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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN MOLECULAR SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY OF FOODS
Suresh D. Sharma Arpan R. Bhagat Salvatore Parisi
Raw Material Scarcity and Overproduction in the Food Industry SpringerBriefsinMolecularScience ChemistryofFoods Serieseditor
SalvatoreParisi,Al-BalqaAppliedUniversity,Al-Salt,Jordan
TheseriesSpringerBriefsinMolecularScience:ChemistryofFoodspresents compacttopicalvolumesintheareaoffoodchemistry.Theserieshasaclearfocus onthechemistryandchemicalaspectsoffoods,topicssuchasthephysicsor biologyoffoodsarenotpartofitsscope.TheBriefsvolumesintheseriesaimat presentingchemicalbackgroundinformationoranintroductionandclear-cut overviewonthechemistryrelatedtospecifictopicsinthisarea.Typicaltopicsthus include:
–
Compoundclassesinfoods theirchemistryandpropertieswithrespecttothe foods(e.g.sugars,proteins,fats,minerals, …)
– Contaminantsandadditivesinfoods theirchemistryandchemical transformations
– Chemicalanalysisandmonitoringoffoods
– Chemicaltransformationsinfoods,evolutionandalterationsofchemicalsin foods,interactionsbetweenfoodanditspackagingmaterials,chemicalaspects ofthefoodproductionprocesses
– Chemistryandthefoodindustry fromsafetyprotocolstomodernfood production
Thetreatedsubjectswillparticularlyappealtoprofessionalsandresearchers concernedwithfoodchemistry.Manyvolumetopicsaddressprofessionalsand currentproblemsinthefoodindustry,butwillalsobeinterestingforreaders generallyconcernedwiththechemistryoffoods.Withtheuniqueformatand characterofSpringerBriefs(50to125pages),thevolumesarecompactandeasily digestible.Briefsallowauthorstopresenttheirideasandreaderstoabsorbthem withminimaltimeinvestment.BriefswillbepublishedaspartofSpringer ’seBook collection,withmillionsofusersworldwide.Inaddition,Briefswillbeavailablefor individualprintandelectronicpurchase.Briefsarecharacterizedbyfast,global electronicdissemination,standardpublishingcontracts,easy-to-usemanuscript preparationandformattingguidelines,andexpeditedproductionschedules.
Bothsolicitedandunsolicitedmanuscriptsfocusingonfoodchemistryare consideredforpublicationinthisseries.Submittedmanuscriptswillbereviewed anddecidedbytheserieseditor,Dr.SalvatoreParisi.
Tosubmitaproposalorrequestfurtherinformation,pleasecontactDr.Sofia Costa,PublishingEditor,via sofia.costa@springer.com orDr.SalvatoreParisi, BookSeriesEditor,via drparisi@inwind.it or drsalparisi5@gmail.com
Moreinformationaboutthisseriesat http://www.springer.com/series/11853
SureshD.Sharma • ArpanR.Bhagat • SalvatoreParisi
RawMaterialScarcity andOverproduction intheFoodIndustry SureshD.Sharma
DepartmentofBiochemistry andMolecularBiology
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
UniversityPark,StateCollege,PA,USA
SalvatoreParisi
Al-BalqaAppliedUniversity Al-Salt,Jordan
ArpanR.Bhagat SaputoDairyFoodsUSA,LLC Dallas,TX,USA
ISSN2191-5407ISSN2191-5415(electronic)
SpringerBriefsinMolecularScience
ISSN2199-689XISSN2199-7209(electronic) ChemistryofFoods
ISBN978-3-030-14650-4ISBN978-3-030-14651-1(eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14651-1
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2019933841
© TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2019 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseof illustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped.
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ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland
Chapter1 SeasonalVariationandBiochemical CompositionofFishmeal Abstract Nowadays,thefoodindustryisforcedtoacceptseveralchallengesona globalscaleinrelationtotheincreasedfooddemandforhumanconsumptionand correlatedconsequences.Thischapterdescribestheobservedvariationsofbiochemicalfeaturesoffishmealinfunctionofseasonalcycles.Mainnutritionalparameters mayvarydependingontheseasonandthegeographicallocation;improperprocessing/storagetreatmentscanworsentheproduct.Forthesereasons,thevariabilityof fishmealshouldbepreliminarilyexaminedonaseasonalbasis.Fishmealisconsideredasaprotein-prevailingfeedingmaterial;thecompositionoffishfeedshould considerfishmealrangingfrom5to50%.Inaddition,anotablepartoffishfeed maybepartiallyortotallyreplacedwithvegetableproteinssuchassoyproteins. Moistureandlipidcontents,thecompositionoffattyacids,andthepresenceoftrace metals,antioxidants,andvitamins—correlatedwith‘freshness’—seemtodependon seasonalperiods.Consequently,astrictroutinecontrolonfishmealiscritical,andthe importanceofaffordable,easy-to-use,andrapidmethodshastobeevaluatedwhen speakingofindustrialplantsinsteadofseparatedanalyticallaboratories.
Keywords Astaxanthin · Fishmeal · Lipidoxidation · Seafood · Soyprotein · Unsaturatedfattyacid · α-Tocopherol
Abbreviations
COCarbonmonoxide
DDTDichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
EFSAEuropeanFoodSafetyAuthority
H2 SHydrogensulphide
NIRSNearinfraredreflectancespectroscopy
NONitrogenmonoxide
OIOrganochlorineinsecticide
PCBPolychlorinatedbiphenyl
PUFAPolyunsaturatedfattyacid
SO2 Sulphurdioxide
©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2019
S.D.Sharmaetal., RawMaterialScarcityandOverproductionintheFoodIndustry, ChemistryofFoods, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14651-1_1
Oneoftherecurringandmoreimportantproblemsintheseafoodindustryisthevariabilityofusedfishmealduringtheyear.Infact,theobservedvariationsofbiochemical featuresappeartodependonpeculiarseasonalcycles.Mainnutritionalparameters mayvarydependingontheseasonandthegeographicallocation;improperprocessing/storagetreatmentscanworsentheproduct.Forthesereasons,thevariabilityof fishmealshouldbepreliminarilyexaminedonaseasonalbasis.
Generally,fishmealisconsideredasaprotein-prevailingfeedingmaterial,and theinterestedspecies—asfishmealconsumers—arenormallycarnivorousfish(eel, salmon,trout,carp,catfish,etc.).Roughly,thecompositionoffishfeedshouldconsiderfishmealrangingfrom5to50%.Shrimpfeedcouldbeconsideredasapossible exceptionbecauseanimalproteinamountsshouldnotbelowerthan30%,witha maximumamountof50%(Dersjant-Li 2002;Drewetal. 2007;ElangovanandShim 2000;Wangetal. 2006).Inaddition,anotablepartoffishfeedmaybereplacedwith vegetableproteinssuchassoyproteins(minimumaddition:40%,maximumamount: 100%,orcompletesubstitution).Forthesereasons,theamountofnitrogen-based molecules(proteins)hastobehigh,whileoilquantitiesshouldbelower.Withspecificreferencetofishmealobtainedfromfishandseafoodonly,theproblemconcerns oilmatters.
Thequalityandassociatedacceptabilityoffishmealcandependonthefollowing factors(Barlow 1994;Bragadóttiretal. 2004a;Hultin 1992;Ólafsson 1953;Opstvedt 1975;Pikeetal. 1990;Romoseretal. 1968;Undeland 1997;Waissbluthetal. 1971):
(1)Freshnessoftheinitialrawmaterial(s)
(2)Processingoftheinitialrawmaterial(s)
(3)Storageofintermediateproductsandthefinalfishmeal
(4)Biologicalandchemicalvariationsoftheinitialrawmaterial(s),includingthe reducedpresenceofnaturalantioxidants
(5)Highamountofunsaturatedfattyacids,withconsequenthightendencytolipid oxidation,atnormalandrefrigeratedstorageconditions
(6)Partialdemolitionanddecreaseinnutritionalqualityofproteins(thisphenomenondependsonlipidoxidation)
(7)Stabilityoftheusedfish.
Interestingly,thefirstthreefactorsdonotdependontheusedfish,whileallother pointsconcernboththetypologyofusedrawmaterialsandseasonalfeatures.From thechemicalviewpoint,thefollowingfeaturesshouldbeconsideredandevaluatedin relationtoseasonalperiods(AstrupandHalvorsen 1985;Opstvedt 1985;Waissbluth etal. 1971):
(1)Lipidamount
(2)Percentagecontentoffattyacids:totalsaturated,totalmonoenefattyacids,and polyunsaturatedfattyacids(PUFA)
1.1FishmealDerivedfromFishandSeafoodintheCurrentSeafoodIndustry3
(3)Moisturecontent(thehigherthewater,thelowertheresistanceagainstoxidation)
(4)Iodineamount
(5)Qualityoftracemetals
(6) α-Tocopherolcontent
(7)Densityofthefishmeal(probably,thisfactorisinfluencedbytheamountof solublesubstancesinwater).
Withreferencetoprocessingandstorageparameters,theycaninfluenceandmodifytheseasonalfeaturesoffishmeal.Inparticular,thefollowingparametersshould beconsidered(Waissbluthetal. 1971):
(a)Lipidvariation
(b)Astaxanthinamount
(c) α-Tocopherolcontent
(d)VitaminA
(e)Quantityoffreefattyacids
(f)pHvalue
(g)Colorimetricappearance(orbrowningdefects)
(h)Variationofemittedcarbonmonoxide(CO),hydrogensulphide(H2 S),nitrogen monoxide(NO),andsulphurdioxide(SO2 ).
Otherfactorscouldbetakenintoaccount.However,agoodoverviewofthe problemrepresentedbyfishmealforfoodproductionpurposescanbeconsidered onthesebases.Thefollowingsectionsconcernthespecificfactorsandthepossible influenceofseasonalvariationsonobtainedandreportedresults.
1.2FishmealandVariability.ASeasonalViewpoint Thedifferencebetweenfishspeciesshouldbeconsideredintermsof:
(a)Naturalbehaviour
(b)Positioninthefoodweb
(c)Chemicalcompositionoffishtissues.
Interestingly,somestudieshaveinvestigatedthereliabilityofdifferentfishspecies asfishmealdependingespeciallyontheamountofoils(thehigherthefatcontent, thelowertheresidualamountofproteinandminerals)andrelatedcompoundlinked tothelipidphase,vitaminAinparticular.Seasonaldifferencesarenotextremely evident:ontheotherside,thefishspeciesseemtobetheprevailingfactorwhen speakingofadaptabilityforfishmealpurposes.Consequently,ithasbeenreported thatcertainAustralianspecies—includingBluefintuna,salmon,andseamullet—can beusedasvaluablesourcesofoilsandvitaminA,whileotherfish—e.g.,deep-sea flathead,garfish,snappershark,etc.—aremoreusefulasfishmealbecausethereisno needofprocessingexceptgutting.Theseasonalvariationcanbeevidentenough,but
41SeasonalVariationandBiochemicalCompositionofFishmeal
thefirstfactorseemstheclassificationoffishspeciesbasedonthesimpleexamination ofoilcontent,protein,ash,andcalculatedkilocalories(JowettandDavies 1938).
Inparticular,thecontentoflipidshastobeevaluatedseasonally.TheTester’sfat factorseemsoneofthemostpromisingmethodsinthisambit,becauseofthepossible evaluationofoilcontentswithandindirectequation:‘fishweight/waterweight’.In thisway,theoilamountofcertainfishspeciescanbeevaluatedseasonbyseason,or monthbymonth,demonstratingthatoilquantitiesmayvarywithnotabledeviation standardsduringallthecollectionyear(McBrideetal. 1959).
Theproblemofstorageshouldbeconsideredinconnectionwithseasonalvariations(Boranetal. 2008).Ingeneral,theproblemseemsmorelinkedtothecompositionandrelatedmodificationsoffishoilduringtime,buttheseasonalvariationof thesefeaturesdependson:
(a)Thenaturalvariabilityofchemicalcompositionduringtheyear,accordingto abovediscussedfactorscorrelatedwithfishspeciesandtheirpositioninthe foodweb,and
(b)Theinfluenceofstorageconditions.
Thenaturalvariabilityofchemicalcompositiondoesnotconcernonlywater, protein,fat,andashamountinfish.IthasbeenreportedthatTurkishanchoviesmay exhibitnotabledifferences,andthevariationoffishlipids(≤6.3%)duringtheyear maycorrespondtotheanalogousvariationofwater(≤8.1%)(Boranetal. 2008).
Ontheotherside,themodificationoffishcompositionandquality(includingalso sanitaryacceptability)dependsontheamountofnaturalantioxidants.Generally, thesemoleculessuchas α-tocopherolandastaxanthin(oneofcarotenoidsnaturally presentinsalmonsandrainbowtrouts)aremoreabundantinthesummerandspring seasons,whilearemarkablediminutionmaybeobservedinwinterandautumn,when speakingofcertainfishtypessuchascapelin(Bragadóttiretal. 2004b;Buttleetal. 2001;NickellandBromage 1998;Tolasaetal. 2005). α-Tocopherol(Fig. 1.1)has beenreportedandstudiedrecentlywhenspeakingoffishmealsupplementationin differentambits(Webbetal. 1973).Inparticular,thisantioxidantisconsideredagood optionwithreferencetofishmealstabilisationduringshipping,withothernatural mixturessuchasrosemaryextract,ethoxyquin,and/orbutylatedhydroxytoluene (UNECE 2016).Moreover,the‘InternationalMaritimeDangerousGoodsCode’ oftheInternationalMaritimeOrganizationconsidersfishmealahazardouscargo (AquacultureWorkingGroup 2012).Therefore,mixedtocopherolsmaybeused andaddedtofishmealtopreventcombustion;forthesamereason,theuseofthese additivesmaypreventundesirableheatingepisodes(FAO 2001;Hardy 2010;Hardy andRoley 2000;NationalOrganicStandardsBoard 2013).
Inaddition,theresistanceofsimilarantioxidantsagainstenvironmentalconditions—andtheconsequentpreservationoffishoilagainstrancidity—seemtovary seasonbyseason,withasuspectedinfluenceofcollectionseasonperiodsonthe oxidativestability;storageconditionsremainunchanged(Bragadóttiretal. 2004b; Syväojaetal. 1985).
Thepresenceofmetalsactingaspro-oxidants(suchasironandcopper)shouldbe expectedhigherinfishmealthaninrawfish,whenspeakingofNordicfishascapelin;
Fig.1.1 Molecularstructureof α-tocopherol,alsonamedvitaminE,molecularformula:C29 H50 O2 , ChemicalAbstractsServicenumber:59-02-9,molecularweight:430.717Da. α-Tocopherolhas beenreportedandstudiedrecentlywhenspeakingoffishmealsupplementationindifferentambits. Itisconsideredagoodantioxidantwithreferencetofishmealstabilisationduringshipping,with othernaturalmixturessuchasrosemaryextract,ethoxyquin,and/orbutylatedhydroxytoluene. BKChemversion0.13.0,2009(http://bkchem.zirael.org/index.html)hasbeenusedfordrawingthis structure
thesamethinghasbeenreportedwhenspeakingofperoxidevalues,iodinevalues, andpolyeneindexes(Bragadóttiretal. 2004b).Theinfluenceofheatingprocesses cannotbeexcludedbecausethehigherthepossibilityofheatingepisodes,thehigher thedegreeofphysicochemicalmodificationsonfatmoleculesandproteinatleast.In detail,theproductionoffreefattyacidsbyspontaneoushydrolysishastobeexpected intheseconditions,withconcomitantlowpHvalues.
Moreover,colorimetricmodificationscanbeexpectedasasynergicfunctionof seasonalcollectionperiodsandstorage/processingconditions:interestingly,these chromaticvariations(Parkers 1994)maybenotablyobservedinallseasonsexcept forspring,inrelationtocapelin.However,observedvariations—alsoexpressedas ‘browning’(Pokornýetal. 1973)—maybeintheacceptabilityrange.Consequently, theirimportancecouldbenotsoimportant.Withreferencetoammonia,carbon monoxide,andsulphurdioxide,itmaybeinferredthatobservedvariationsduringstoragearemainlyfunctionofchemicalandphysicalmodificationsascribedto storage/processingconditionsandfishdiversityonly,withoutaclearseasonalcause. Interestingly,carbonmonoxidecanbeapowerfulindicatorincertainsituations(Bragadóttiretal. 2004a;Ólafsdóttiretal. 1997).Onagenerallevel,observedvariations infishandfishmealcompositionshouldbeconsideredimportantinthefirststorage months.Themostobservedvariationsare(Prime 2018;WebsterandLim 2002):
(1)Degradationoffishproteinwithproductionoffreeamines(withcorrelated off-flavoursandsafetyimplications),possibilityofcross-linkingreactions(and consequenttexturalmodifications,withimportanteffectsonfishmeal),andproductionofvolatilecompounds(inconnectionwithobtainedperoxidesandfree radicalsafteroxidationoffishoil).
(2)Decompositionoffattymoleculeswithproductionoffreeradicals,peroxides, fattyacids,andconsequentcolorimetricvariations(catalysingagents:prooxidantmetals,lightoxygenavailability).Inaddition,nitrogen-basedmolecules suchasproteinresiduescaneasilyreactwiththeproductionofvolatilecompounds.Thereductionof ω-3fattyacidsisnotable,especiallyinfishmeal.
(3)ReductionofantioxidantnaturalsubstancessuchasvitaminA, α-tocopherol, astaxanthin(Fig. 1.2),andothercompoundswithsimilaraction.
Fig.1.2 Molecularstructureofastaxanthin,molecularformula:C40 H52 O4 ,molecularweight: 596.841Da,aninterestingantioxidantcarotenoidfoundinmanyorganismsincludingsalmonsand rainbowtrouts.AstaxanthinandotherantioxidantssuchasvitaminE(Fig. 1.1)aremoreabundant inthesummerandspringseasons,whilearemarkablediminutionmaybeobservedinwinterand autumn,whenspeakingofcertainfishtypessuchascapelin.BKChemversion0.13.0,2009(http:// bkchem.zirael.org/index.html)hasbeenusedfordrawingthisstructure
Ontheotherside,non-naturalcontaminantssuchaspolychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCB)andorganochlorineinsecticides(OI)shouldbetakenintoaccountandexaminedinfishmeal.Inexclusiverelationtocertainfishspecies—anchovies(Engraulis encrasicolus L.1758)and‘bonito’(Sardasarda L.1758)—inTurkey,ithasbeen reportedthatPCBarepresentinbothspecies,butanchoviesweremorecontaminatedthanbonito;ontheotherhand,noOItracedhavebeenfound.Thisresearch (CakirogullariandSecer 2011)demonstratedthatdifferentspeciescouldprobably assumeandactasvectorsforindustrialcontaminantsindifferentways,depending ontheirnature.However,thisproblemisnotcorrelatedtoseasonalreasonswithout amoreprofoundanalysisofPCBandOIutilisationthroughoutdifferentseasons. Probably,thesepesticidescaninfluenceseasonallyobtainedresultsdependingon theiruse,similartoproblemsrecentlyobservedconcerninghoneybees(Chap. 4). Infact,detailedanalysesonalbacoretuna(Thunnusalalunga)concerningPCBand dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT)havedemonstratedtheimportanceofcollectionlocations—ReunionIslandandSouthAfrica—andtheprobablydifferentlevels ofcontamination(Munschyetal. 2016).Therelationbetweenenvironmentalcontaminationandsurefish/fishmealcontaminationisnotassured,dependingonmany factorssuchasthepositionofselectedfishspeciesinthefoodweb,andthenatural differencesbetweenspecies’behaviours(Minieroetal. 2014;Paianoetal. 2013).In addition,theimportanceofprecipitationscannotbeexcluded:ithasbeenreported thattheabundanceofsodiumpentachlorophenateindifferentfreshwaterfishspecies collectedintheDongtingLake(China)maytemporallyvary,inparticularwhen comparingwetanddryseasons(Huetal. 2018).
1.3TheModernSeafoodIndustryandtheImportance ofMonitoring.Conclusions
Becauseofpreviouslydiscussedarguments,itcanbeaffirmedthatthemonitoringoffishmealisextremelyimportantwhenspeakingoffoodproductionandrelated
1.3TheModernSeafoodIndustryandtheImportanceofMonitoring.Conclusions7
quality(Snyderetal. 1962).Ontheotherside,routinecontrolsshouldrelyonaffordable,easy-to-use,andrapidmethodswhenspeakingofthedeterminationofdifferent chemicalparameters(Sect. 1.1).Consequently,thelistofavailableanalyticalprocedurescouldbelongenough;however,theuseofsimpleandrapidsystemsshouldbe preferredwhenspeakingofindustrialplants.Oneoftheseexamplesisnearinfrared reflectancespectroscopy(NIRS)inrelationtothereliabledeterminationofmoisture, oils,non-treatedprotein,totalvolatilenitrogen,andsomeotherparametersusefulfor thedeterminationoffreshnessandqualityassessment.NIRScanbeusefulinmany ambits,buttheuseforfishmealcontrolmaysolvemanyproblemsinareasonable time,andwithexcellentresultswhenspeakingofcrudefishandseafood,processed seafoods,non-fishmealproducts(oysters,etc.),andthesimpledeterminationand discriminationofinediblefishpartssuchasfishbones(Cozzolinoetal. 2002, 2005, 2009;Shenetal. 2017).
Ontheotherhand,thepossiblesubstitutionoffishmealwithsoyproteinshas tobeconsideredbecausesoyproteinshaveagoodnutritionalprofile(Bjerkeng etal. 1997;HossainandKoshio 2017;Vassallo-Agiusetal. 2001a).MoistandsoftdrypelletshavebeenconsideredaspartialreplacersforJapanesemarinefinfish (yellowtail,redseabream),butalsoforfreshwaterspeciessuchascarpandrainbow trout(Barclayetal. 2006;LazoandDavis 2000;Vassallo-Agiusetal. 2001b).It hasbeenreportedthatsoybeanisupto30%ofthetotalamountofmeals(Lietal. 2000;Juetal. 2012);soybeanisalsooneofthemainingredients(thelistincludes proteins,oilseeds,legumes,cornglutenmeals,othercereals,andmicro-algae). Consequently,theanalyticalprofileofproteincontentsinfishmealshouldtakeinto accountthereplacementoffish-derivedspeciessuchasbrownfishmealfromtuna withsoyproteins(BelalandAssem 1995;ElangovanandShim 2000;Websteretal. 1992).Naturally,thehigherthesubstitution,thelowerthetendencytoseasonal variations.Apparently,thetrendappearstheprogressivesubstitutionoffish-derived mealwithvegetablesources.Intheseconditions,thelowvariabilityofusedfishmeal shouldbeexpectedinthenextyears.
Finally,thestabilisationoffishmealwithantioxidantpreparationsshouldbecarefullydiscussed.Atpresent,theEuropeanpositionbytheEuropeanFoodSafety Authority(EFSA)excludestheuseofapeculiarsubstance,ethoxyquin(Fig. 1.3), forfishmealpreservation(EuropeanCommission 2017;Prime 2018).However,this additiveandrelatedmixtureswithothersubstancesmaybeplacedonthemarket until30September2019,providedthattheuseisclearlytheincorporationinfeed materials.Inaddition,feedmaterialscontainingethoxyquinandrelatedmixturescan beplacedontheEuropeanmarketuntil31December2019,whilecompoundfoods containingalsothisadditiveand/orrelatedmixturesmaybeallowedonthemarket until31March2020.
Thissituationforcesfishmealproducerstofindadequatecountermeasures.At present,thefollowingadditivesmaybeaddedtofishmealpreparationsintheEuropeanUnionwiththecompleteexclusionofadditionalsubstances(Prime 2018):
(a)Ethoxyquin(50ppmonly)
(b)Butylatedhydroxytoluene(100ppm)
Fig.1.3 Molecularstructureofethoxyquin,alsonamed6-ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2dihydroquinoline,ChemicalAbstractsServicenumber:91-53-2,molecularformula:C14 H19 NO, molecularweight:217.312Da.Thissyntheticantioxidantmaybeplacedonthemarketasan additive(andalsomixedwithothersubstances)until30September2019,providedthattheuseis clearlytheincorporationinfeedmaterials.Inaddition,feedmaterialscontainingethoxyquinand relatedmixturescanbeplacedontheEuropeanmarketuntil31December2019,whilecompound foodscontainingalsothisadditiveand/orrelatedmixturesmaybeallowedonthemarketuntil31 March2020.BKChemversion0.13.0,2009(http://bkchem.zirael.org/index.html)hasbeenused fordrawingthisstructure
(c)Tocopherol-basedantioxidant(250ppm),additiveacronym:E306,while αtocopherolisE307.
Asaresult,theanalyticalproblemisrelevantenough(InternationalMaritime Organization 2017).Withexclusivereferencetooxidationtests,thefollowingmethodsareavailable(Prime 2018):
(1)Oxidabilitytest(oneofthesemethodsisthe‘Rancimat’system)
(2)Oxygenconsumptiontest(oneofthesemethodsisthe‘Oxipres’method).This systemmeasuresoxygenpressure
(3)Acceleratedageingtests(autoxidation,photo-oxidation,chemicaloxidation,or auto-oxidationprocedures).
Inrelationtothepresentsituation,andfuturedevelopment,itisexpectedthat othertestingmethodshavetoconcern:
(a)Theamountofanisidine(thisprocedureevaluatesonlysecondaryoxidation products,includingnon-volatilemolecules)
(b)Theexaminationofperoxidevalues(thissystemconcernsonlytheconcentration ofhydroperoxidesinlipidsasprimaryoxidationproducts
(c)Sensorialpanels
(d)Hexanal(determinationofvolatilecompoundsasindexofoff-flavourproduction)
(e)Thedeterminationofthiobarbituricacid.ThismethodconcernssecondaryoxidationproductsofPUFA.
AquacultureWorkingGroup(2012)PetitionforlistingonnationallistofapprovedandprohibitedsubstancesSEC.2118.[7U.S.C.6517]NationalList.TocopherolsforAquaticAnimals, 27Apr2012.UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,AgriculturalMarketingService.Available https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Tocopherols%20%28Aquaculture%29. pdf.Accessed06thSept2018
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Chapter2 Water,Carbon,andPhosphorus FootprintConcernsintheFoodIndustry Abstract Thischapterdiscussesrecentenvironmentalconcernsofthefoodconsumer.Theexpansionofhumanpopulationsworldwideandotherfactorshaveprogressivelycausedthecontinuousincreaseoflandsforagriculturalpurposes,with consequentdeforestationindevelopingareasaboveall.Atthesametime,thetrend ofproducedfoodsperareaofagriculturallandhasbeenconstantlyincreasedwith theconsequentenhancementofthegrowthofhumanbeings,althoughtheamount ofcultivatedlandshasbeenreducedinthelastfortyyears.Foodproduction(or foodoverproduction)isoftencorrelatedwithenvironmentalconcernsbecauseofthe mainroleofthreeresourcesandtheirincreasingconsumptionbyfoodindustries: water,energy,andanti-pestagents.Morethanasinglefoodorfoodcategorymaybe interestedinthisway.Forthesereasons,threepeculiarindicators—waterfootprint, carbonfootprint(concerningtheenergeticconsumption),andphosphorusfootprint (withreferencetopesticidesandothersimilarchemicalcompounds)—arepopular atpresent.However,arethesefootprintsgoodindicators?Thischapterdiscusses advantagesandrisksassociatedwiththesevariablesbyabroaderperspective.
Keywords Carbonfootprint · Globalwarming · Greenhousegasemission · Pesticide · Phosphorusfootprint · Pollution · Waterfootprint
Abbreviations
CO2 eCarbondioxideequivalent
CFCarbonfootprint
FAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
GCGaschromatography
GHGGreenhousegas
CH4 Methane
N2 ONitrousoxide
NGONon-governmentalorganisation
PPhosphorus
PFPhosphorusfootprint
©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2019 S.D.Sharmaetal., RawMaterialScarcityandOverproductionintheFoodIndustry, ChemistryofFoods, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14651-1_2
RSPORoundtableonSustainablePalmOil
UKUnitedKingdom
WFWaterfootprint
2.1FoodAgricultureandEnvironmentalConcerns Atpresent,theexpansionofhumanpopulationsworldwideisoneofthemaincauses—andthemaineffectalso—ofthecontinuousincreaseoflandsforagricultural purposes,withconsequentdeforestationindevelopingareasaboveall(Barbier 2004; Ewertetal. 2005;Matsonetal. 1997;Rosegrantetal. 2001).Atthesametime,the trendofproducedfoodsperareaofagriculturallandhasbeenconstantlyincreased (Grigg 1993;MeyerandTurner 1992;Naylor 1996;Rounsevelletal. 2003)withthe consequentenhancementofthegrowthofhumanbeings,althoughtheamountof cultivatedlandshasbeenreducedinthelastfortyyears.
Reasonsforthisapparentlycontradictorybehaviourinthecurrentagricultural productionsarenoteasilyexaminablebecauseoftheirintrinsicvariety.Biological, physical,andsocio-economicfeaturesshouldbeevaluatedandcriticallydiscussedin acompleteandsynergicambit(Easterlingetal. 2001;Ewertetal. 2005).Interestingly, similarstudiescanbeusedtopredictthefutureofcropproductioninthenextdecades (Ewertetal. 2005;Rounsevelletal. 2003).
Inparticular,thefollowingvariablesshouldbeconsidered(Downingetal. 1999; Ewertetal. 2005;HarrisonandButterfield 1996;Jamiesonetal. 1999;Landauetal. 1998;Parryetal. 2004;RosenzweigandParry 1994;Rounsevelletal. 2003):
(a)Climatemodificationsandabundanceofatmosphericcarbondioxide
(b)Differencesbetweenregionalandlocalclimates
(c)Seasonaldifferences,relatedtobothclimatesandplants
(d)Scarcity(orabundance)ofbioavailablewater,includingtheprecipitations
(e)Scarcity(orabundancy)ofbioavailablenutrients
(f)Amountofusedpesticides,insecticides,andsoon
(g)Influenceofpestsandvariousdiseasesattackingvegetablespecies
(h)Influenceofpollination(Chap. 3)
(i)Soilfeatures(acidity,salinity,etc.)
(j)Evolutioninagriculturalandbreedingtechniques,withpossiblelocalvariations
(k)Otheranthropicreasons(Chap. 3).
Inshouldbenoted,withreferencetotheevolutioninagriculturalandbreedingtechniques(withpossiblelocalvariations),thattheuseofpesticidesandother substancesagainstnon-usefulvegetablespeciesshouldbeconsideredinthisambit. Atthesametime,agriculturaltrainingforfarmersiscritical.Inaddition,‘breeding’ ameliorationmayconcerntheuseofmoreresistant,moreproductive,andmorestressresistantplantsincomparisonwith‘normal’cultivartypes.Thispointisextremely importantbecauseobtainedyieldsdependmainlyonthejointavailabilityof‘powerful’soils(andcorrelated‘abundanceofnutrients’)ontheoneside,ofexcellent
2.1FoodAgricultureandEnvironmentalConcerns15 plantswithenhancedanddemonstratedyieldingcapability,andfinallyofavailable carbondioxide,eveniftheeffectofthismoleculeonrealyieldcapabilitycouldbe questioned.Infact,thepositiveeffectofincreasingcarbondioxideisreportedto bedemonstrablewhenspeakingofpotentialyields,bymeansofdedicatedprocessbasedmodels(Amthor 1998;Booteetal. 1997;Ewertetal. 2005;Tubielloand Ewert 2002).Withreferencetoyieldproductionscorrelatedtoseveralspecies,cerealsarethebestchoicesofarandthereferencecrop(wheat).Consequently,species suchas Triticumaestivum aresurelypreferred(Ewertetal. 2005)ifcomparedwith Solanumtuberosum (potatoes).Ontheotherside,itshouldbenotedthatthecontinuousdemandforagriculturalland—actualyieldsindevelopingcountrieshavebeen reportedtoreach80%sofar(OerkeandDehne 1997)—hasoftenconcernedalso urbanareas.Theselandscanbeimprovedmainlybymeansofinnovativetechnologicalinstruments(Austin 1999;EvansandFischer 1999;Ewertetal. 2005;Johnson 1999;Reynoldsetal. 1999).Othergeneralfactorsinfluencingindirectlyproduction yields—therealinfluencedparameterappearstheconcentrationofatmosphericcarbondioxide—maybeincreasingtemperaturevalues,nitrogenavailability,andwater abundance(Kimballetal. 2002;Long 1991;MorisonandLawlor 1999).
Anyway,foodproduction—betterdefined‘foodoverproduction’—isoftencorrelatedwithenvironmentalconcernsbecauseofthemainroleofthreeresourcesand theirincreasingconsumptionbyfoodindustries:
(a)Water
(b)Energy,intermsorusedenergysources(carbon,fuel,hydroelectricenergy, solarenergy,etc.)
(c)Anti-pestagents.
Eachofthesepointsshouldbeconsideredcarefullywhenspeakingofenvironmentalimpactsandconsequentdamages,includingclimatevariations(Ridouttetal. 2011;UNNews 2007).Bythesocialviewpoint,eachactivityabletoincreaseits ownamountofusedwater,energy,orpesticidesshouldbeconsideredwithsuspect. Thedemonstrationoflowerconsumptionsinthesespecificambits—especiallywith concerntofoodproductionsectors—wouldbehighlyappreciated,andprobablypublicisedbymeansofadequatelabelledmessages(Boardman 2008;Gallietal. 2012; Hoekstra 2013;Leachetal. 2016;SegalandMacMillan 2009).Morethanasingle foodorfoodcategorymaybeinterestedinthisway.Oneofthemostknownand recognisedorganisationsconcerningtheproductionofenvironmentallysustainable productsistheRoundtableonSustainablePalmOil(RSPO):thisassociationincludes manystakeholdersinvolvedand/orinterestedintheproductionandthepromotionof useofsustainablepalmoil,providedthatseveralconditionsarerespected,including also1 :
(a)Theprotectionofbiodiversity
(b)Theinvolvedecosystemsareenhanced.
(c)Anefficientplanningoftheuseofagriculturallandsisassured.
1 Moreinfocanbeaccessedatthefollowingwebsite: https://rspo.org/
Asanexample,thisandotherorganisationshaveconsideredpeculiarobjectivessuchasthediminutionofenvironmentalpollutionandthecorrelateddecrease ofgreenhousegas(GHG)emissions.Consequently,aninverseproportioncanbe obtainedcorrelatingenvironmentaldamagestolandsandnaturalhabitatsontheone side,andaselectedgroupofchemicalorphysicalindicators.Becauseofthevirtually identicalimportanceofwater,energy,andpest-controlagentsinmanyfoodproductionenvironments,theattentionoffoodandenvironmentalstakeholders,including manynon-governmentalorganisations(NGO),hasbeenprogressivelyfocusedon threepeculiarindicators,alsonamed‘footprints’(Hoekstraetal. 2011;Chapagain etal. 2006;HoekstraandMekonnen 2012;Steen-Olsenetal. 2012):
(a)Waterfootprint
(b)Carbonfootprint(concerningtheenergeticconsumption)
(c)Phosphorusfootprint(withreferencetopesticidesandothersimilarchemical compounds).
Theserisingtrendscanhaveenvironmentaleffects,andfoodproductionsmay benegativelyaffected.Thethreefollowingsectionsaimtodiscusseachofthese indicatorsseparately,althoughthesynergisticactionofdifferentfootprintshastobe expected.Asalittlepremise,itshouldbenotedthattheword‘footprint’cansuggest thepressureofawell-definedindicatoronlandandenvironmentalhealthbecauseof thepossibleexpressioninarea-basedunits,suchastheso-calledEcologicalFootprint measuredinhectares(WiedmannandMinx 2008).However,thischapterdiscusses allfootprintsinchemicalterms,withoutrelationtoarea-baseddefinitions,orsimilar proposals.
2.2WaterUseinAgriculture,Scarcity,andCorrelated Results Theuseofwaterinthemodernagriculturehastobecarefullyconsidered.Consequently,theterm‘waterfootprint’(WF)hasprogressivelybeenusedinenvironmental andeconomicstudies.ItcanbeaffirmedthatWFconcernstheamountofneeded freshwaterforagriculturalandotherpurposes(anthropicactivities),anditisnormallymeasuredinm3 .ItshouldalsobeclarifiedthatWFconcernsthreedifferent freshwatertypes(MekonnenandHoekstra 2011;Steen-Olsenetal. 2012):
(1)Greenwater.Itcorrespondstothequantityofwaterobtainedbyprecipitation (rainwater)directlyusedbyplants.
(2)Bluewater.Thistermmeanssuperficialandgroundwateronly.Ingeneral,this watershouldnotbementionedinthisambit,althoughthecontinuousdecrease ofgreenwaterforplantsindirectlymeansthatbluewaterisforcedtodecline.
(3)Greywater.Thiswaterhastobeconsideredastheamountoffreshwaterneeded todilutetheconcentrationofpollutants.Ingeneral,thiswatershouldnotbe takenintoaccountwhenspeakingofwaterconsumption.
WFdatamaybeveryusefulwhenspeakingofthecontributiontoenvironmental damagesbyonespecificindustry,business,orindividualentity(householdconsumption).However,themostpartofresearchesconcernWFdatarelatedtospecified geographicalareas:nationalregionsorentirecountries(HoekstraandMekonnen 2012).Anyway,correctWFdatashouldrefermainlytogreenwaterand/orblue water(becauseofitsdependencyfromavailabilityofgreenwater).
WFdatacanbeveryvariegatedinthemostdevelopedcountriesandindeveloping countriesalso.IthasbeenreportedthatWFinAustralianareasmaynotbeexcessive (Ridouttetal. 2011)ifcomparedwith‘carbonfootprinting’(Sect. 2.3).Thisapparent conclusiondependsonthenormalised‘weight’ofcarbonfootprintonabroadscale whenspeakingofmassivelivestockactivitiesinAustralia;ontheotherside,ithas beensupposedthatthetruereasonisthenegligibleimportanceofwaterdecreasein theseareasbecauseofthesupposedhighwateravailability.InrelationtotheEuropean Union,severalWFdatasuggestthatthemostimportanteffectsmaybeobservedin theMediterraneanregionsforclimaticreasons(highsummertemperatures,lackof springs,etc.).Infact,WFvaluesconcerningbluewateronly(year:2004)appear highintheMediterraneanareabecauseofscarcerains,hightemperatures,andthe prevailingimportanceofirrigationforagriculturalpurposes(maximumWFvalue: 438m3 percapita,Spain;averagevalueintheEU:179m3 percapita;minimum quantity:39m3 percapita,Finland).Theseresults(FAOSTAT 2018;Steen-Olsen etal. 2012)maybesimplifiedasshowninFig. 2.1,where:
(a)Thefollowingcountries—Spain,Cyprus,Luxembourg,andGreece—exceed 350m3 percapita.WiththeexceptionofLuxembourg,thesecountriesbelong totheMediterraneanarea(advancedagriculturalactivities,irrigation-dependent agriculture,scarceprecipitations,reducedaccesstofreshwater).
(b)WFvaluesbetween200and350m3 percapitaconcernonlyPortugal,Belgium, andItaly.WiththeexceptionofBelgium,thesecountriesbelongtotheMediterraneanarea(advancedagriculturalactivities,irrigation-dependentagriculture, scarceprecipitations,reducedaccesstofreshwater).
(c)WFvaluesbetween100and200m3 percapitaareascribedtomanycountries:France,Netherlands,UK,Denmark,Ireland,Germany,Austria,Finland, Sweden,Malta,andSlovenia.Interestingly,theseEUMemberStatesareall developedcountriesandbelongingtoNordicorAtlanticareas,withtheexceptionofMalta(littledimensions)andSlovenia.
(d)Finally,WFisreported ≤100m3 percapitainrelationtothefollowingEU countriesonly:Hungary,Romania,Estonia,CzechRepublic,Slovakia,Latvia, Bulgaria,Lithuania,andPoland.Substantially,theseEUcountriesbelongto EastEurope(reducedindustrialisation,highwateravailability,andgoodprecipitations).
Ingeneral,WFdatarelatedtotheentireEUareaarenotexcessiveifcompared withglobaldata(FAOSTAT 2018;Steen-Olsenetal. 2012).Themainresultofthese investigations—probablyverifiableinotherareas—isthatthehigherthedependency onintensiveagriculture,thehigherthebluewaterconsumption(andthelowerthe availabilityofrainwater).Consequently,itappearsthatWFcanbeausefulindicator
Water Footprint (WF) in Europe, year2004
100 m3 per capita
Hungary, Romania, Estonia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Latvia, Bulgaria, Lithuania, and Poland
200-350 m3 per capita
Portugal, Belgium, Italy
100-200 m3 per capita
France, Netherlands, UK, Denmark, Ireland, Germany, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Malta, and Slovenia
> 350 m3 per capita
Spain, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Greece
Fig.2.1 WFdatacanbeveryvariegated.InrelationtotheapparentlylowimportanceofWFin comparisonwith‘carbonfootprinting’,ithasbeensupposedthatthetruereasonisthenegligible importanceofwaterdecreaseintheseareasbecauseofthesupposedhighwateravailability.In relationtotheEuropeanUnion,severalWFdataconcerningbluewateronlyfortheyear2004 (FAOSTAT 2018)suggestthatthemostimportanteffectsmaybeobservedintheMediterranean regionsforclimaticreasonsbecauseofscarcerains,hightemperatures,andtheprevailingimportanceofirrigationforagriculturalpurposes.Theseresults,intermsofm3 percapita,maybe simplifiedandcorrelatedwithEuropeancountries
incertainambits,whentheparameterisationandnormalisationofthisindicatorare consideredinabroadsituationwithotherdifferentindexes(Sect. 2.3).However, thedependenceongeographicallocalisation,theimportanceofseveralanthropic activities,andtheclimatemodificationshavetobeseriouslytakenintoaccount beforestatingconclusions(Pfisteretal. 2009;Steen-Olsenetal. 2012).
2.3CarbonFootprint.IsItaGoodIndicator? Carbonfootprint(CF)maybedefinedinvariousways.Forexample,itmaybe consideredasthespecificindicatorforglobalclimatechange(alsodefined‘global warming’);inthisambit,itcanbemeasuredascarbondioxideequivalents(CO2 e) (HertwichandPeters 2009;Pandeyetal. 2011;Peters 2010;Ridouttetal. 2011; WiedmannandMinx 2008).Morespecifically,itmaybealsodefinedasthetotal quantityofcarbondioxideandotherGHGthatcanbereallyemittedoverthecompletelifecycleofaproduct,oraprocess,accordingtotheUnitedKingdom(UK) ParliamentaryOfficeofScienceandTechnology(POST 2006).Consequently,itcan bemeasuredingramsofCO2 eperkilowatt-hourofgeneration,globallyrepresenting
2.3CarbonFootprint.IsItaGoodIndicator?19
carbondioxide,methane,andnitrousdioxideatleast,takingalsointoaccountthat (Capper 2011):
(1)The‘globalwarmingpotential’ofcarbondioxidecanbeassumed = 1.
(2)The‘globalwarmingpotential’ofmethanecanbeassumed = 25.
(3)The‘globalwarmingpotential’ofnitrousdioxidecanbeassumed = 298.
Thisdefinitionisconvenientlybroadened.Ontheotherside,CFmaybealso expressedas(WiedmannandMinx 2008):
(1)Thequantityofcarbondioxideemittedastheresultofthecombustionoffossil fuelsbyasmallorganisationorindustry(GrubbandEllis 2007),or
(2)Themeasureofanthropicactivitiesontheenvironmentsintermsofproduced GHG,providedthattheseamountsaremeasuresastonsofcarbondioxide.
Actually,manydefinitionsmaybeexpressed,butthemeaningisalwayscorrelated totheproductionofenergybymeansofthecombustionofenergysources,andthe resultcanbeconsideredintermsofproducedcarbondioxide.Interestingly,one ofthemaindifferencesbetweenavailabledefinitionsisalwaysthespecificationof emittingactivities—thecompleteworldofindustries,oraselectedsubsector,ora singleunit(afoodcompany,acommodityreachingmarket,andsoon).Another importantdifferencemayconcerntheenvironmentalimpactasdefinedforaselected amountofproducts,orforadefinedandtemporallyrestrictedprocess(Wiedmann andMinx 2008).
AnotherconceptshouldbeconsideredwhenspeakingofCF:differentlyfrom somepossibleopinion,thisindicatorcannotrepresentthecompleteenvironmental impactinresearchstudies(Laurentetal. 2010, 2012;Rees 1996),orbeareliable indexconcerningenvironmentalburden,asintendedbythenormISO14040:2006 (ISO 2006).Actually,CFislargelyconsideredbecauseofitseasyandreasonable measurement:thesimpleCFdeterminationrequiresonlytwodata,producedelectricityandusedfuel,inmanyambits(Ridouttetal. 2011).Generally,thesedataare consideredwhenspeakingofentitiessuchas(Anonymous 2006a;Trucost 2006; WiedmannandMinx 2008):
(1)Separatedcountries
(2)Regionalareaswithinnationalboundaries
(3)Communities(schools,publicinstitutions,etc.)
(4)Foodandnon-foodproductsand/orservices.
Inotherterms,theanalysisofemissionsshouldtakeintoaccount:
(a)Theinvolvedactivitiesproducingcarbondioxide
(b)Thefinalproduct(s)orservice(s).
IthasbeenalsoreportedthatthelocalisationofCO2 e-producingactivitiesis important:on-siteactivitiesshouldbetakenintoaccountseparately,andoff-site activitieswouldbeevaluatedonlyasindirectCFcauses.Asanexample,theCF indexinUKwasevaluatedin2001forhouseholdcommunitiesasthesumofdifferent portions,including(Anonymous 2006b;DEFRA 2006):
(1)Direct(household)fuelconsumption
(2)Householdconsumptionofelectricity
(3)Otherhouseholdemissions
(4)Traffic-relatedcauses(privatecars)
(5)Publicandprivatetransportationsystems
(6)Recreation,tourism,etc.
(7)Healthandsanitisationservices
(8)Foodconsumption(thispointshouldtakealsointoaccountcateringservices)
(9)Clothingandfootwear
(10)Otherproductsand/orservices.
Substantially,theCFcalculationshouldberelatedtothefollowing‘emitting agents’atleast:
(1)On-siteemissionagents:directfuelusefordifferentreasons,includingelectricityproduction
(2)Off-siteemissionactivities:transportation,supply,anduseofelectricityproducedoff-site
(3)Off-sitetransportationactivities(publictransport,aviation,etc.)relatedtothe humanuser
(4)Useofchemicals,furniture,food-andnon-foodproductsandservices(including alsotransportationactivitiesforfoods,non-foodarticles,livinganimals,etc.).
Naturally,thelistisnotexhaustive(asimpleexample:theuseoffoodsandbeveragesshouldtakeintoaccountthepossibleuseofcateringservices).However, thisexamplecouldbeusefultounderstandthecomplexityoftheproblem(andthe realimportanceofCFindexalone).Interestingly,theindirectuseofelectricityand collateral(off-site)emissionsmayaccountfor70%ofthetotalCFinUK,whiletransportationactivities—oftenconsideredastheworstenvironmentaldamage—should notexceed28%(WiedmannandMinx 2008).Differentcountriesmayshowdifferent results,andtheproblemof‘doublecounts’(theCFestimationmaybesometimes questionablebecauseoftherepeatedattributionofcertaindatatomorethanasingleCFagent)isalwayspossible(HammerschlagandBarbour 2003;Lenzen 2008; Lenzenetal. 2007).
Bytheglobalviewpoint,ithastobeconsideredthatthemainCFconcernscome fromtheincreasinguseoffossilfuelcombustions,generatinganotableCO2 eportion(28.6%),accordingtotheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Other gases,inaccordancewiththeKyotoProtocol(UN 1998),includemethane(CH4 )and nitrousoxide(N2 O);theseGHGsarereportedtoreach14.3and7.9%,respectively, oftheglobalCF(CoreWritingTeametal. 2007;Pandeyetal. 2011).Unfortunately, thelasttwogasesaremainlycorrelatedwithagriculturalactivities.Consequently,the publicopinionhasprogressivelybeenconcernedwithreferencetoglobalwarming andclimatechangesintermsofCFaugmentasthedirectorindirectconsequence ofagriculturalsectors.However,availableinformationareoftenquestionableand dependentonusedcalculations:theseestimationsdependmainlyonavailableguidelines,butaplethoraofpossiblechoicesmakesimpossiblethecriticaldiscussionand
2.3CarbonFootprint.IsItaGoodIndicator?21
comparisonofdifferentstudiesandresearches(KennyandGray 2008;Padgettetal. 2008;Pandeyetal. 2011;Schiermeier 2006;WiedmannandMinx 2008).WithexclusivereferencetoCFcontributionderivedbyagriculturalactivities,oneofthebest strategieswhencalculatingCFshouldbetheuseofastatisticaldatabase(FAOSTAT 2018)concerningagriculturalactivitiesbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationof theUnitedNations(FAO):theFAOSTAT.Inthisway,itcouldbepossibletocalculatemostrecentemissionsassociatedwithagriculturalactivities,wasteproduction, andtheassociatedtransportationactivitiesofvegetables,animals,andsoon,until thefinalproductionoffoodandbeverageitems.Thesestatisticcalculationsconcern theCFcontributionassociatedwithcarbondioxide,N2 O,andCH4 .Interestingly,it hasbeenreportedthatcarbondioxidecontributioncannotbesufficientinthisambit (Pandeyetal. 2011).Anyway,emissionfactorsarenowadaysavailableformany countriesandregions,includingcompareddataatthegloballevel(Pandeyetal. 2011).
Bytheanalyticalviewpoint,collecteddatacanalsoderivefromreal-timeanalyses,forverificationpurposes.Theseground-basedanalyticalmethods,concerning carbondioxideandothervolatilecompounds,shouldincludeopticalmethods,the useofbiosensorsorchemicalinstrumentsabletocollectandinstantlyevaluatethe concentrationoftheanalytebymeansofinfraredrays(concerningcarbondioxide),orgaschromatography(GC)whenspeakingofvariousanalytes(Bergetal. 2006;USCCTP 2005).Naturally,thecollectionofgasesconcerninganotableland extensionshouldbeperformedbymeansoffluxtowers,eddycovariance,andcavity ring-downspectrometers(Velascoetal. 2005).TheproblemisthatobtainedandcalculateddatashouldbeturnedintoCO2 ebymeansofdedicatedconversionfactors; however,thelackofuniformitybetweenguidelines,differentresearches,theintrinsic differencebetweenregionalareas,andtheavailabilityofuser-friendlyonlinecalculatorshaveprobablycomplicatedtheanalysisoftheCFproblem.Inaddition,CF couldbereasonformoneytransactionsbasedonmoreorlessacceptableresults;as aresult,CFmaypotentiallyinfluencebusinessonagloballevel.Consequently,the useofsharedandofficialguidelinesshouldbeneeded(Pandeyetal. 2011).Atthe sametime,thecomparisonbetweenCFandWFisdifficult,evenifthecontribution ofCFintheglobalassessmentofenvironmentaldamages(eco-sustainability)can representmorethan90%ifcomparedwithWFinagriculturalactivities.Intheambit ofanimalproductionsystems.Ithastobenotedthat(Ridouttetal. 2011):
(1)Livestockentericfermentationisresponsibleforemissions,andthenamething hastobeaffirmedformanureandproducedurine.
(2)Withreferencetosoils,theuseofinorganicnitrogenfertilisersandtheresiduationofcultivatedleguminouspastureshavetobeconsidered.
(3)Thedeforestationshouldbetakenintoaccount.
(4)Otherfactorsconcerntheroleoffuelconsumption,electricity,otherfertilisers, otherpasturematerials,veterinaryconsultancies,anddifferentservices(includingtransportation).
TheaggregatedanalysisofCFandWF(orCFalone)shouldbeperformedby usingoneofthemostknownlifecycleimpactassessmentmethodologies,suchasthe
222Water,Carbon,andPhosphorusFootprintConcerns…
PAS2050:2008systemproposedbytheBritishStandardInstitution(BSI 2008).The discussionofsimilarmethodologiesisnotamongthescopesofthisbook;however, itcanbeaffirmedherethatthisandotherproceduresareneededwhenspeakingof comparingdifferentfootprintindexesbecauseoftheirintrinsicdifference(CFconcernsonlygaseousemissions,whileWFconcernsonlytheimpactofwateroveruse). Anyway,resultsshouldbegivenandevaluatedintermsofproduceddamagesto humanhealth,toecosystemquality,andtoresourcesastheresultofcarbondioxide productionandwateruse.Theexpressioncanbeonadaily,monthly,oryearlybasis. Consequently,CForWFalonehavetobeparameterisedandnormalisedinthebroad ambitofalifecycleassessmentprocedure;simpleCForWFvaluesmaybenot helpfulwhenspeakingofenvironmentalburning,damages,andsoon(Laurentetal. 2012).
TheproblemofGHGemissionshasalsoforcedthescientificandtechnologicalwordtofindsomepossiblerenewablesourceswiththeaimofreducingthe dependencyonfossilfuelsandtheamountofproducedcarbondioxide.Oneofthe mostknownanddebatedsolutionsisethanolfuel,oftendubbedsynonymof‘green energy’.However,theeffectsofthetotalorpartialreplacementof‘normal’energy sourceswithethanol(itmaybeusedwithgasolineintheso-calledgasoholmixture) shouldbeevaluatedinabroadperspective,withouttheexclusionofindirect(offsite)emissionactivities(deOliveiraetal. 2005).Inaddition,ithasbeenrecently reportedthattherearenodistinctiveadvantages—intermsofreducedenergetic consumptionandcarbondioxideproduction—whenspeakingofpartialortotalfuel substitutionwithethanol.Ontheotherside,ithasbeensuggestedthattheproduction ofethanolbysugarcaneplants(Brazil)orcornplants(USA)—thewholeproduction cycleconcernsgrowing,harvesting,andbiomassconversiontoethylalcohol—is notfavourablewhenspeakingofecologicaldamages.Onthecontrary,theforestation—orthediminutionofagriculturalland—wouldbemorefavourablebecausethe dependenceofselectedcountriessuchastheUSAorBrazilcouldnotbealleviated inthisway.Bytheenergeticviewpoint,morethanonealternativesourcewouldbe neededinamoresynergicstrategy(solarenergy,ethanol,biomassesconsumption, etc.).Inaddition,thereductionofCFindexesshouldbeconsideredintermsofkg perm3 (orsimilarmeasureunits).However,availabledatacouldnotbealwayscorrelatedwithpurelyenergeticconsiderations,becausethesourceofenergyusedfor alloperations(includingtheremovalofoxygen-consumingwasteandmaterials) maydependonfossilfuelsorrenewablesources.Asasimpleconsequence,should fuelconsumptionbeneeded,theenergeticbalanceofethanolproductionwouldbe worsened.Ontheotherhand,shouldrenewablesourcesbeused,theglobalimpact wouldbelowerbutcarbondioxidelevelscouldberelevantenough(deOliveiraetal. 2005).
Finally,CFissometimesusedwiththeaimofdemonstratingthattraditionalfarmingactivitiesareextremelyfavourableandenvironmentallysustainableoncondition thattransportationisreduced.Onthecontrary,theproductionofselectedfoodssuch aseggsintheUSAisnotfavourablewhenspeakingofCFindexes.Indetail,apeculiarratiomaybedemonstratedwhencomparing(a)calculatedemissionsfromegg farmsaskilogramsperdozeneggsand(b)calculatedemissionderivedfromfuel
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A candle in the wind This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: A candle in the wind
Author: Mary Imlay Taylor
Release date: January 30, 2024 [eBook #72828] Most recently updated: February 18, 2024
Language: English
Original publication: United States: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1919
Credits: D A Alexander, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A CANDLE IN THE WIND ***
A CANDLE IN THE WIND A CANDLE IN THE WIND BY
MARY IMLAY TAYLOR
Author of “The Impersonator,” “The Reaping,” “Caleb Trench,” “The Man in the Street,” etc.
NEW YORK
MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY
1919
C , 1919, MOFFAT, YARD & COMPANY A CANDLE IN THE WIND A CANDLE IN THE WIND ID controlled the secret distress which the mere mention of Overton’s name made immeasurably keen, and tried to give her undivided attention to the entertainment of her father’s guests. She had a fine discrimination in social matters, and she felt that this occasion, however simple and domestic, was made important by the presence of Arthur Faunce, the young hero of the recent antarctic expedition.
Faunce had not been expected at Mapleton so soon after his triumphant reception in New York, where, exalted into prominence by Overton’s tragic death, he had been hailed as the leading survivor of the brave band of explorers. But, with that infatuated zeal with which the moth seeks the candle, he had returned almost immediately to the place where he was sure to feel the radiant flame of Diane Herford’s charm.
However well aware she may have been in the past of the young man’s incipient infatuation, Diane had almost forgotten those early passages in their lives when she had made a conquest of a college boy’s heart at a time when, with the sublime optimism of youth, he had worn it joyously upon his sleeve. Since then several years had intervened, rich in experience. Diane had traveled a good deal with her father, and had been received, both at home and abroad, with flattering attention. She had felt the force of a deeper emotion, suffered the actual pang of bereavement, seen a hope, beautiful and thrilled with an exquisite tenderness, lost forever with the gallant hero who had perished almost within sight of the goal that he had sought with such courage and such devotion.
That he had not spoken more definitely at parting, that their understanding was tacit rather than actual, only deepened her grief
by depriving her of the right to indulge it. Since she was thus denied the privilege of openly mourning the loss of Overton, and must force herself to speak of him and to hear his death discussed with apparent composure, Diane was listening now to the becoming modesty with which Arthur Faunce was quietly assuming the dead man’s mantle.
She saw, too, that Faunce’s new honors, his youth, and his undoubted good looks had again enlisted her father’s good-will. Some feeling, almost an impulse of indignation, swept through her at the thought that a man’s fame, like his life, had no more permanence than the flame of one of the delicately shaded candles that she had placed among the flowers upon the table. Her thought, poignant as it was with sadness, must have been winged, for it found an almost immediate echo in her father’s response to a tribute that Faunce had just paid to Overton.
“Yes, he was a brave fellow,” Judge Herford declared in his Olympian tones. “If he had lived, Faunce, you’d have had to look to your laurels. But what a tragic end—to fall by the way, almost in sight of the goal!”
“As Moses died in sight of the promised land!” sighed Mrs. Price, her host’s cousin, the plump and amiable wife of the dean of a neighboring theological seminary.
Thoroughly imbued with the precepts of her more gifted husband, Mrs. Price allowed herself to fall into a fatal way of applying scriptural similitudes, or, as Dr. Gerry irreverently phrased it, of “talking shop.”
The judge smiled involuntarily, leaning back in his chair, a massive figure, his fine head scantily covered with iron-gray hair, and his keen eye as bright at sixty-five as Faunce remembered it when he himself had been a lad of ten. He tossed back a reply now with a gleam of amusement.
“It takes your imagination, Cousin Julia, to clothe the antarctic in milk and honey. Poor fellow! As I understand it, Faunce, Overton perished as much from hunger and exhaustion as from cold!” he added, turning toward the guest of honor.
Faunce seemed to flinch, and an expression of such keen distress passed over his handsome face that it awoke a glow of sympathy, almost of cordiality, in the breast of Diane Herford. There was a little silence. Mrs. Price, her daughter, Fanny, her husband, the dean, and Dr. Gerry all stopped talking to listen to the young man’s expected reply. It was the kind of hush that expressed not only sympathy, but something like awe of a great tragedy enacted in a distant and unknown clime, where even death has been obscured by the mystery and silence of those frozen solitudes.
Faunce had been admirable all the evening—brilliant, convincing, and yet becomingly modest; but now he stretched out an unsteady hand, lifted his wine-glass to his lips, tried in vain to swallow some liquor, and set it down with a gesture of despair.
“Don’t speak of it!” he exclaimed in a faltering voice. “We were together—I can never forget it, I——” He broke off, and recovered himself. “Pardon me if I can’t talk of it, can’t tell you about it yet. The time may come, but now——”
He ceased speaking and stared straight in front of him with unseeing eyes, his powerful but shapely hand unconsciously clenched on the edge of the table.
Dr. Gerry, an old family friend and an eminent practitioner, suspended his dissection of the duck to cast a keen glance at Faunce. He had the searching eyes of the professional observer, set well back under heavy brows, a quantity of short red hair, and a square jaw that was somewhat relieved by the whimsical lines about his tight, thin-lipped mouth and the puckers at the corners of his eyes.
There was a significance in the doctor’s glance which did not escape the troubled eyes of Diane. When he turned it suddenly upon her, she averted her face, unable to meet its perfectly apparent suspicion. She knew that Dr. Gerry had long ago surmised her attachment to Overton, and her hand trembled slightly as she picked up her fork and tried once more to make a pretense of eating her dinner.
She was so completely absorbed in her own unhappiness, in the thrill of misery and pride that stirred her heart at the thought of the gallant man who had died as he had always lived, in her eyes, like a hero, that she awoke from her reverie to find that she had lost the thread of the conversation, which had been hastily resumed to cover Faunce’s collapse.
“We’re puny creatures,” her father was saying in the tone of a pessimist. “What do our efforts amount to, after all? There’s a saying —and it’s true—that ‘a man’s life is like a candle in the wind, or hoar frost on the tiles.’ It’s blown away or melted off, and there’s nothing left!”
The little dean fired up.
“The immortal soul is left! What would life be worth if we didn’t believe that a young, enthusiastic spirit like Overton’s had in it the seed of immortality? ‘White-breasted, like a star fronting the dawn he moved.’ A soul like his can’t be compared to the flame of a candle, Herford, but rather to the light of a star that is kindled in the darkness of our impotent endeavors. He had the magnificent youth, the immortal courage, that always lead the world!”
“Well, well!” retorted the judge, unmoved. “He had, at least, the courage to meet the great adventure.”
“He had more than that, papa,” Diane commanded herself to say quietly, lifting her head with a recurrent thrill of pride. “No one could know him without realizing that he had supremely the courage to live —to live as he believed a man should.”
At the sound of her voice Faunce turned his head sharply, and his face flushed, but his eyes dwelt on her with such earnestness that Diane, suddenly meeting his look, stopped in confusion. Her embarrassment surprised no one more than herself, for she had long ago achieved that sort of self-control which carries a woman through far more difficult moments than this. It was almost a relief to hear her father’s tranquil retort.
“Di’s a good friend,” he observed, throwing her a benevolent smile. “She always defends the absent. And she’s right this time. Overton
had courage enough to have been allowed to live. It’s one of the mysteries why such men are cut off in their prime.”
“I had only one fault to find with him,” rejoined the dean, relapsing into his more usual formalism. “I said that to his face, and it saddens me now to recall it. He wasn’t what we call a Christian in the orthodox meaning of the word.”
“How can you say that?” exclaimed Diane warmly. “He was a Christian in the larger sense. Do you remember Abou Ben Adhem’s dream of peace? Of no man could it be said more truly than of Overton that ‘he loved his fellow men.’”
Dr. Gerry nodded.
“That’s so, Di. I fancy you can indorse her sentiments, Faunce?”
Again all eyes turned in the direction of the young explorer, and he roused himself with an evident effort.
“He was one of the best friends a man ever had,” he exclaimed with feeling. “I don’t know much about his religious beliefs. I’ll leave that to Dr. Price and to Miss Herford,” he added, inclining his head to Diane; “but he had courage enough to stand by anything that he believed.”
“That only brings us back again to the original proposition,” rejoined Judge Herford. “It’s an affirmative verdict—we’ve established his courage!”
“Haven’t we got an example of that right before us?” cried Mrs. Price, with a little bubbling sound of enthusiasm like the pleasant hum of a teakettle. “Here’s Mr. Faunce!”
“That’s right—we haven’t forgotten you, Faunce,” smiled their host. “You can’t escape your rôle of hero here.”
Faunce murmured a confused acknowledgment, blushing suddenly like a schoolboy. Dr. Gerry, who had been listening attentively, his keen eye studying the young explorer with professional curiosity, interposed now, giving the conversation a new and unexpected turn.
“Courage takes on strange streaks sometimes,” he remarked slowly, leaning back in his chair in an apparently reminiscent mood. “I remember a queer case out in the Philippines. A young private—the fellow came somewhere from the big grain-fields of the Northwest, and had never seen service before—went into action out there and got honorable mention three times. One day he carried a wounded comrade off under fire, and some of the women heard of it and wrote home, trying to get the Carnegie medal for him. About ten days after that the cholera broke out in a camp in Mindanao. I was down there with the regimental surgeon when Private Bruce was ordered on hospital duty. He begged to be excused, he turned as white as a sheet, and his teeth chattered. He wasn’t afraid of bullets, but he was afraid of cholera. Of course he didn’t get off. He had to go on duty, and he was sent out with a stretcher to bring in a dead comrade. A little Filipino, one of Uncle Sam’s new recruits, went with him. Presently the Filipino came back; he said he couldn’t do it alone, and the white man had run away. It was true, too. Bruce had bolted. He ran all the way to Manila, and they had to comb the place to find him for the court martial. He simply couldn’t face a quietly unpleasant death, and pestilence got on his nerves.”
Faunce, who had been listening with his eyes on his plate, looked up now, and his glance kindled with something akin to anger.
“Perhaps it wasn’t pure cowardice,” he exclaimed with feeling. “It’s easier to judge another man than to do the thing yourself. I——” He stopped short, aware of the silence around the table, and then ended lamely: “I’ve seen men do strange things under the stress of circumstance!”
The doctor chuckled.
“So have I. I once saw a burly blacksmith faint dead away at the mere sight of a tortoise-shell cat. He’d inherited a prenatal aversion to that kind of a feline, and he’d never been able to conquer it.”
Faunce threw him a darkened glance.
“There you have it—prenatal influence!” he retorted, thrusting away his coffee-cup, the dinner having reached its final stage. “Mayn’t a
prenatal influence excuse a sudden, an inexplicable and unconquerable impulse?”
“In a lunatic, yes.”
Diane looked quickly at the speaker. It seemed to her that he was purposely goading Faunce. He leaned back in his chair again, watching the younger man, his rugged face and upstanding reddish hair thrown into sharp relief in the midst of the group at the table. Across softly shaded lights and flowers, the gleam of snowy damask, and the sparkle of silver, she could see the white-haired, placid dean, comfortable, matronly Mrs. Price, her father’s massive, aggressive gray head, and Fanny’s bright youthfulness, which only served to accentuate the shrewd personality of Gerry and the grace and dignity of Faunce.
For the moment these two were pitted against each other. Then the younger man, perhaps aware that he was being baited, dropped the debate with a shrug.
“According to your idea, then, Private Bruce had an insane impulse, instead of simply losing his nerve, as I’ve seen men do a thousand times—and they weren’t cowards, either.”
“You’re not exactly the man we should expect to defend any form of cowardice,” interposed Judge Herford, smiling.
“With his magnificent record,” chimed in Mrs. Price, in her amiable voice, “it’s simply fine to be so considerate toward the weaknesses of the rest of us poor mortals!”
“I suppose, madam, that’s to imply that I’m not charitable,” rejoined Dr. Gerry composedly. “As a matter of fact, I’ve the greatest sympathy for cowards myself.”
“So have I!” exclaimed Fanny Price, her young face turned radiantly, like a full moon, toward the hero of the evening. “I’m an awful coward!”
“She is,” agreed her father cheerfully. “She looks under her bed every night for a burglar.”
In the laugh that greeted Fanny’s blushes, the topic was turned. Diane asked Faunce some questions about his recent experience in New York.
“I had to lecture,” he replied with an uneasy laugh. “That’s one penalty we pay in America when we discover anything. I gave two lectures, and I’m booked for a third, worse luck!”
“I shall try to hear that,” she rejoined quietly, forcing herself to smile in a conventional way, though her eyes were still pathetic.
Faunce thought he had never seen her more beautiful. The delicate hollows in her cheeks, and the white brow under her dusky hair, made her charm assume an elusive and spiritual quality that was rather enhanced by the simplicity of her low-cut, sleeveless black dress and the filmy draperies that floated about her shoulders and blended with the long, soft folds at her waist. The beautiful lines of her slender figure, and something in the grace and harmony of her whole aspect, reminded him of a splendid Reynolds that had once enthralled his eye.
“You would be an inspiration,” he began, in a tone intended for her ear alone; “but”—he hesitated for an instant, bending his dark eyes upon her—“I wonder if I could keep on making a fool of myself with you there to see me do it!”
Something in his tone brought the color to her cheeks, and she passed his remark over lightly.
“I’m sorry if I’m a discouraging listener. I think I’ll have to give you a chance to discuss that with the dean and papa. Dr. Gerry is too critical,” she added, laughing at the doctor as she rose from the table. “Come, Cousin Julia and Fanny dear, these men are pining to talk politics when we’re not here to insist on suffrage.”
“Oh, I’ll give it to you any time, Di!” flung back the doctor. But she did not answer him; she was smiling at Faunce as he held open the door for her to pass out.
“Please come soon and give us a lecture,” she entreated.
He made no reply, but his eyes were bent so intently on her that he entirely missed the girlishly admiring gaze of Fanny Price, who followed her mother and Diane out of the room.
