowshowbesttorespondto suchmistakestoenhancechancesforeventual IRBapproval.Inresponsetorequestsfrom reviewers,weshortenedsomewhatthevery lengthysectiononpolitics,reducingtheamount ofattentiongiventoobjectivityandideology. Wethinkthatnowstudentswillbebetterable

tocomprehendandappreciatetherelevanceof thatsection.

• Chapter6.Wehaveaddedsubstantialcontent regardingculturalcompetencewithregardto LGBTQindividuals.

• Chapter7.Inresponsetoareviewer’srequest formorecontentonresearchquestiondevelopmentwe’veaddedanewboxillustratingthe processofformulatingagoodresearchquestion. Inkeepingwithouroverallefforttoshortenthis bookwithoutlosingisessentialcomprehensiveness,wealsohaveimplementedreviewersuggestionstomakethecoverageofunitsofanalysis lessextensiveandlessdetailed.Insodoing,we thinkstudentswillfindcoverageofthattopic morerelevantandeasiertocomprehend.

• Chapter8.Weclarifiedwhatismeantbytruisms.Weaddedaboxprovidingmoreexamples ofspuriousrelationships.Wesimplifiedsomewhatourdiscussionofconceptionsandreality andclarifiedthattheconsequencesofabstract constructsarereal.Inresponsetosuggestions fromcolleagues,wehavemovedupthesection onlevelsofmeasurementfromChapter21to thischapter.Contentontheimplicationsof levelsofmeasurementforstatisticalanalysis remainsinChapter21.

• Chapter9.Weaddedabriefexplanationofthe term correlation tothesectiononinterraterreliabilityandanewboxtofurtherillustratethe differencebetweenreliabilityandvalidity.

• Chapter10.Wesignificantlyexpandedourdiscussionofscaledevelopment,includingalarge newsectionongeneratinganinitialpoolof itemsandhowtoselectitemsfromthatpool. Wealsoexpandedsomewhatourdiscussionof double-barreleditems,partlytoenhancereader understandingofsomeofthenuancesinvolved andpartlytocompensatefortheremovalofthe outdatedboxonthesubject.Inresponseto reviewer suggestions,andalsototrytoreduce thelengthandcostofthisedition,wereplaced one3-pagelongandsomewhatoutdatedfigure ofacompositeillustrationwithamuchshorter (one-halfpage)figureandreplacedthe4.5page figuredisplayingexcerptsfromalengthystandardizedopen-endedinterviewschedulewitha briefsummaryofthatscheduleandareproductionofjustoneitemfromit.

• Chapter11.Wesignificantlyexpandedourdiscussionofcriteriaforinferringcausality,especiallyinregardtoadditionalcriteriausedin epidemiologicalresearch,suchasstrengthof correlation,plausibilityandcoherence,and consistencyinreplication.Wealsoaddedsome commentsaboutethicsandIRBapprovalin regardtocontrolgroups.

• Chapter12.Ourcolleaguesexpressedpraisefor thischapterandhadonlyafewminorsuggestionsfortweakingit.Onefoundthebriefbox nearthebeginningofthechaptertobeunnecessary.Weagreedanddeleteditinkeepingwith ourefforttoreducethelengthandcostofthe book.

• Chapter13.Witheachneweditionofthisbook wereceiveconsistentlypositivefeedbackabout thischapter.Wefoundlittleneedtoupdateor otherwisemodifythischapter,withoneexception.Oneofourreviewerspointedouttheneed toaddresstheimplicationsofdisagreements amongtriangulateddatagatherers.Sowe addedthatforthisedition.

• Chapter14.Thiswasoneofourmoreextensivelyrevisedchapters.Therevisionswere primarilyintheorganizationandtoneofthe chapter,althoughsomenewcontentwas added,aswell.Whilekeepingmostofthepreviouscontentonthepoliticsofprogramevaluationandthedifficultiesthatcanposefor evaluators,wewantedtoimprovethechapter’s emphasisonhowtoconductsuccessfulevaluations.Inthatconnection,wemovedmostofthe politicscontenttowardthebackofthechapter, clarifiedthatitpertainsmainlytooutcomeevaluations,andmovedothersectionsclosertothe front.Logicmodels,forexample,previouslyappearedinthepenultimatesectionofthechapter andnowappearearlyinit,rightafteramovedupsectiononplanninganevaluation.Wealso updatedandshortenedourcoverageofthe impactofmanagedcare.Asectiononevidencebasedpracticewasaddedtoourhistorical overview.Itintroducesreaderstotheutilityof meta-analysesandeffect-sizestatistics concepts coveredmorecomprehensivelyinlaterchapters. Wealsoexpandedourdiscussionofsummative andformativeevaluations.

• Chapter15.Ourcolleaguesappeartoberelativelypleasedwiththischapter.Weimplementedseveralminortweaksthattheysuggestedas wellasarequestbysomeforamoresubstantial revision:ashortenedandlesscomplexdiscussionofmultistageclustersampling.

• Chapter16.Thischapterreceivedextensive revisionstotrytokeeppacewithnewtechnologicaladvancesaffectingtelephoneand onlinesurveys.Wealsoreferreadersto sourcesforkeepingabreastofthesedevelopments.Fournewsectionswereaddedregarding:(1)theimplicationsoftheseadvancesfor telephonesurveys;(2)instrumentdesignfor onlinesurveys;(3)improvingresponserates inonlinesurveys;and(4)mixed-modesurveys combiningonline,telephone,andpostalmail methods.

• Chapter17.Thisisanotherchapterwithnew contentregardingthewaysinwhichour onlineworldisaffectingresearch.Themain changeistheadditionofasectionononline unobtrusiveresearch,whichincludesexamples ofstudiesthatmonitorsocialmediapoststo identifywordsandphrasesthatarepredictive ofactualsuicideattemptsandotherself-harm behaviors.

• Chapter18.Varioustweaksweremadeinthis chapter,assuggestedbyreviewers;however, therewerenomajoradditionstoit.

• Chapter19.Themainrevisionstothischapter wereasfollows:(1)theadditionofasectionon thetypesandsequencingoffocusgroupquestions,and(2)anewboxsummarizingafocus groupstudy publishedinthe Journalof GerontologicalSocialWork thatassessedthe psychosocialneedsoflesbianandgayeldersin long-termcare.

• Chapter20.Themainrevisioninthischapter wasanexpansionofcontentonopencoding.

• Chapter21.Wemademanysignificantchanges toourchaptersonquantitativedataanalysisin anefforttoshortenandsimplifythiscontentin waysthatbetterfithowmostinstructorshandle itintheircourses.Inthischapter,forexample, weremovedmostofthecontentonlevelsof measurementinlinewithrequeststomove

thatcontentuptoChapter8(seeabove). What’sleftisthecontentontheimplications ofthoselevelsforthekindsofdescriptivestatisticsthatareappropriatetocalculate.Aspartof ourefforttocollapseourtwoinferentialdata analyseschaptersintoonechapterandreduce theoveralllengthandcomplexityoftheinferentialcontent,wemovedthecoverageofmeasuresofassociationfromChapter22intothis chapter.Wealsoexpandedourcoverageof tableconstructionandreplacedseveraltables withonesfocusingonillustrationsofmore directrelevancetosocialwork.

• Chapter22.Inkeepingwithoureffortto improvethefitbetweenourcoverageofinferentialdataanalysisandhowthatcontentiscoveredinmostresearchmethodscourses,we removedthecontentthatismuchmorelikely tobecoveredinstatisticscourses.Insodoing, wewereabletocollapseandcombineourprevioustwochaptersonthiscontentintoone chapter.Asmentionedabove,wemovedmost ofthecoverageofmeasuresofassociationup intoChapter21,retaininginthischapteronly thepartdealingwiththeinterpretationofrelationshipstrength.Wemovedthecoverageof statisticalpoweranalysisupfromChapter23 intothischapter.Wecutmostofthecontent ontestsofsignificanceandmoveditupinto thischapter,aswell,althoughweaddedabox thatidentifiesthepurposeofsomesignificance testscommonlyusedinoutcomestudiesrelevanttoevidence-basedpractice.Alsomoved upisourcoverageofmeta-analyses.Wetook thecontentonhowtocriticallyappraisemetaanalysesoutofthischapterandputan expandedversionofthatcontentinanew Appendix.

• Chapter23.Inthischapter(whichusedtobe Chapter24),wehaveaddedasectioncomparinglarge-scaleandsmall-scaleRFPsandproposals,includinganewboxillustratingasmallscaleRFPaimedatstudentswhowantto conductresearchonLGBTfamilyissues.

• AppendixA.We’veupdatedtheappendixon usingthelibrarytomakeitmoreconsistent withtoday’sonlineworld.

• AppendixB.Weupdatedthediscussionof selectingrandomnumbersinregardtogeneratingrandomnumbersonline.

• AppendixC.Thisnewappendixcontains expandedcoverageoncriticallyappraising meta-analyses.

ANCILLARYPACKAGE

MindTap

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• Entireelectronictext

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Weowespecialthankstothefollowingcolleagues whomadevaluablesuggestionsforimprovingthis edition:

NikolaAlenkin,CaliforniaStateUniversity,Los Angeles

JuanAraque,UniversityofCalifornia

KathleenBolland,UniversityofAlabama

AnnaleaseGibson,AlbanyStateUniversity

SusanGrossman,LoyolaUniversity

RichardHarris.UniversityofTexas,San Antonio

MaryJaneTaylor,UniversityofUtah

DanielWeisman,RhodeIslandCollege

MollyWolf,StateUniversityofNewYork, Buffalo

AllenRubin EarlR.Babbie

Science isawordeveryoneuses.Yetpeople’simages ofsciencevarygreatly.Forsome,scienceismathematics;forothers,scienceiswhitecoatsandlaboratories.Thewordisoftenconfusedwith technology orequatedwithchallenginghighschoolorcollege courses.

Ifyoutellstrangersthatyouaretakingacourse dealingwithscientificinquiryandaskthemtoguess whatdepartmentit’sin,theyarealotmorelikelyto guesssomethinglikebiologyorphysicsthansocial work.Infact,manysocialworkersthemselvesoften underestimatetheimportantrolethatscientific inquirycanplayinsocialworkpractice.Butthisis changing.Moreandmore,socialworkersarelearninghowtakingascientificapproachcanenhance theirpracticeeffectiveness.

Althoughscholarscandebatephilosophical issuesinscience,forthepurposesofthisbookwe willlookatitasamethodofinquiry thatis,a wayoflearningandknowingthingsthatcanguide thedecisionsmadeinsocialworkpractice.When contrastedwithotherwaysthatsocialworkpractitionerscanlearnandknowthings,scientificinquiry hassomespecialcharacteristics mostnotably,a searchforevidence.

Inthisopeningsetofchapters,we’llexaminethe natureofscientificinquiryanditsrelevanceforsocial work.We’llexplorethefundamentalcharacteristics andissuesthatmakescientificinquirydifferentfrom otherwaysofknowingthingsinsocialwork.

InChapter1,we’llexaminethevalueofscientificinquiryinsocialworkpracticeandhowithelps safeguardagainstsomeoftherisksinherentinalternativesourcesofpracticeknowledge.

Chapter2willdelveintoevidence-based practice amodelofsocialworkpracticethat emphasizestheuseofthescientificmethodandscientificevidenceinmakingpracticedecisions.

Chapter3willexaminetheresearchprocessin socialworkandvariousfactorsthatcaninfluence thewaythatprocessiscarriedout.Chapter4will provideanoverviewofandcomparethethreecontrastingyetcomplementaryoverarchingmodelsof socialworkresearch:onethatusesquantitative methodstoproducepreciseandgeneralizablestatisticalfindings;onethatusesmoreflexible,qualitative methodstodelveintodeeperunderstandingsofphenomenanoteasilyreducedtonumbers;andonethat integratesquantitativeandqualitativeapproaches withinthesamestudy.

1 WhyStudy Research?

INTRODUCTION

THESCIENTIFICMETHOD

OTHERWAYSOFKNOWING

RECOGNIZINGFLAWSINUNSCIENTIFIC SOURCESOFSOCIALWORKPRACTICE KNOWLEDGE

THEUTILITYOFSCIENTIFICINQUIRY INSOCIALWORK

REVIEWSOFSOCIALWORKEFFECTIVENESS

THENEEDTOCRITIQUERESEARCHQUALITY

COMPASSIONANDPROFESSIONALETHICS

UTILITYOFRESEARCHINAPPLIEDSOCIAL WORKSETTINGS

MAINPOINTS

REVIEWQUESTIONSANDEXERCISES

INTERNETEXERCISES

EPASCompetenciesforThisChapter

Competency1 DemonstrateEthicaland ProfessionalBehavior: Youwilllearnwhystudying researchispartofpreparingtobeethicalandprofessional inyoursocialworkpractice.

Competency4 EngageinPractice-Informed ResearchandResearch-InformedPractice: Asa researchtextthatemphasizespracticeapplications,allof itschaptersaddressaspectsofthiscompetency.

Competency9 EvaluatePracticewithIndividuals Families,Groups,Organizations,andCommunities: Youwilllearnwhystudyingresearchisanessentialpartof evaluatingpractice.

WhatYou’llLearninThisChapter

Youmaybewonderingwhysocialworkstudentsare requiredtotakearesearchcourse.We’llbegintoanswer thatquestioninthischapter.We’llexaminethewaysocial workerslearnthingsandthemistakestheymakealong theway.We’llalsoexaminewhatmakesscientificinquiry differentfromotherwaysofknowingthingsandits utilityinsocialworkpractice.Wewillprefacethisand theremainingchaptersofthisbookbylistingthe competenciesrelevanttoeachchapterthatstudentsare expectedtodevelopaccordingtotheCouncilonSocial WorkEducationEducationalPolicyandAccreditation Standards(EPAS).Eachcompetencywillbeaccompanied byabriefstatementonitsrelevancetothechapter.

INTRODUCTION

Socialworkers likedoctors,lawyers,nurses,or anyothertypeofprofessional needtoknow thingsthatwillmaketheirprofessionalpractice effective.Althoughitseemsreasonabletosuppose thatallsocialworkerswouldagreewiththatstatement,theywouldnotallagreeaboutthe best ways togoaboutlearningthethingstheyneedtoknow. Somemightfavorlearningthingsbyrelyingon whatmostoftheirteachers,supervisors,andmore experiencedsocialworkersingeneralagreeto betrue.Othersmightassertthatlearningthings throughwhattheyobserveandexperienceintheir professionalpracticeisatleastasvaluableasis learningaboutwhatotherrespectedsourcesagree tobetrue.

Bothofthesetwowaysofknowingthingshave valuenotonlyinguidingsocialworkpracticebut alsoinguidingdecisionsthroughoutourpersonal lives.Aswegrowup,wemustrelyonwhatthepeoplewerespecttellustokeepussafeandhealthy.We shouldn’tanddon’thavetoexperiencetheharmful orpainfuleffectsofdoingunsafeorunhealthythings beforewelearnnottodothem.Atthesametime,we learnotherthingsthroughourdirectexperienceand observation.

Thetwowaysofknowingthingsthatwe’ve beendiscussingaretermed agreementreality and experientialreality.Althougheachisinvaluablein guidingourpersonalandprofessionalbehavior, let’snowlookathowrelyingonthemexclusively canberisky.

AgreementReality

Mostofwhatweknowisamatterofagreement andbelief.Littleofitisbasedonpersonalexperienceanddiscovery.Abigpartofgrowingupinany society,infact,istheprocessoflearningtoaccept whateverybodyaroundyou “knows” isso.

Youknowthatit’scoldontheplanetMars. Howdoyouknow?Unlessyou’vebeentoMars lately,youknowit’scoldtherebecausesomebody toldyouandyoubelievedwhatyouweretold.Perhapsyourphysicsorastronomyinstructortoldyou itwascoldonMars,ormaybeyoureadaboutit somewhere.

However,relyingexclusivelyonagreementrealitycanberiskybecausesomeofthethingsthat

everyoneagreesonarewrong.Forexample,at onetimeeveryone “knew” thattheworldisflat. Throughoutthehistoryofthesocialworkprofession,therehavebeenthingsthatmostsocialworkersandothermentalhealthprofessionalsagreedon thatwerenotonlywrongbutalsoharmful.

Inthemid-20thcentury,forexample,therewas widespreadagreementthatthemaincauseofschizophreniawasfaultyparentingorotherdysfunctional familydynamics.Havingwhatwascalleda schizophrenigenicmother waswidelyseenasamainreason whyachild perhapslaterasanadult eventually cametohaveschizophrenia.Suchmotherswereportrayedascold,domineering,andoverprotectivein waysthatdidnotpermittheirchildrentodevelop individualidentities.Nocompellingresearchevidence supportedtheseconcepts,buttheywerenonetheless widelyacceptedbymentalhealthpractitioners.Asa result,socialworkersandothermentalhealthprofessionalsoftendealtwiththefamilyasacauseofthe problemratherthandevelopatreatmentalliance withthefamily.Manyparentsconsequentlyreported feelingsofself-recriminationfortheillnessesoftheir offspring.Asyoucanimagine,thiswaspainfulfor manyparents.

Scientificresearchstudiesduringthe1970sand 1980sdebunkedthenotionthatschizophreniais causedbyschizophrenigenicmothersorotherdysfunctionalfamilydynamics.Somestudiesuncovered thebiologicalbasisofschizophrenia.Otherstudies showedhowpractitionerswhowereguidedbythe notionoffaultyparenting(orotherdysfunctional familydynamics)whentreatingpeoplewithschizophreniaandtheirfamilieswereactuallyincreasing theriskofrelapseandunnecessarilyexacerbating theburdenthatsuchfamilieshadtobearwhencaringfortheirsickrelative(Rubin&Bowker,1986).

Anotherexampleofineffectiveorharmfulprofessionalpracticesthatwereguidedbyagreement realityincludes “ScaredStraight” programs.These programswereoncepopularasaneffectivewayto preventfutureviolationsofthelawbyjuveniles.It wasthoughtthatbyvisitingprisonsandinteracting withadultinmates,juvenileswouldbesofrightened thattheirfearwoulddeterthemfromfuturecriminalbehavior.Butvariousscientificresearchstudies foundthatScaredStraightprogramsnotonlywere ineffectivebutactuallyincreasedtheriskofdelinquency(Petrosino,Turpin-Petrosino,&Buehler, 2002).

ExperientialReality

Incontrasttoknowingthingsthroughagreement, wecanalsoknowthingsthroughdirectexperience andobservation.However,justasrelyingexclusivelyonagreementrealitycanberisky,socan relyingexclusivelyonexperientialreality.That’s becausesomeofthethingsthatweexperienceare influencedbyourpredilectionsthatarebasedon agreementsthatmayormaynotbeaccurate.

Let’stakeanexample.Imagineyou’reata party.It’sahigh-classaffair,andthedrinksand foodareexcellent.Youareparticularlytakenby onetypeofappetizerthehostbringsaroundona tray.It’sbreaded,deep-fried,andespeciallytasty. Youhaveacouple,andtheyaredelicious!You havemore.Soonyouaresubtlymovingaround theroomtobewhereverthehostarriveswitha trayofthesenibbles.

Finally,youcan’tcontainyourselfanymore. “Whatarethey?” youask. “HowcanIgetthe recipe?” Thehostletsyouinonthesecret: “You’ve beeneatingbreaded,deep-friedworms!” Your responseisdramatic:Yourstomachrebels,andyou promptlythrowupalloverthelivingroomrug. Awful!Whataterriblethingtoserveguests!

Thepointofthestoryisthatbothfeelingsabout theappetizerwouldbereal.Yourinitiallikingfor them,basedonyourowndirectexperience,wascertainlyreal,butsowasthefeelingofdisgustyouhad whenyoufoundoutthatyou’dbeeneatingworms. Itshouldbeevident,however,thatthefeelingofdisgustwasstrictlyaproductoftheagreementsyou havewiththosearoundyouthatwormsaren’tfitto eat.That’sanagreementyoubeganthefirsttime yourparentsfoundyousittinginapileofdirtwith halfawrigglingwormdanglingfromyourlips. Whentheypriedyourmouthopenandreached downyourthroattofindtheotherhalfofthe worm,youlearnedthatwormsarenotacceptable foodinoursociety.

Asidefromtheagreementswehave,what’s wrongwithworms?They’reprobablyhighinproteinandlowincalories.Bitesizedandeasilypackaged,they’readistributor’sdream.Theyarealsoa delicacyforsomepeoplewholiveinsocietiesthat lackouragreementthatwormsaredisgusting. Otherpeoplemightlovethewormsbutbeturned offbythedeep-friedbread-crumbcrust.

Analogiestothiswormexamplehaveabounded inthehistorysocialworkpractice(aswellasinthe

practiceofotherhelpingprofessions).Decades ago,forexample,practitionerswhobelievedinthe schizophrenigenicmotherconceptwerelikelytobe predisposedtolookfor,perceive,andinterpret maternalbehaviorsinwaysthatfittheiragreement reality.Wehaveknownclinicalpractitionerswho willlookforandperceiveevenfairlyinconsequential clientbehaviorsasevidencethattheirfavoredtreatmentapproachisbeingeffectivewhileoverlooking otherbehaviorsthatmightraisedoubtabouttheir effectiveness.Laterinthischapter,we’lldiscussthis phenomenonintermsoftheconceptofselective observation,whichisonecommonwayinwhich ouragreementrealityinfluencesourexperiential reality.

Reality,then,isatrickybusiness.Although whenwestartoutinlifeorinourprofessional careers,wemustinescapablyrelyheavilyonagreementrealityandexperientialrealityasstarting pointsfor “knowing” things,someofthethings you “know” may notbetrue.Buthowcanyou reallyknowwhat’sreal?Peoplehavegrappled withthatquestionforthousandsofyears.Science isoneofthestrategiesthathavearisenfromthat grappling.

THESCIENTIFICMETHOD

Scienceoffersanapproachtobothagreementrealityandexperientialreality.Thatapproachiscalled the scientificmethod*.Whensocialworkersquestionthingsandsearchforevidenceasthebasisfor makingpracticedecisions,theyareapplyingthescientificmethod.Let’snowexaminethekeyfeatures ofthescientificmethod,beginningwithaprinciple thatrequireskeepinganopenmind.

AllKnowledgeIsTentativeandOpen toQuestion

Inourquesttounderstandthings,weshouldstrive tokeepan openmind abouteverythingthatwe thinkweknoworthatwewanttobelieve.In otherwords,weshouldconsiderthethingswecall “knowledge” tobe tentative and subjecttorefutation.Thisfeaturehasnoexceptions.Nomatterhow longaparticulartraditionhasbeenpracticed,no

*Wordsinboldfacearedefinedintheglossaryattheendofthe book.

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kyphosis of, 444 lordosis of, 461 operations on, 636

Pott’s disease of, 444 causes of, 445 complications of, 446 diagnosis of, 448 prognosis of, 448 sequelæ of, 446 symptoms of, 445 treatment of, 448 by apparatus, 448 by forcible contraction, 450 spondylitis of, 444 traumatic, 462 spondylolisthesis, 462 diagnosis of, 463 symptoms of, 462 treatment of, 463 tuberculosis of, 424 typhoid, 462 wounds of, gunshot, 624 penetrating, 624

Spirochæta pallida, 123

Splay-foot, 468

Spleen, abscess of, 941 anomalies of, 940 carcinoma of, 943 cysts of, 943 displacements of, 942 gangrene of, 941 hypertrophies of, 941 injuries of, 941 neoplasms of, 943 operations on, 943 splenectomy, 943 splenopexy, 942

splenotomy, 943

sarcoma of, 943

syphilis of, 138 wounds of, 233

Splenectomy, 943

Splenic anemia, 31 fever, 106. See Anthrax.

Splenitis, suppurative, 941

Splenomedullary leukemia, 32

Splenomegaly, 942

Splenopexy, 942

Splenotomy, 943

Spondylitis, 444 suppurative, of abdominal wall, 783 traumatic, 462

Spondylolisthesis, 462 diagnosis of, 463 symptoms of, 462 treatment of, 463

Sponges, sterilization of, 247

Sprains of joints, 380 symptoms of, 380 treatment of, 380 of muscles, 329 of spinal column, 628 treatment of, 629

Sprengel’s deformity, 458

Staffordshire knot, 241

Staphylococcus pyogenes albus, 52 aureus, 52 epidermidis, 52

Staphyloma, 598

Staphylorrhaphy, 654

Status lymphaticus, 163 diagnosis of, 164 treatment of, 165 thymicus, 163

Steatomas, 310

Stenosis, pyloric, operations for, 808

Stenson’s duct, cysts of, 641

Stercoremia, 83

Sterilization by boiling water, 244 of dressings, 247 by formalin, 244 fractional, 244 of hands, 245 by heat, 243 of instruments, 246 by mustard flour, 245 of sponges, 247 of suture materials, 247

Sternum, dislocations of, 528 fractures of, 491 symptoms of, 492 treatment of, 492 malformations of, 718

Stillicidium, 982

Stokes’ method of amputation of thigh, 1043

Stomach, anastomosis of, 816 cancer of, 801 symptoms of, 802 treatment of, 803 dilatation of, acute, 795 symptoms of, 796 treatment of, 796 chronic, 796 operations for, 811 fistulas of, 801 foreign bodies in, 794 operations for, 806 symptoms of, 794 treatment of, 794 hour-glass, 793 injuries of, 793

leather-bottle, 793

malformations of, acquired, 793

congenital, 793

nerves of, 793

operations on, 805

gastrectomy, 813

gastro-enterostomy, 811, 817

gastrojejunostomy, 816

gastrorrhaphy, 806

gastrostomy, 806

gastrotomy, 806

pylorectomy, 813

pylorus of, stenosis of, 799 symptoms of, 799 treatment of, 799 rupture of, 794 syphilis of, 795 tetany of, 798 tuberculosis of, 795 tumors of, 801 ulcer of, 799

symptoms of, 800 treatment of, 800

wall of, inflammation of, 804 wounds of, 794

penetrating, operations for, 805

Stomatitis, 657

gangrenous, 75, 658

ulcerative, 657

Stovaine, 207

Strains of muscles, 329

Strangulated hernia, diagnosis of, from appendicitis, 858

intestinal obstruction from, 829

Strawberry growths, 367

Streptococcus erysipelatis, 52 pyogenes, 53

Streptothrix maduræ, 100

Stretching of nerves, 612

Stricture of biliary ducts, 921 of esophagus, 742 of intestines, large, 870 obstruction from, 832 symptoms of, 828 treatment of, 828 small, 827 of larynx, 684 symptoms of, 684 treatment of, 684 of rectum, 877 treatment of, 877 of ureter, 973 of urethra, 1011

Struma, 283, 712 fibrosa, 284 parenchymatosa nodosa, 284

Strumitis, 717

Stye, 600

Stypticin, 235

Styptics for control of hemorrhage, 235

Subclavian artery, aneurysm of, 345 ligation of, 354

Subclavicular dislocations, 531

Subcoracoid dislocations, 531

Subcutaneous tubercle, painful, of skin, 313

Subdiaphragmatic abscess, 753 treatment of, 754

Subdural hemorrhages, 564

Subglenoid dislocations, 531

Subhyoid pharyngotomy, 664

Subluxation, 524 See Dislocations

Submaxillary angina, infectious, 703

Subphrenic abscess, 753 treatment of, 754

Subspinous dislocations, 532

Subungual exostoses, 272

Sunburn, 303

Suppression of urine, 982

Suppuration, 57

Supracondyloid amputations, 1043 fracture of humerus, 497

Supra-orbital nerve operations on, 613

Suprapubic prostatectomy, 998

Suprarenal epithelioma, 292

Surgical diseases, 79 common to man and animals, 97 fever, 85 cause of, 85 diagnosis of, from poisoning by drugs, 85 erysipelas, 93 pyemia, 90 sapremia, 86 chronic, 87 septicemia, 87 cryptogenetic, 87 spontaneous, 87 methods, 177 principles, 177 sequelæ of disease, 166 cholera, 166 dental caries, 169 diphtheria, 168 dysentery, 166 endocarditis, 169 gonorrhea, 169 influenza, 167 measles, 167 mumps, 168 pneumonia, 167 puerperal state, 169 scarlatina, 167 syphilis, 169

typhoid fever, 167 variola, 169

Sutures, 240

Billroth’s chain-stitch, 241 of bloodvessels, 349 end-to-end, 350 lateral, 349 continuous, 241 of heart wounds, 335 (note) interrupted, 241 of intestines, 840 modified plate, 241 quill, 241 of nerves, 612 removal of, 242 of tendons, 324 transfixion, 241

Swelling, acute, 22 chronic, 22

Sylvester’s method of artificial respiration, 204 Symblepharon, 603

Sympathectomy, 714

Sympathetic ophthalmitis, 595 treatment of, 596

Syncheilia, 639

Syncytioma, 292

Synovial cysts, 262

Synovitis, 382 acute, 383 treatment of, 383 chronic, 386 treatment of, 386 dry, 383 gonorrheal, 385 of jaws, acute, 667 purulent, 383 symptoms of, 383

treatment of, 385 treatment of, 385

Syphilides, 130 pustular, 132

ecthyma, 132 rupia, 132 pustulocrustaceous, 132 squamous, 131

Syphilis, 122 of abdominal wall, 783 of axilla, 751 of bones, 135, 426 of brain, 138 of breast, 759 of bursæ, 136 of cervical lymph nodes, 705 chancre, 126 bubo, 128

diagnosis of, from epithelioma, 127 dry papule, 126 extragenital, 127

Hunterian, 127 lymphatic involvement in, 128 mixed, 127 pathology of, 128 superficial erosion, 127 treatment of, 128 in children, 139

Colles’ law, 139

Profeta’s law, 139 of colon, 869 constitutional, 129, 132 of cornea, 137 of corpora cavernosa, 138 of ear, 137 eruptions of, 130 papular, 131

lenticulo, 131 miliary, 131 pustular, 132 pustulocrustaceous, 132 evolution of, 123 of eye, 136, 597 of face, 640 of genitalia, 138 gumma of, 133 Hutchinson’s teeth in, 140 induration of, 126 initial lesion in, 126 of intestines, 827 of joints, 135 of kidneys, 138, 964 of larynx, 138, 686 treatment of, 686 lesions of, 124 of liver, 138, 914 of lymph nodes, 376 manner of contagion of, 123 of mesentery, 939 of mouth, 657 of mucous membranes, 132 of muscles, 136, 331 of nervous system, 138 of orbit, 597 of oropharynx, 137 primary lesion, location of, 125 of rectum, 138, 876 secondary infection in, 169 lesion, 129 secretions of, 124 of skin, 130, 308 of spermatic cord, 1019 of spinal cord, 138 of spleen, 138

of stomach, 795 teeth in, 140 of tendons, 136 tertiary, 132 of skin, 133 of testicle, 138, 1016 of tongue, 659 of tonsils, 662 treatment of, 140 ulcer of, symptoms of, 125 of uvula, 683 of vascular system, 135 virus of, 123

Syphilitic arthritis, 385 bubo, 128 gumma of lung, 732

Syphilodermas, 130

Syringomyelia, 621

Syringomyelocele, 263, 626

TT mesenterica, 939

Tænia solium, 310

Tagliacozzi’s method of rhinoplasty, 644

Talipes, 465 calcaneus, 471

equinovarus, 466 treatment of, 466 equinus, 470 causes of, 470 treatment of, 471 valgus, 468 etiology of, 468 treatment of, 469

Talma’s operation on omentum, 936

Tapping, paracentesis by, 185

Tarantula, poisoning by, 172

Tarsectomy, 467

Tartar on teeth, 657

Tattoo marks, 318, 720

Taxis, 899

T-bandage, 191

Teale’s method of amputation of foot, 1042

Teeth, caries of, 657, 664 treatment of, 665 cysts of, 666 eruption of, faulty, 665 extraction of, 666 accidents from, 666 instruments required, 666 malformations of, 652 odontoma of, 665 re-implantation of, 667 tartar of, 657 tumors of, 665

Telangiectasis, 277

Temporal artery, ligation of, 352

Temporomaxillary joint, ankylosis of, 667 dislocation of, 667 postgonorrheal arthritis of, 667 resection of, 668 synovitis of, acute, 667

Temporosphenoidal abscess, 569

Tendon sheaths, tuberculosis of, 118

Tendons, dislocation of, 330 grafting of, 324 injuries of, 218 ligation of, 326 surgical diseases of, 321 suture of, 324 syphilis of, 136 transplantation of, 324

Tendoplasty, 322

Tendosynovitis, 321 chronic, 322

treatment of, 322

suppurative, 321

treatment of, 321

Tendovaginitis, gonococcus of, 331

Tenorrhaphy, 324

Tenotomy, 327

Teratomas, 268

embryonal adenosarcoma, 268 of thyroid, 712

Tertiary syphilis, 132

Testicle, absence of, 1015

atrophy of, 1015 cancer of, 1017

chondroma of, 1017

congenital abnormalities of, 1014 contusions of, 1015

cystic degeneration of, 260 cysts of, 1016

epididymitis, 1016

treatment of, 1017

fibroma of, 1017

gonorrhea of, 151 hematoma of, 1015

hydrocele of, encysted, 260 injuries to, 1015 lipoma of, 1017 orchitis, 1017

treatment of, 1017

retained, 1014

treatment of, 1014

syphilis of, 138, 1016

tuberculosis of, 118, 1015

treatment of, 1016 tumors of, 1017

Tetanin, 98

Tetanotoxin, 98

Tetanus, 97 cephalicus, 99 chronic, 100 death in, 100 diagnosis of, 101 from hysteria, 101 etiology of, 97 hydrophobicus, 99 of newborn, 97, 99 parasitic nature of, 98

postmortem appearances in, 100 prognosis of, 100 toy-pistol, 97 treatment of, 101

Tetany, bacillus of, 54 gastric, 798

Thecitis, 328

Thiersch method of skin grafting, 188

Thigh, amputation of, 1043 above knee, 1044 fracture of, 509 diagnosis of, 511 prognosis of, 511 treatment of, 512

Thoracentesis, 736, 746

Thoracic duct, injuries to, 725 treatment of, 726

viscera, injuries to, 724 walls, diseases of, 726

Thoracoplastic operations, 748

Thoracotomy, 747 drainage in, 747 irrigation in, 747

Thorax, actinomycosis of, 729 carcinoma of, 730

chondroma of, 730

fibroma of, 729 granuloma of, 729 injuries to, 721 lipoma of, 729 malformations of, 718, 719 operations on, 746 osteoma of, 730 sarcoma of, 730 tumors of, 729 treatment of, 730 wounds of, gunshot, 230

Thrombo-arteritis, 91

Thrombophlebitis, 37, 90

Thrombosis, 34 annular, 35 causes of, 35 following abdominal operations, 784 gangrene from, 73 infective, 36, 570 marasmic, 36, 570 mechanical, 36 of mesenteric vessels, 938 obstructive, 36 parietal, 35 primary, 35 propagated, 36 sinus, 570 diagnosis of, 571 prognosis of, 571 symptoms of, 570 treatment of, 573 traumatic, 36 valvular, 35

Thrombus, calcification of, 36 decolorization of, 36 organization of, 36

softening of, 37

Thrush, oïdium albicans of, 657

Thumb, amputation of, 1029

Thymic asthma, 163

Thymus, hypertrophy of, 717, 751 inflammation of, 717

Thyroglossal duct, 710

Thyrohyoid cysts of neck, 707

Thyroid arteries, inferior, ligation of, 353 body, adenoma of, 712

bronchocele, 712

congenital affections of, 710

endothelioma of, 712

goitre of, 712

hypertrophy of, acute idiopathic, 711

intra-uterine, 711

sarcoma of, 712

struma of, 712

teratomas of, 712 tumors of, 711

dermoids, 267

Thyroidectomy, 715

Thyroidism, 82

Thyroiditis, 711

Thyroids, accessory, 710

Thyrotomy, 674, 688

Tibia, dislocations of, 543 fractures of, 518 treatment of, 521

Tibial arteries, ligation of, 360 nerve, operations on, 623

Tibiotarsal amputations, 1037

Tic douloureux, 640

Toe-nail, ingrowing, 318

Toes, amputation of, 1034 hammer, 321

treatment of, 321

Tongue, absence of, 652

actinomycosis of, 659

bifid, 652

cysts of, retention, 659

epithelioma of, 660

treatment of, 660

gangrene of, 659

inflammation of, 658

leukoplakia of, 659

treatment of, 659

macroglossia of, 660 malformations of, 652

nevi of, 659

operations on, 661

Kocher’s, 661

Langenbeck’s, 662

Regnoli-Billroth’s, 661

Sédillot’s, 662

Whitehead’s, 661

papilloma of, 659

ranula of, 660

syphilis of, 659 -tie, 652

tuberculosis of, 659 tumors of, 659

Tonometer, use of, 177

Tonsillotomy, 663

Tonsils, absence of, 662

calculi of, 663

enlarged, 662

foreign bodies in, 663

hypertrophy, 662

infection through, 49

syphilis of, 662

tuberculosis of, 662 tumors of, 664

Torsion, control of hemorrhage by, 236

of omentum, 935

Torticollis, 457 diagnosis of, 458 pathology of, 457 treatment of, 458

Tourniquet for control of hemorrhage, 234

Toxic antiseptics, 175

Toy-pistol tetanus, 97

Trachea, operations on, 691 rupture of, 699 scabbard, 713 tumors of, 687 wounds of, 699

Tracheal tugging, 345

Tracheocele, 707

Tracheotomy, 691

Trachoma, 599

Transfixion suture, 241

Transfusion of blood, 185

Transhyoid pharyngotomy, 664

Transplantation of bone, 431 of tendons, 324

Transudates, 23

Trauma as cause of tumor, 255

Traumapnea, 724

Traumatic abscess of brain, 567 erysipelas, 93, 94 fever, 85. See Surgical fever. hematoma of scalp, 218 hernia, 890 insanity, surgical treatment of, 582 intraventricular hemorrhage, 564 mania, 175 neuroma, 280 othematoma, 605 peritonitis, 786 spondylitis, 462

thrombosis, 36 Treatment of abscess, 60 of bone, 426 of brain, 573 of liver, 912 of rectum, 879 of actinomycosis, 110 of acute catarrh of biliary passages, 918 cholecystitis, 921 pancreatitis, 948 after abdominal operations, 777 of adenoids of pharynx, 680 of aneurysm of abdominal aorta, 346 of angioma of veins, 367 of ankylosis, 405 of anthrax, 107 of arthritis, chronic, 386 deformans, 389 tuberculous, 398 of atrophy of muscles, 332 of biliary calculi, 926 of boils, 304 of bow-leg, 465 of bunions, 311 of burns, 301 x-ray, 304 of carbuncle, 305 of carcinoma, 295 of breast, 763 of intestines, 828 of rectum, 887 of stomach, 803 of cardiospasm, 798 of caries of hip, 454 of cerebral palsies, 478 of cervical lymph-node affections, 706 of chancre, 128

of chancroid, 145 of cholelithiasis, 926 of chondroma, 272 of chronic affections of pancreas, 951 pancreatitis, 950 prostatitis, 995 sapremia, 87 tendosynovitis, 322 of cold abscess, 114 peri-articular, 399 of compression of brain, 562 of concussion of brain, 559 of chest, 722 of spine, 629 of congenital anomalies of neck, 698 club-foot, 466 dislocation of hip, 474 of congestion, 23 of contraction of fasciæ, 320 of muscles, 332 of contusions, 212 of brain, 560 of chest, 722 of cryptorchidism, 1014 of curvature of spine, 460 of cutaneous horns, 311 of cystitis, 985 of cysts of pancreas, 952 of skin, 310 of dacryocystitis, 600 of delirium tremens, 174 of dental caries, 665 of dermatitis calorica, 299 of desmoids, 271 of dilatation of stomach, 796 of dislocations, 527 of clavicle, 529

of elbow, 536 of foot, 544 of hip, 539 of jaw, 528 of knee, 544 metacarpophalangeal, 537 of patella, 543 of shoulder, 532 of spine, 632 of duodenal ulcers, 826 of Dupuytren’s contraction, 320 of ectopia of bladder, 978 of epididymitis, 1017 of epistaxis, 681 of epithelioma of skin, 315 of tongue, 660 of erysipelas, 95 of exophthalmic goitre, 714 of exophthalmos, 594 of exstrophy of bladder, 978 of fat embolism, 40 of fibroma molluscum, 313 of fistula, 63 of rectum, 880 of floating liver, 911 of foreign bodies in esophagus, 740 in pharynx, 673 in stomach, 794 of fractures, 486 of clavicle, 493 Colles’, 504 of femur, 513 of fibula, 521 of forearm, 501 of humerus, 495 of inferior maxilla, 490 of leg, 521

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