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Applied Demography and Public Health in the 21st Century 1st Edition M. Nazrul Hoque
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Psychology Applied to Modern Life
ADJUSTMENT IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Wayne Weiten University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Dana S. Dunn Moravian College
Elizabeth Yost Hammer Xavier University of Louisiana
Psychology Applied to Modern Life Adjustment in the 21st Century,
To two pillars of stability in this era of turmoil—my parents
W.W.
To the memory of my mother, Dah Kennedy Dunn, and brother, James L. Dunn, Jr.
D.S.D.
To Elliott, of course E.Y.H.
About the Authors
WAYNE WEITEN is a graduate of Bradley University and received his Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Illinois, Chicago, in 1981. He has taught at the College of DuPage and Santa Clara University, and currently teaches at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He has received distinguished teaching awards from Division Two of the American Psychological Association (APA) and from the College of DuPage. He is a Fellow of Divisions 1, 2, and 8 of the American Psychological Association and a Fellow of the Midwestern Psychological Association. In 1991, he helped chair the APA National Conference on Enhancing the Quality of Undergraduate Education in Psychology. He is a former president of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology and the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association. In 2006, one of the six national teaching awards given annually by the Society for the Teaching of Psychology was named in his honor. Weiten has conducted research on a wide range of topics, including educational measurement, jury decision making, attribution theory, pressure as a form of stress, and the technology of textbooks. He is also the author of Psychology: Themes & Variations (Cengage, 2017, 10th edition). Weiten has created an educational CD-ROM titled PsykTrek: A Multimedia Introduction to Psychology, and he recently coauthored a chapter on the introductory psychology course for The Oxford Handbook of Undergraduate Psychology Education (Weiten & Houska, 2015).
DANA S. DUNN earned his B.A. in psychology from Carnegie Mellon and received his Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Virginia. He is currently professor of psychology at Moravian College in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. He chaired the psychology department at Moravian for six years. A Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science (APS) and the American Psychological Association (Divisions 1, 2, and 22), Dunn served as president of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology in 2010. A frequent speaker at national and regional disciplinary conferences, Dunn has written numerous articles, chapters, and book reviews concerning his areas of research interest: the teaching of psychology, social psychology, rehabilitation psychology, and educational assessment. He is the author or editor for thirty books, including Pursuing Human Strengths: A Positive Psychology Guide (2016), The Social Psychology of Disability (2015), and The Oxford Handbook of Undergraduate Psychology Education (2015). In 2013, Dunn received the Charles L. Brewer Award for Distinguished Teaching of Psychology from the American Psychological Foundation.
ELIZABETH YOST HAMMER earned her B.S. in psychology from Troy State University and received her Ph.D. in experimental social psychology from Tulane University. She is currently the Kellogg Professor in Teaching in the Psychology Department and Director of the Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Faculty Development (CAT+) at Xavier University of Louisiana in New Orleans. Her work in CAT+ includes organizing pedagogical workshops and faculty development initiatives. She is a Fellow of Division Two of the American Psychological Association and is a past president of Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology. She has served as the treasurer for the Society for the Teaching of Psychology. She is passionate about teaching and has published on collaborative learning, service learning, the application of social psychological theories to the classroom, and mentoring students.
To the Instructor
Many students enter adjustment courses with great expectations. They’ve ambled through their local bookstores, and in the “Psychology” section they’ve seen numerous self-help books that offer highly touted recipes for achieving happiness for a mere $15.95. After paying far more money to enroll in a college course that deals with the same issues as the self-help books, many students expect a revelatory experience. However, the majority of us with professional training in psychology or counseling take a rather dim view of self-help books and the pop psychology they represent. Psychologists tend to see this literature as oversimplified, intellectually dishonest, and opportunistic and often summarily dismiss the pop psychology that so many students have embraced. Instructors try to supplant pop psychology with more sophisticated academic psychology based on current scholarship, which is more complex and less accessible.
In this textbook, we have tried to come to grips with the problem of differing expectations between student and teacher. Our goal has been to produce a comprehensive, serious, research-oriented treatment of the topic of adjustment that also acknowledges the existence of popular psychology and looks critically at its contributions. Our approach involves the following:
● In Chapter 1 we confront the phenomenon of popular selfhelp books. We take students beneath the seductive surface of such books and analyze some of their typical flaws. Our goal is to make students more critical consumers of this type of literature by encouraging them to focus on substance, not on trendy claims.
● While encouraging a more critical attitude toward selfhelp books, we do not suggest that all should be dismissed. Instead, we acknowledge that some of them offer authentic insights. With this in mind, we highlight some of the better books in this genre in Recommended Reading boxes sprinkled throughout the text. These recommended books tie in with the adjacent topical coverage and show the student the interface between academic and popular psychology.
● We try to provide the student with a better appreciation of the merits of the empirical approach to understanding behavior. This effort to clarify the role of research, which is rare for an adjustment text, appears in the first chapter.
● Recognizing that adjustment students want to leave the course with concrete, personally useful information, we end each chapter with an Application section. The Applications are “how to” discussions that address everyday problems students encounter. While they focus on issues that are relevant to the content of the particular chapter, they contain more explicit advice than the text proper.
In summary, we have tried to make this book both challenging and applied. We hope that our approach will help students better appreciate the value and use of scientific psychology.
Philosophy
A certain philosophy is inherent in any systematic treatment of the topic of adjustment. Our philosophy can be summarized as follows:
● We believe that an adjustment text should be a resource book for students. We have tried to design this book so that it encourages and facilitates the pursuit of additional information on adjustment-related topics. It should serve as a point of departure for more learning.
● We believe in theoretical eclecticism. This book will not indoctrinate your students along the lines of any single theoretical orientation. The psychodynamic, behavioral, and humanistic schools of thought are all treated with respect, as are cognitive, biological, cultural, evolutionary, and other perspectives.
● We believe that effective adjustment requires taking charge of one’s own life. Throughout the book we try to promote the notion that active coping efforts are generally superior to passivity and complacency.
Changes in the Twelfth Edition
One of the exciting things about psychology is that it is not a stagnant discipline. It continues to progress at what seems a faster and faster pace. A good textbook must evolve with the discipline. Although the professors and students who used the earlier editions of this book did not clamor for change, we have made countless content changes to keep up with new developments in psychology—adding and deleting some topics, condensing and reorganizing others, and updating everything (there are more than 1200 new references). A brief overview of some of these changes, listed chapter-by-chapter, can be found on pages viii–xii following this preface.
The most significant change in this edition is the addition of a feature we call Spotlight on Research. Each chapter has one Spotlight on Research, which provides a detailed but brief summary of a particular piece of research. Showing research methods in action should improve students’ understanding of the research process.
In addition to this new feature, we have strived to enhance the pedagogical value of our photo program by pairing each photo with an explanatory caption and eliminating photos that were largely decorative. To increase the clarity of the book’s organization, we now number all the major headings in the chapters. Moreover, we made a concerted effort to achieve more succinct writing. The manuscript length of each chapter (in words) has been reduced by 10% to 17%.
This reduction in length allowed us to move to a dramatically different book design, which for the first time is mostly a
single-column design. This approach results in a much cleaner, open, student-friendly look. Instructors who know the book will notice that quite a few new figures have been added and that many familiar ones have been updated to resonate with the book’s new look.
As already noted, we incorporated many new research citations into this edition in order to represent the expansion of the psychological literature since the previous edition went to print. At the same time, we were mindful about the problem posed to student readers when they are confronted with too many citations. Thus, at the same time that we added new references, we carefully culled many older ones to control the density of citations. So, even though we have added more than 1200 new references, the total number of citations in the chapters has declined by an average of 20%.
The online version of the text housed in MindTap features a variety of other changes. In MindTap, each chapter begins with an enticing engagement activity in which students attempt to answer questions about four common myths about behavior related to the chapter content. MindTap also incorporates twenty-six new Concept Clips, which are entertaining, animated, graphic overviews of important concepts, complete with audio narration. We are confident your students will greatly enjoy this new pedagogical aid. Furthermore, for each chapter, MindTap now provides three multiple-choice tests that can be assigned as Practice Tests or scored as low-stakes tests. Students’ scores on these tests can automatically flow into instructors’ electronic grade books. The MindTap version of the text also includes two other valuable features—the Appendix on Sustainability and the Reel Research boxes, which were formerly found in the print book.
Writing Style
This book has been written with the student in mind. We have tried to integrate the technical jargon of our discipline into a relatively informal and down-to-earth writing style. We use concrete examples extensively to clarify complex concepts and to help maintain student interest. Although we now have three authors, the original author of this book (Wayne Weiten) continues to do the final rewrite of all sixteen chapters to ensure stylistic consistency.
Features
This text contains a number of features intended to stimulate interest and enhance students’ learning. These special features include the aforementioned Spotlights on Research, Applications, Recommended Reading boxes, Learn More Online boxes, Practice Tests, a didactic illustration program, cartoons, and the Personal Explorations Workbook
Spotlights on Research
In each Spotlight on Research, an interesting study is presented in the conventional purpose-method-results-discussion format
seen in journal articles, followed by critical thinking questions. The intent is to foster understanding of how empirical studies are conducted and to enhance students’ ability to think critically about research while also giving them a painless introduction to the basic format of journal articles. The Spotlights on Research are fully incorporated into the flow of discourse in the text and are not presented as optional boxes. Some examples of the topics covered include:
● Stress-induced eating
● Hugs and social support
● Autism and vaccinations
● Internet therapy
● The effects of red clothing on attraction
● Oxytocin and fidelity
Applications
The end-of-chapter Applications should be of special interest to most students. They are tied to chapter content in a way that should show students how practical applications emerge out of theory and research. Although some of the material covered in these sections shows up frequently in adjustment texts, much of it is unique. Some of the Applications include the following:
● Understanding Intimate Violence
● Improving Academic Performance
● Understanding Eating Disorders
● Getting Ahead in the Job Game
● Building Self-Esteem
● Enhancing Sexual Relationships
● Boosting One’s Own Happiness
Recommended Reading Boxes
Recognizing students’ interest in self-help books, we have sifted through hundreds of them to identify some that may be especially useful. These books are featured in boxes that briefly review some of the higher-quality books, several of which were published recently. These Recommended Reading boxes are placed where they are germane to the material being covered in the text. Some of the recommended books are well known, whereas others are less so. Although we make it clear that we don’t endorse every idea in every book, we think they all have something worthwhile to offer. This feature replaces the conventional suggested readings lists that usually appear at the ends of chapters, where they are almost universally ignored by students.
Learn More Online
The Internet is rapidly altering the landscape of modern life, and students clearly need help dealing with the information explosion in cyberspace. To assist them, we have come up with some recommendations regarding websites that appear to provide reasonably accurate, balanced, and empirically sound information. Short descriptions of these recommended Learn More Online websites are dispersed throughout the chapters, adjacent to related topical coverage. Because URLs change frequently,
we have not included them in the book. Insofar as students are interested in visiting these sites, we recommend that they do so by using a search engine such as Google to locate and access the URLs.
Practice Tests
Each chapter ends with a ten-item multiple-choice Practice Test that should give students a fairly realistic assessment of their mastery of that chapter and valuable practice in taking the type of test that many of them will face in the classroom (if the instructor uses the Test Bank). This feature grew out of some research on students’ use of textbook pedagogical devices (see Weiten, Guadagno, & Beck, 1996). This research indicated that students pay scant attention to some standard pedagogical devices. When students were grilled to gain a better understanding of this perplexing finding, it quickly became apparent that students are pragmatic about pedagogy. Essentially, their refrain was “We want study aids that will help us pass the next test.” With this mandate in mind, we added the Practice Tests. They should be very realistic, given many of the items came from the Test Banks for previous editions (these items do not appear in the Test Bank for the current edition).
Didactic Illustration Program
The illustration program is once again in full color, and as already noted, many new figures have been added along with extensive redrawing of many graphics. Although the illustrations are intended to make the book attractive and to help maintain student interest, they are not merely decorative: They have been carefully selected and crafted for their didactic value to enhance the educational goals of the text.
Cartoons
A little comic relief usually helps keep a student interested, so we’ve sprinkled numerous cartoons throughout the book. Like the figures, these have been chosen to reinforce ideas in the text.
Personal Explorations Workbook
As mentioned earlier, the Personal Explorations Workbook can be found in the very back of the text. It contains experiential exercises for each text chapter, designed to help your students achieve personal insights. For each chapter, we have included one Self-Assessment exercise and one Self-Reflection exercise. The self-assessments are psychological tests or scales that students can take and score for themselves. The self-reflections consist of questions intended to help students think about themselves in relation to issues raised in the text. These exercises can be invaluable homework assignments. To facilitate assigning them as homework, we have printed the workbook section on perforated paper, so students can tear out the relevant pages and turn them in. In addition to providing easy-to-use homework assignments, many of these exercises can be used in class to stimulate lively discussion.
Learning Aids
A number of learning aids have been incorporated into the text to help the reader digest the wealth of material:
● The outline at the beginning of each chapter provides the student with a preview and overview of what will be covered.
● Headings are used extensively to keep material well organized.
● To help alert your students to key points, learning objectives are distributed throughout the chapters, after the main headings.
● Key terms are identified with blue italicized boldface type to indicate that these are important vocabulary items that are part of psychology’s technical language.
● An integrated running glossary provides an on-the-spot definition of each key term as it is introduced in the text. These formal definitions are printed in blue boldface type.
● An alphabetical glossary is found in the back of the book, as key terms are usually defined in the integrated running glossary only when they are first introduced.
● Italics are used liberally throughout the text to emphasize important points.
● A chapter review is found at the end of each chapter. Each review includes a concise summary of the chapter’s key ideas, a list of the key terms that were introduced in the chapter, and a list of important theorists and researchers who were discussed in the chapter.
Supplementary Materials
A complete teaching/learning package has been developed to supplement Psychology Applied to Modern Life. These supplementary materials have been carefully coordinated to provide effective support for the text. This package of supplementary materials includes the Instructor’s Manual, Cognero® , online PowerPoints, and MindTap.
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual is available as a convenient aid for your educational endeavors. It provides a thorough overview of each chapter and includes a wealth of suggestions for lecture topics, class demonstrations, exercises, and discussion questions, organized around the content of each chapter in the text.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero®
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero® is a flexible, online system that allows you to import, edit, and manipulate content from the text’s Test Bank or elsewhere, including your own favorite test questions; create multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver tests from your Course Management System, your classroom, or wherever you want.
The content, revised by Jeremy Houska of Centenary College, is made up of an extensive collection of multiple-choice questions for objective tests, all closely tied to the learning objectives found in the text chapters. We’re confident that you will find this to be a dependable and usable test bank.
To the Instructor vii
Online PowerPoints
Vibrant Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from the textbook.
MindTap
MindTap® is the digital learning solution that helps instructors engage and transform today’s students into critical thinkers. Through paths of dynamic assignments and applications that you can personalize, real-time course analytics, and an accessible reader, MindTap helps you turn cookie-cutter into cutting-edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.
As an instructor using MindTap, you have at your fingertips the right content and a unique set of tools curated specifically for your course, all in an interface designed to improve workflow and save time when planning lessons and course structure. The control to build and personalize your course is all yours, focusing on the most relevant material while also lowering costs for your students. Stay connected and informed in your course through real-time student tracking that provides the opportunity to adjust the course as needed based on analytics of interactivity in the course.
Highlights of Content Changes in the Twelfth Edition
To help professors who have used this book over many editions, we are providing an overview of the content changes in the current edition. The following list is not exhaustive, but it should alert faculty to most of the major changes in the book.
CHAPTER 1: Adjusting to Modern Life
New discussion of how leisure time and sleep have declined in our fast-paced modern society
Updated information on the likelihood of choice overload
New discussion of possession overload and compulsive buying syndrome
New coverage of escalating financial stress and how materialism undermines well-being
New coverage of “affluenza” and its societal repercussions
New Spotlight on Research provides an example of naturalistic observation focusing on how larger plate sizes lead to increased eating at real-world buffets
New example of case study research evaluating anxiety and depressive disorders as risk factors for dementia
New example of survey research describes a Danish study on age trends in the experience of hangovers after binge drinking
New example of how correlational methods broaden the scope of phenomena that can be studied
New discussion of how subjective well-being is predictive of important life outcomes
New research on how spending on experiences rather than material goods, and on others rather than oneself, are associated with greater happiness
New data on gender and happiness
Revised coverage of the association between social relations and subjective well-being
New coverage of the link between leisure activity and subjective well-being
New data on how many students embrace flawed models of how they learn and remember
New discussion of how students overestimate their ability to multitask while studying
Revised discussion of the value of text highlighting in the coverage of study skills
New research on how surfing the Internet in class undermines academic performance and distracts fellow students
New research showing that taking notes on a laptop leads to shallower processing and reduced learning
New findings on test-enhanced learning
CHAPTER 2: Theories of Personality
New data on Big Five correlates of income, entrepreneurial activity, and longevity
New research relating reduced reliance on defense mechanisms to progress in therapy
New overview of empirical findings on the functions and health consequences of defensive behavior
New research on the effects of a repressive coping style
New discussion of how psychoanalytic theories depend too heavily on case studies
New summary of contradictory evidence related to Freudian theory
New research on the correlates of self-efficacy
New research supporting a key tenet of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
New meta-analytic findings on the heritability of personality
New findings on correlations between personality traits and reproductive fitness
New research relating narcissism to behavior on social media sites
New research relating narcissism to empathy, consumer preferences, and social class
New coverage of the distinction between grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism
New findings on gender differences in narcissism
Revised assessment of the cross-cultural universality of the fivefactor model
New data on the inaccuracy of perceptions of national character
New coverage of individualism versus collectivism in relation to self-enhancement
New featured study on individualism, collectivism, and the accuracy of self-perceptions
New, more favorable meta-analytic findings on the validity of Rorschach scoring
New discussion of the public exposure of the Rorschach inkblots on the Internet
CHAPTER 3: Stress and Its Effects
Revised to include a recent “Stress in America” survey from the American Psychological Association
New figure with recent national data on reported sources of stress
New data on physical health following Hurricane Katrina
New research on daily hassles and mortality in the elderly
New discussion of the stress mindset
New data on environmentally healthy neighborhoods and life satisfaction of residents
Expanded coverage of poverty as a source of stress
New research on antigay stigmas and health disparities
New coverage of the stress response and the ability to verbally characterize emotions
New data on positive emotional style and longevity
New discussion of stress and neurogenesis
New research on stress and memory improvement
New discussion of media exposure to trauma and PTSD symptoms
New discussion of the curvilinear relationship between lifetime adversity and mental health
New data on social support and inflammation
New discussion of superficial social interaction and well-being
New featured study on the role of hugs in social support
New cross-cultural data on optimism and health
CHAPTER 4: Coping Processes
Revised coverage of aggression and catharsis
New discussion of comfort foods and stress-induced eating
New Spotlight on Research on stress-induced eating
New discussion of stress-induced shopping
New description of the subtypes of Internet addiction
New cross-cultural research on the prevalence of Internet addiction
Expanded discussion of the correlates of Internet addiction
New discussion of research on the importance of timing when humor is used as a coping mechanism
New figure outlining the essential components of emotional intelligence
New discussion of research on mediation and compassion
New figure on the effect of meditation on helping behavior
New discussion of self-forgiveness as an emotion-based coping strategy
Two new websites profiled in the Learn More Online feature
CHAPTER 5: Psychology and Physical Health
New discussion of two causes of death that are not due to lifestyle factors—Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases, respectively—that are linked instead to longer lifespan
New figure and discussion concerning leading causes of death linked to four ethnic groups in the United States
New discussion of other negative emotions beyond anger and hostility that are linked to heart disease
New, broader discussion of how lack of social support is a predictor of heart disease
New discussion of how working through anger constructively can prevent coronary incidents
New discussion of the very weak connections between psychosocial factors and cancer onset, and new focus on psychological interventions that improve cancer victims’ quality of life
Updated figure illustrating the great variety of stress-linked health problems
New discussion of novel psychosocial factors, such as loneliness and social standing, which can compromise immune functioning
New research on college students’ smoking habits, especially in relation to use of e-cigarettes and water pipes
New Spotlight on Research on whether smoking can be decreased via monetary incentives
New Recommended Reading profiling The Longevity Project
New information on the benefits of relatively modest amounts of exercise
New consideration of how walking is identified as a solid and beneficial form of exercise
New figure illustrates the declines in incidence, prevalence, and deaths from AIDS in the United States since the mid-1990s
New discussion of how to present medical instructions in order to increase adherence rates
New comparison of the term narcotic, which is seen as pejorative, with the term opioid, which is less recognized and understood by the public
New discussion of the context for legalization of marijuana for recreational and medicinal purposes in some locales, while highlighting benefits and liabilities of legalization
CHAPTER 6: The Self
New discussion of the fit between positive selves and situation contexts as a source of beneficial motivation
New Spotlight on Research on possible selves and late life depression
New review of social neuroscience work on social comparison theory, neural responses, and social status
New discussion of individualism and collectivism as being a part of social class differences within subcultures in the United States
Revised coverage of the correlates of self-esteem
New attention to the fact that a benefit of high self-esteem, such as task persistence following a negative evaluation, can come with interpersonal costs
New, extended discussion of the Dunning-Krueger effect and positive distortions in self-assessment
New examples of the better-than-average effect
New mention of how downward comparisons can be applied beneficially to oneself
New Recommended Reading profiling The Marshmallow Test
New studies revealing the benefits and risks of ingratiation as an impression management strategy
New figure illustrates the ways in which people use ingratiation and self-promotion in job interviews
New research indicating that self-promotion can be effective when an audience is cognitively busy during a presentation
New discussion of how people’s high or low self-monitoring can be predicted reasonably well by their posts on Facebook
New suggestions on how to cultivate a new strength in the Application on building self-esteem
CHAPTER 7: Social Thinking and Social Influence
New discussion of an overlooked dimension of attributions: intentional versus unintentional behaviors
New discussion of research that reduces the incidence of the confirmation bias
New discussion indicating that older adults’ health behaviors, which can be compromised by a crisis, are examples of health-related self-fulfilling prophecies
New and enhanced explanation of the costs of social categorization into groups
New explanation for the operation of the attractiveness stereotype
New fMRI study demonstrating that reliance on the fundamental attribution error is predictable based on activity in a particular part of the brain
New Spotlight on Research examining the influence of race and stereotypes on visual processing and behavior
New examples linking social dominance orientation to aggression in adolescence and efforts to maintain the status quo
New discussion of nationalism as a source of prejudice between groups
New Recommended Reading profiling Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People
New, broader discussion of social identity theory’s influence on self-esteem as a source of aggression
New discussion of how imagined contact with stigmatized outgroup members can promote prejudice reduction
New figure listing most to least trustworthy occupational groups
New figure listing tactics for resisting persuasive appeals
New field study demonstrates a positive form of compliance in response to a prosocial request
CHAPTER 8: Interpersonal Communication
New Recommended Reading profiling Clash! How to Thrive in a Multicultural World
New Spotlight on Research on communicating social relationships by photo-messaging
New discussion of the lack of empirical evidence that online sources of social support lead to improved health or reduced negative outcomes
New material on why people sometimes fail to maintain privacy in online venues
New discussion of how the presence of rapid saccadic eye movements can nonverbally indicate when someone is lying
New discussion of research indicating closer personal distance can increase tipping by customers
New research on how the recognition of facial expressions is influenced by their frequency of occurrence
New material on display rules for emotion, which are discussed in terms of whether they occur in or outside of work, as well as whether they are influenced by the larger culture
New discussion of emoji, accompanied by a new graphic showing many emoji
New data on accuracy in detecting lies under high-stakes conditions
New coverage reviewing how higher assessed nonverbal sensitivity enables individuals to make more accurate judgments of others’ personalities based on online profile information
New research concerning online self-disclosure as a predictor of honesty, intent, and whether status updates contain positive or negative content
New data linking laughter to self-disclosure
New discussion of how critical self-talk is associated with communication apprehension and anxiety regarding public speaking
New material on classroom layout as a means to enhance communication effectiveness as well as student comfort when presenting to others
New discussion of conversational rerouting and diversionary interrupting as forms of self-preoccupation associated with monopolizing conversations
New examples of aggressive, assertive, and submissive requests
CHAPTER 9: Friendship and Love
New research on the complexity of the link between familiarity and attraction
x To the Instructor
New coverage of the influence of red clothing on men’s perceptions of women’s attractiveness
New Spotlight on Research exploring limits to the link between the color red and attraction
New discussion of Montoya and Horton’s two-dimensional model of attraction
New discussion of the relevance of reciprocal self-disclosure in establishing relationships
New introduction to the importance of relationship maintenance activities
New coverage of Hall’s six friendship standards
New meta-analysis on gender differences in friendship expectations
New discussion of friendship maintenance strategies in response to conflict
New research on partner buffering to improve relational outcomes for individuals with insecure attachment
New discussion of the types of threats to relationships
New research on individual differences in adjustment after nonmarital breakups
New Recommended Reading profiling Alone Together
New discussion of advantages of online over face-to-face dating
New graphic on contemporary attitudes about online dating
New research finding a curvilinear relationship between the amount of communication in online dating and the quality of the initial face-to-face meeting
New coverage of the heritability of loneliness
New research on the link between loneliness and physical health
CHAPTER 10: Marriage and the Family
New discussion of the Supreme Court ruling that legalized same-sex marriage nationwide
Updated coverage of interracial couples
Updated data on voluntary childlessness, noting recent decline in rates
New discussion of postpartum depression as a “disease of modern civilization”
New research that challenges the view that nonparents are happier than parents
New Spotlight on Research comparing parents and nonparents in regard to positive emotions
New coverage of grandparents caregiving for children in later life
New research on division of labor among lesbian couples
New data on the financial practices of highly satisfied couples
New Recommended Reading profiling The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work
New discussion of the “all-or-nothing” model of marriage
New section on same-sex marriages
New discussion of same-sex couples’ stepfamilies
New data on the relationship between cohabitation motivation and relationship satisfaction
Updated data on the prevalence of date rape
CHAPTER 11: Gender and Behavior
New findings on the possible bases of gender disparities in spatial abilities
New discussion of gender differences in academic achievement in addition to cognitive abilities
Updated data from U.S. Department of Justice on female inmates (as an indicator of gender differences in aggression)
Introduced the concept of neurosexism
New discussion of the myth that hormones have a gender
New Spotlight on Research on the impact of gender-socialized play on career perceptions
New data on depictions of males and females in picture books
New discussion of how parents communicate gender messages while reading picture books
New discussion of the impact of the stereotype of the “underachieving male” in schools
Updated data from Neilsen Research Group on TV viewing habits of children
New research on how TV and video games promote gender stereotypes
New data on gender role distress and sexual risk taking in males
New coverage of transgendered identities
New coverage of gender fluidity
New Application on gender in the workplace
New discussion of benevolent sexism
Expanded coverage of the glass ceiling
New discussion of Queen Bees in the workplace
New coverage of who is likely to be a target of sexual harassment
New discussion of the mental and physical effects of sexism and sexual harassment
New information on ways a workplace can reduce sexism and sexual harassment
CHAPTER 12: Development and Expression of Sexuality
In discussion of sexual identity, added a definition for asexuals
New coverage of body image as a component of sexual identity
New recommended reading profiling Sexual Intelligence
New discussion of the effects of sexually explicit video games
New discussion of sexual fluidity in the coverage of sexual orientation
New discussion of how the belief that the vast majority of people are either straight or gay is a misleading oversimplification
New coverage of birth-order effects and sexual orientation
New data on attitudes toward homosexuality
New findings on the effects of others’ reactions to one’s coming out
New data on features of sexual fantasies
New data on the prevalence of hooking up among college students and outcomes of friends with benefits relationships
New discussion of sexting
New Spotlight on Research on the hormone oxytocin and its relationship to infidelity
Updated data on unintended and teen pregnancies
Updated data on HIV and HPV infections
CHAPTER 13: Careers and Work
Two new suggestions added to the discussion of the kinds of information one should pursue about specific occupations
New discussion of the value of job shadowing once potential professions are identified
New information on whether to pursue a job, a career, or a calling is discussed as an important consideration for planning one’s future work
New data concerning women’s participation in the labor force
New projections regarding the twenty occupations expected to grow the fastest between 2012 and 2022
New review of job quality dimensions where women lag behind men due to job segregation
New discussion of role overload as a source of workplace stress
New conclusion regarding how occupational stress can be reduced
New discussion of an experiment that reduced acceptance of myths regarding sexual harassment as well as the likelihood of engaging in harassment behaviors
New Spotlight on Research exploring how work-family conflict affects workers’ quantity and quality of sleep
New discussion of how résumé-writing workshops can enhance students’ skills at producing a good résumé
New information detailing questions an interviewee can ask during a job interview
New discussion of the importance of nonverbal cues in the job interview
CHAPTER 14: Psychological Disorders
Expanded discussion of how the stigma of mental illness is a source of stress and an impediment to treatment
New discussion of the exponential growth of the DSM system and its tendency to medicalize everyday problems
New Recommended Reading profiling Saving Normal
New discussion of how people with generalized anxiety disorder hope their worry will prepare them for the worst and its association with physical health problems
Agoraphobia covered as an independent disorder rather than a complication of panic disorder
Expanded description of agoraphobia, emphasizing the central role of fear that it will be difficult to escape threatening situations
Added discussion of whether people with OCD have insight into their irrationality and new information on the lack of gender differences in the prevalence of OCD
New research linking OCD to broad impairments in executive function
Added explanation of why multiple personality disorder was renamed dissociative identity disorder
Revised explanation of socio-cognitive views of dissociative identity disorder
New clarification that not all individuals with bipolar illness experience episodes of depression
Revised data on the prevalence and health consequences of depression
New data relating severity of depression and sense of hopelessness to suicidality
New research linking heightened reactivity in the amygdala to vulnerability to depression
New coverage of stormy social relations as a source of stress generation in the etiology of depression
New discussion of how stress becomes progressively less of a factor as people go through more recurrences of episodes of depression
New tabular overview of positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia
New research linking low IQ to vulnerability to schizophrenia
New MRI data on schizophrenia linking it to reduced volume in the hippocampus, thalamus, and amygdala
Updated coverage of brain overgrowth as etiological factor in autism spectrum disorder
New Spotlight on Research on the myth that vaccines are a cause of autism
New section on personality disorders, including a table describing all ten DSM-5 personality disorder diagnoses
New coverage of antisocial personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder
New discussion of the etiology of personality disorders
Streamlined coverage of eating disorders
New mention of peer influence and history of child abuse as etiological factors in eating disorders
Two new Learn More Online recommendations
CHAPTER 15: Psychotherapy
New findings on the importance of empathy and unconditional positive regard to therapeutic climate
New coverage of common factors as an explanation for the beneficial effects of therapy
New empirical effort to partition the variance in therapeutic outcomes to quantify the influence of common factors
Streamlined coverage of insight therapies
New data on prescription trends for antianxiety, antipsychotic, antidepressant, and mood-stabilizing drugs
New discussion of long-acting, injectable antipsychotic medications
Revised coverage of the side effects of SSRI antidepressants
New data on whether FDA warnings about antidepressants have impacted suicide rates
New data on antidepressant dosage levels in relation to suicide risk
New coverage of how the medicalization of psychological disorders has undermined the provision of insight therapy
New findings on relapse rates after ECT treatment
New research on ECT and autobiographical memory loss
New research on the effect of ethnic matching between therapist and client
New discussion of the need for culturally competent treatment of sexual minorities
New Spotlight on Research on whether Internet therapies are as effective as face-to-face therapies
CHAPTER 16: Positive Psychology
New figure allows readers to assess their current level of flourishing
New discussion of research pointing to clinical implications and interventions for increasing thought speed and positive mood
New research demonstrates that physical activity not only generates positive emotions but also builds psychosocial resource reserves, whereas sedentary behavior creates negative emotions and reduces psychosocial reserves
New discussion of flow’s relationship to personality factors
New research linking mindfulness to the slowing of a progressively fatal disease
New figure enabling readers to assess the degree to which they savor their present moments
New Recommended Reading profiling Love 2.0: How Our Supreme Emotion Affects Everything We Feel, Think, Do, and Become
New Spotlight on Research on awe and prosocial behavior
New research on the noncognitive trait known as grit
New research concerning gratitude
New review of the intellectual divide between humanistic psychology and positive psychology
New material in the Application regarding gratitude journaling, a viable alternative to writing a gratitude letter
New suggestions for ways to spend money to promote happiness
Acknowledgments
This book has been an enormous undertaking, and we want to express our gratitude to the innumerable people who have influenced its evolution. To begin with, we must cite the contribution of our students who have taken the adjustment course. It is trite to say that they have been a continuing inspiration—but they have.
We also want to express our appreciation for the time and effort invested by the authors of various ancillary books and materials: Vinny Hevern (Le Moyne College), Bill Addison (Eastern Illinois University), Britain Scott (University of St. Thomas), Susan Koger (Willamette University), Jeffry Ricker (Scottsdale Community College), David Matsumoto (San Francisco State University), Lenore Frigo (Shasta College), Jeffrey Armstrong (Northampton Community College), and Jeremy Houska (Centenary College) have contributed excellent work either to this edition or to previous editions of the book. In spite of tight schedules, they all did commendable work.
The quality of a textbook depends greatly on the quality of the prepublication reviews by psychology professors around the country. The reviewers listed on pages xiv–xv have contributed to the development of this book by providing constructive reviews of various portions of the manuscript in this or earlier editions. We are grateful to all of them.
We would also like to thank Tim Matray, who has served as product manager for this edition. He has done a wonderful job following in the footsteps of Claire Verduin, Eileen Murphy, Edith Beard Brady, Michele Sordi, and Jon-David Hague, to whom we remain indebted. We are also grateful to Joan Keyes, who performed superbly as our production
coordinator; Susan Gall, for an excellent job of copyediting; and Liz Harasymczuk, who created the new design. Others who have made significant contributions to this project include Stefanie Chase (content development), Michelle Clark and Ruth Sakata Corley (project management), Andrew Ginsberg (marketing), Adrienne McCrory (product assistant), and Vernon Boes (art director).
In addition, Wayne Weiten would like to thank his wife, Beth Traylor, who has been a steady source of emotional support despite the demands of her medical career, and his son, T. J., who adds a wealth of laughter to his dad’s life. Dana S. Dunn thanks his children, Jacob and Hannah, for their usual support during the writing and production process. Dana continues to be grateful to Wayne and Elizabeth for their camaraderie as authors and friends. He also appreciates the excellent efforts of the Cengage team who supported his work during the preparation of this edition. Elizabeth Yost Hammer would like to thank CAT+ (Olivia Crum, Janice Florent, Bart Everson, Tiera Coston, Karen Nichols, and Jason Todd) for their patience and encouragement. She is especially grateful to Kimia Kaviani, Kyjeila Latimer, Chinyere Okafor, and Emma Ricks for their outstanding research assistance. Finally, she would like to thank Elliott Hammer—her partner in work and play—for far too much to list here.
Wayne Weiten Dana S. Dunn Elizabeth Yost Hammer
Reviewers
David Ackerman
Rhodes College
David W. Alfano
Community College of Rhode Island
Gregg Amore
DeSales University
Jeff Banks
Pepperdine University
David Baskind
Delta College
Marsha K. Beauchamp
Mt. San Antonio College
Robert Biswas-Diener
Portland State University (USA) / Centre for Applied Positive Psychology
John R. Blakemore
Monterey Peninsula College
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Tunxis Community College
Paul Bowers
Grayson County College
Amara Brook
Santa Clara University
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University of Kentucky
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Lugenia Dixon
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Golden West College
Jean Egan
Asnuntuck Community College
Pamela Elizabeth
University of Rhode Island
Ron Evans
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Belinda Evans-Ebio
Wayne County Community College
Richard Furhere
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R. Kirkland Gable
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Lee Gills
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University of Tampa
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Pacific Lutheran University
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Barbara M. Powell
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Campbellsville University
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Kent State University
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Nevada
Diane Teske
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Davis L. Watson
University of Hawaii
Deborah S. Weber
University of Akron
Monica Whitehead
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Clair Wiederholt
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J. Oscar Williams
Diablo Valley College
Corinice Wilson
Oklahoma State University Institute of Technology
David Wimer
Pennsylvania State University, University Park
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Adjusting to Modern Life 1
1.1 The Paradox of Progress 1
1.2 The Search for Direction 3
Self-Help Books
The Approach of This Textbook
1.3 The Psychology of Adjustment 8 What Is Psychology?
What Is Adjustment?
1.4 The Scientific Approach to Behavior 10
Experimental Research: Looking for Causes
Correlational Research: Looking for Links
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Does Plate Size Influence Food Consumption? 13
1.5 The Roots of Happiness: An Empirical Analysis 16
What Isn’t Very Important?
What Is Somewhat Important? What Is Very Important?
Conclusions
RECOMMENDED READING Stumbling on Happiness by Daniel Gilbert 20
RECOMMENDED READING Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ by Daniel Goleman 111 Managing Hostility and Forgiving Others Exercising Using Meditation and Relaxation Spirituality
4.7 APPLICATION: Using Time More Effectively 115 The Causes of Wasted Time The Problem of Procrastination Time-Management Techniques Review 120 Practice Test 121
CHAPTER 5 Psychology and Physical Health 122
5.1 Stress, Personality, and Illness 125
Personality, Emotions, and Heart Disease
Stress and Cancer
Stress and Other Diseases
Stress and Immune Functioning
Conclusions
5.2 Habits, Lifestyles, and Health 130
Smoking
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Quitting Smoking: Do Monetary Incentives Work? 133
Drinking
Overeating
Poor Nutrition
RECOMMENDED READING The Longevity Project: Surprising Discoveries for Health and Long Life from the Landmark Eight-Decade Study by Howard S. Friedman and Leslie R. Martin 139
Lack of Exercise
Behavior and AIDS
5.3 Reactions to Illness 147
The Decision to Seek Treatment
The Sick Role
Communicating with Health Providers
Adherence to Medical Advice
5.4 APPLICATION: Understanding the Effects of Drugs 150
Drug-Related Concepts
Narcotics
Sedatives
Stimulants
Hallucinogens
Marijuana
Ecstasy (MDMA)
Review 156
Practice Test 157
CHAPTER 6 The Self 158
6.1 Self-Concept 159
The Nature of the Self-Concept
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Possible Selves and Late Life Depression 161
Self-Discrepancies
Factors Shaping the Self-Concept
6.2 Self-Esteem 167
The Importance of Self-Esteem
The Development of Self-Esteem
Ethnicity, Gender, and Self-Esteem
6.3 Basic Principles of Self-Perception 172
Cognitive Processes
Self-Attributions
Explanatory Style
Motives Guiding Self-Understanding Methods of Self-Enhancement
RECOMMENDED READING The Marshmallow Test: Mastering Self-Control by Walter Mischel 178
6.4 Self-Regulation 179
Self-Efficacy
Self-Defeating Behavior
6.5 Self-Presentation 181
Impression Management
Self-Monitoring
6.6 APPLICATION: Building Self-Esteem 184
Review 186
Practice Test 187
CHAPTER 7 Social Thinking and Social Influence 188
7.1 Forming Impressions of Others 189
Key Sources of Information
Snap Judgments versus Systematic Judgments
Attributions
Perceiver Expectations
Cognitive Distortions
Key Themes in Person Perception
7.2 The Problem of Prejudice 198
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH When Seeing Is Stereotypically Believeing—and Reacting 199
Old-Fashioned versus Modern Discrimination
Causes of Prejudice
Reducing Prejudice
RECOMMENDED READING Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People by Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald 204
7.3 The Power of Persuasion 205
Elements of the Persuasion Process
The Whys of Persuasion
7.4 The Power of Social Pressure 209
Conformity and Compliance Pressures
Pressure from Authority Figures
7.5 APPLICATION: Seeing through Compliance Tactics 214
The Consistency Principle
The Reciprocity Principle
The Scarcity Principle
Review 218
Practice Test 219
CHAPTER 8 Interpersonal Communication 220
8.1 The Process of Interpersonal Communication 221 Components and Features of the Communication Process
RECOMMENDED READING Clash!: How to Thrive in a Multicultural World by Hazel Rose Markus and Alana Connor 222
Technology and Interpersonal Communication
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Communicating Social Relationships by Photo-Messaging 224
Social Networking Sites: Privacy and Security Issues
Communication and Adjustment
8.2 Nonverbal Communication 227
General Principles
Elements of Nonverbal Communication Detecting Deception
The Significance of Nonverbal Communication
8.3 Toward More Effective Communication 236
Conversational Skills
Self-Disclosure
Effective Listening
8.4 Communication Problems 240
Communication Apprehension
Barriers to Effective Communication
8.5 Interpersonal Conflict 242
Beliefs about Conflict Styles of Managing Conflict
Dealing Constructively with Conflict
8.6 APPLICATION: Developing an Assertive Communication Style 244
The Nature of Assertiveness Steps in Assertiveness Training
Review 248
Practice Test 249
CHAPTER 9 Friendship and Love 250
9.1 Relationship Development 251
Initial Encounters
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Is the Woman in Red Always Attractive? 254
Getting Acquainted
Established Relationships
9.2 Friendship 259
What Makes a Good Friend?
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Conflict in Friendships
9.3 Romantic Love 261
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Theories of Love
The Course of Romantic Love
9.4 The Internet and Close Relationships 268
RECOMMENDED READING Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other by Sherry Turkle 269
Developing Close Relationships Online
Building Online Intimacy
Moving beyond Online Relationships
9.5 APPLICATION: Overcoming Loneliness 271
The Nature and Prevalence of Loneliness
The Roots of Loneliness
Correlates of Loneliness
Conquering Loneliness
Review 276
Practice Test 277
CHAPTER 10 Marriage and the Family 278
10.1 Challenges to the Traditional Model of Marriage 279
10.2 Deciding to Marry 281
Cultural Influences on Marriage
Selecting a Mate
Predictors of Marital Success
10.3 Marital Adjustment across the Family Life Cycle 285
Between Families: The Unattached Young Adult Joining Together: The Newly Married Couple
The Family with Young Children
SPOTLIGHT ON RESEARCH Finding the Bundles of Joy in Parenting 288
The Family with Adolescent Children
Launching Children into the Adult World
The Family in Later Life
10.4 Vulnerable Areas in Marital Adjustment 290
Gaps in Role Expectations
Work and Career Issues
Financial Difficulties
Inadequate Communication
RECOMMENDED READING The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work by John M. Gottman 294
10.5 Divorce and Its Aftermath 294
Divorce Rates
Deciding on a Divorce Adjusting to Divorce
Effects of Divorce on Children
Remarriage and Stepfamilies
10.6 Same-Sex Marriage 298
Relationship Stability and Adjustment
Same-Sex Families
10.7 Alternatives to Marriage 299
Cohabitation
Remaining Single
10.8 APPLICATION: Understanding
Intimate Partner Violence 301
Partner Abuse
Date Rape
Review 304
Practice Test 305
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laws of the Sabbath to Sunday Perhaps at the end of the second century a false application of this kind had begun to take place; for men appear by that time to have considered laboring on Sunday as a sin.”[465]
How shall we determine which of these historians is in the right? Neither of them lived in the apostolic age of the church. Mosheim was a writer of the eighteenth century, and Neander, of the nineteenth. Of necessity therefore they must learn the facts in the case from the writings of that period which have come down to us. These contain all the testimony which can have any claim to be admitted in deciding this case. These are, first, the inspired writings of the New Testament; second, the reputed productions of such writers of that age as are supposed to mention the first day, viz., the epistle of Barnabas; the letter of Pliny, governor of Bythinia, to the emperor Trajan; and the epistle of Ignatius. These are all the writings prior to the middle of the second century—and this is late enough to amply cover the ground of Mosheim’s statement—which can be introduced as even referring to the first day of the week.
The questions to be decided by this testimony are these: Did the apostles set apart Sunday for divine worship (as Mosheim affirms)? or does the evidence in the case show that the festival of Sunday, like all other festivals, was always only a human ordinance (as is affirmed by Neander)?
It is certain that the New Testament contains no appointment of Sunday for the solemn celebration of public worship. And it is equally true that there is no example of the church of Jerusalem on which to found such observance. The New Testament therefore furnishes no support[466] for the statement of Mosheim.
The three epistles which have come down to us purporting to have been written in the apostolic age, or immediately subsequent to that age, next come under examination. These are all that remain to us of a period more extended than that embraced in the statement of Mosheim. He speaks of the first century only; but we summon all the writers of that century, and of the following one prior to the time of
Justin Martyr, 140, who are even supposed to mention the first day of the week. Thus the reader is furnished with all the data in the case. The epistle of Barnabas speaks as follows in behalf of first-day observance:—
“Lastly he saith unto them, Your new-moons and your sabbaths I cannot bear them. Consider what he means by it; the sabbaths, says he, which ye now keep, are not acceptable unto me, but those which I have made; when resting from all things, I shall begin the eighth day, that is, the beginning of the other world; for which cause we observe the eighth day with gladness, in which Jesus arose from the dead, and having manifested himself to his disciples, ascended into Heaven.”[467]
It might be reasonably concluded that Mosheim would place great reliance upon this testimony as coming from an apostle, and as being somewhat better suited to sustain the sacredness of Sunday than anything previously examined by us. Yet he frankly acknowledges that this epistle is spurious. Thus he says:—
“The epistle of Barnabas was the production of some Jew, who, most probably, lived in this century, and whose mean abilities and superstitious attachment to Jewish fables, show, notwithstanding the uprightness of his intentions, that he must have been a very different person from the true Barnabas, who was St. Paul’s companion.”[468]
In another work, Mosheim says of this epistle:—
“As to what is suggested by some, of its having been written by that Barnabas who was the friend and companion of St. Paul, the futility of such a notion is easily to be made apparent from the letter itself; several of the opinions and interpretations of Scripture which it contains, having in them
so little of either truth, dignity or force, as to render it impossible that they could ever have proceeded from the pen of a man divinely instructed.”[469]
Neander speaks thus of this epistle:—
“It is impossible that we should acknowledge this epistle to belong to that Barnabas who was worthy to be the companion of the apostolic labors of St. Paul.”[470]
Prof. Stuart bears a similar testimony:—
“That a man by the name of Barnabas wrote this epistle I doubt not; that the chosen associate of Paul wrote it, I with many others must doubt.”[471]
Dr Killen, Professor of Ecclesiastical History, to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian church of Ireland, uses the following language:—
“The tract known as the Epistle of Barnabas was probably composed in . . 135. It is the production apparently of a convert from Judaism who took special pleasure in allegorical interpretation of Scripture.”[472]
Prof. Hackett bears the following testimony:—
“The letter still extant, which was known as that of Barnabas even in the second century, cannot be defended as genuine.”[473]
Mr. Milner speaks of the reputed epistle of Barnabas as follows:—
“It is a great injury to him to apprehend the epistle, which goes by his name, to be his.”[474]
Kitto speaks of this production as,
“The so-called epistle of Barnabas, probably a forgery of the second century.”[475]
Says the Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, speaking of the Barnabas of the New Testament:—
“He could not be the author of a work so full of forced allegories, extravagant and unwarrantable explications of Scripture, together with stories concerning beasts, and such like conceits, as make up the first part of this epistle.”[476]
Eusebius, the earliest of church historians, places this epistle in the catalogue of spurious books. Thus he says:—
“Among the spurious must be numbered both the books called, ‘The Acts of Paul,’ and that called, ‘Pastor,’ and ‘The Revelation of Peter.’ Besides these the books called ‘The Epistle of Barnabas,’ and what are called, ‘The Institutions of the Apostles.’”[477]
Sir Wm. Domville speaks as follows:—
“But the epistle was not written by Barnabas; it was not merely unworthy of him,—it would be a disgrace to him, and what is of much more consequence, it would be a disgrace to the Christian religion, as being the production of one of the authorized teachers of that religion in the times of the apostles, which circumstance would seriously damage the evidence of its divine origin. Not being the epistle of
Barnabas, the document is, as regards the Sabbath question, nothing more than the testimony of some unknown writer to the practice of Sunday observance by some Christians of some unknown community, at some uncertain period of the Christian era, with no sufficient ground for believing that period to have been the first century.”[478]
Coleman bears the following testimony:—
“The epistle of Barnabas, bearing the honored name of the companion of Paul in his missionary labors, is evidently spurious. It abounds in fabulous narratives, mystic, allegorical interpretations of the Old Testament, and fanciful conceits, and is generally agreed by the learned to be of no authority.”[479]
As a specimen of the unreasonable and absurd things contained in this epistle, the following passage is quoted:—
“Neither shalt thou eat of the hyena: that is, again, be not an adulterer; nor a corrupter of others; neither be like to such. And wherefore so? Because that creature every year changes its kind, and is sometimes male, and sometimes female.”[480]
Thus first-day historians being allowed to decide the case, we are authorized to treat this epistle as a forgery And whoever will read its ninth chapter—for it will not bear quoting—will acknowledge the justice of this conclusion. This epistle is the only writing purporting to come from the first century except the New Testament, in which the first day is even referred to. That this furnishes no support for Sunday observance, even Mosheim acknowledges.
The next document that claims our attention is the letter of Pliny, the Roman governor of Bythinia, to the emperor Trajan. It was written about . . 104. He says of the Christians of his province:—
“They affirmed that the whole of their guilt or error was, that they met on a certain stated day, before it was light, and addressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ, as to some god, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not for the purposes of any wicked design, but never to commit any fraud, theft, or adultery; never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it was their custom to separate, and then re-assemble to eat in common a harmless meal.”[481]
This epistle of Pliny certainly furnishes no support for Sunday observance. The case is presented in a candid manner by Coleman. He says of this extract:—
“This statement is evidence that these Christians kept a day as holy time, but whether it was the last or the first day of the week, does not appear.”[482]
Charles Buck, an eminent first-day writer, saw no evidence in this epistle of first-day observance, as is manifest from the indefinite translation which he gives it. Thus he cites the epistle:—
“These persons declare that their whole crime, if they are guilty, consists in this: that on certain days they assemble before sunrise to sing alternately the praises of Christ as of God.”[483]
Tertullian, who wrote . . 200, speaks of this very statement of Pliny thus:—
“He found in their religious services nothing but meetings at early morning for singing hymns to Christ and God, and sealing home their way of life by a united pledge to be faithful to their religion, forbidding murder, adultery, dishonesty, and other crimes.”[484]
Tertullian certainly found in this no reference to the festival of Sunday.
Mr. W. B. Taylor speaks of this stated day as follows:—
“As the Sabbath day appears to have been quite as commonly observed at this date as the sun’s day (if not even more so), it is just as probable that this ‘stated day’ referred to by Pliny was the seventh day, as that it was the first day; though the latter is generally taken for granted.”[485]
Taking for granted the very point that should be proved, is no new feature in the evidence thus far examined in support of first-day observance. Although Mosheim relies on this expression of Pliny as a chief support of Sunday, yet he speaks thus of the opinion of another learned man:—
“B. Just. Hen. Boehmer, would indeed have us to understand this day to have been the same with the Jewish Sabbath.”[486]
This testimony of Pliny was written a few years subsequent to the time of the apostles. It relates to a church which probably had been founded by the apostle Peter.[487] It is certainly far more probable that this church, only forty years after the death of Peter, was keeping the fourth commandment, than that it was observing a day never enjoined by divine authority. It must be conceded that this testimony from Pliny proves nothing in support of Sunday observance; for it does not designate what day of the week was thus observed.
The epistles of Ignatius of Antioch so often quoted in behalf of first-day observance, next claim our attention. He is represented as saying:—
“Wherefore if they who are brought up in these ancient laws came nevertheless to the newness of hope; no longer observing sabbaths, but keeping the Lord’s day, in which also our life is sprung up by him, and through his death, whom yet some deny (by which mystery we have been brought to believe, and therefore wait that we may be found the disciples of Jesus Christ, our only master): how shall we be able to live different from him; whose disciples the very prophets themselves being, did by the Spirit expect him as their master.”[488]
Two important facts relative to this quotation are worthy of particular notice: 1. That the epistles of Ignatius are acknowledged to be spurious by first-day writers of high authority; and those epistles which some of them except as possibly genuine, do not include in their number the epistle to the Magnesians from which the above quotation is made, nor do they say anything relative to first-day observance. 2. That the epistle to the Magnesians would say nothing of any day, were it not that the word day had been fraudulently inserted by the translator! In support of the first of these propositions the following testimony is adduced. Dr. Killen speaks as follows:—
“In the sixteenth century, fifteen letters were brought out from beneath the mantle of a hoary antiquity, and offered to the world as the productions of the pastor of Antioch. Scholars refused to receive them on the terms required, and forthwith eight of them were admitted to be forgeries. In the seventeenth century, the seven remaining letters, in a somewhat altered form, again came forth from obscurity, and claimed to be the works of Ignatius. Again discerning critics refused to acknowledge their pretensions; but curiosity was roused by this second apparition, and many expressed an earnest desire to obtain a sight of the real epistles. Greece, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, were ransacked in search of them, and at length three letters are found. The discovery creates general gratulation; it is confessed that four of the
epistles so lately asserted to be genuine, are apocryphal; and it is boldly said that the three now forthcoming are above challenge. But truth still refuses to be compromised, and sternly disowns these claimants for her approbation. The internal evidence of these three epistles abundantly attests that, like the last three books of the Sibyl, they are only the last shifts of a grave imposture.”[489]
The same writer thus states the opinion of Calvin:—
“It is no mean proof of the sagacity of the great Calvin, that, upwards of three hundred years ago, he passed a sweeping sentence of condemnation on these Ignatian epistles.”[490]
Of the three epistles of Ignatius still claimed as genuine, Prof. C. F. Hudson speaks as follows:—
“Ignatius of Antioch was martyred probably . . 115. Of the eight epistles ascribed to him, three are genuine; viz., those addressed to Polycarp, the Ephesians, and the Romans.”[491]
It will be observed that the three epistles which are here mentioned as genuine do not include that epistle from which the quotation in behalf of Sunday is taken, and it is a fact also that they contain no allusion to Sunday. Sir Wm. Domville, an anti-Sabbatarian writer, uses the following language:—
“Every one at all conversant with such matters is aware that the works of Ignatius have been more interpolated and corrupted than those of any other of the ancient fathers; and also that some writings have been attributed to him which are wholly spurious.”[492]
Robinson, an eminent English Baptist writer of the last century, expresses the following opinion of the epistles ascribed to Ignatius, Barnabas, and others:—
“If any of the writings attributed to those who are called apostolical fathers, as Ignatius, teacher at Antioch, Polycarp, at Smyrna, Barnabas, who was half a Jew, and Hermas, who was brother to Pius, teacher at Rome, if any of these be genuine, of which there is great reason to doubt, they only prove the piety and illiteracy of the good men. Some are worse, and the best not better, than the godly epistles of the lower sort of Baptists and Quakers in the time of the civil war in England. Barnabas and Hermas both mention baptism; but both of these books are contemptible reveries of wild and irregular geniuses.”[493]
The doubtful character of these Ignatian epistles is thus sufficiently attested. The quotation in behalf of Sunday is not taken from one of the three epistles that are still claimed as genuine; and what is still further to be observed, it would say nothing in behalf of any day were it not for an extraordinary license, not to say fraud, which the translator has used in inserting the word day. This fact is shown with critical accuracy by Kitto, whose Cyclopedia is in high repute among first-day scholars. Thus he presents the original of Ignatius with comments and a translation as follows:—
“We must here notice one other passage as bearing on the subject of the Lord’s day, though it certainly contains no mention of it. It occurs in the epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians (about . . 100.) The whole passage is confessedly obscure, and the text may be corrupt.... The passage is as follows:—
etc.)[494]
“Now many commentators assume (on what ground does not appear), that after κυριακὴν [Lord’s] the word ἡμέραν [day] is to be understood.... Let us now look at the passage simply as it stands. The defect of the sentence is the want of a substantive to which ἀυτοῦ can refer. This defect, so far from being remedied, is rendered still more glaring by the introduction of ἡμέρα. Now if we take κυριακὴ ζωὴ as simply ‘the life of the Lord,’ having a more personal meaning, it certainly goes nearer to supplying the substantive to ἀυτοῦ.... Thus upon the whole the meaning might be given thus:—
“If those who lived under the old dispensation have come to the newness of hope, no longer keeping sabbaths, but living according to our Lord’s life (in which, as it were, our life has risen again through him, &c.)....
“On this view the passage does not refer at all to the Lord’s day; but even on the opposite supposition it cannot be regarded as affording any positive evidence to the early use of the term ‘Lord’s day’ (for which it is often cited), since the material word ἡμέρα [day] is purely conjectural.”[495]
The learned Morer, a clergyman of the church of England, confirms this statement of Kitto. He renders Ignatius thus:—
“If therefore they who were well versed in the works of ancient days came to newness of hope, not sabbatizing, but living according to the dominical life, &c.... The Medicean copy, the best and most like that of Eusebius, leaves no scruple, because ζωὴν is expressed and determines the word dominical to the person of Christ, and not to the day of his resurrection.”[496]
Sir Wm. Domville speaks on this point as follows:—
“Judging therefore by the tenor of the epistle itself, the literal translation of the passage in discussion, ‘no longer observing sabbaths, but living according to the Lord’s life,’ appears to give its true and proper meaning; and if this be so, Ignatius, whom Mr. Gurney[497] puts forward as a material witness to prove the observance of the Lord’s day in the beginning of the second century, fails to prove any such fact, it appearing on a thorough examination of his testimony that he does not even mention the Lord’s day, nor in any way allude to the religious observance of it, whether by that name or by any other.”[498]
It is manifest, therefore, that this famous quotation has no reference whatever to the first day of the week, and that it furnishes no evidence that that day was known in the time of Ignatius by the title of Lord’s day.[499] The evidence is now before the reader which must determine whether Mosheim or Neander spoke in accordance with the facts in the case. And thus it appears that in the New Testament, and in the uninspired writers of the period referred to, there is absolutely nothing to sustain the strong Sunday statement of Mosheim. When we come to the fourth century, we shall find a statement by him which essentially modifies what he has here said. Of the epistles ascribed to Barnabas, Pliny, and Ignatius, we have found that the first is a forgery; that the second speaks of a stated day without defining what one; and that the third, which is probably a spurious document, would say nothing relative to Sunday, if the advocates of first-day sacredness had not interpolated the word day into the document! We can hardly avoid the conclusion that Mosheim spoke on this subject as a doctor of divinity, and not as a historian; and with the firmest conviction that we speak the truth, we say with Neander, “The festival of Sunday was always only a human ordinance.”
CHAPTER XV.
EXAMINATION OF A FAMOUS FALSEHOOD.
Were the martyrs in Pliny’s time and afterward tested by the question whether they had kept Sunday or not? Argument in the affirmative quoted from Edwards Its origin No facts to sustain such an argument prior to the fourth century A single instance at the opening of that century all that can be claimed in support of the assertion Sunday not even alluded to in that instance Testimony of Mosheim relative to the work in which this is found
Certain doctors of divinity have made a special effort to show that the “stated day” of Pliny’s epistle is the first day of the week. For this purpose they adduce a fabulous narrative which the more reliable historians of the church have not deemed worthy of record. The argument is this: That in Pliny’s time and afterward, that is, from the close of the first century and onward, whenever the Christians were brought before their persecutors for examination, they were asked whether they had kept the Lord’s day, this term being used to designate the first day of the week. And hence two facts are asserted to be established: 1. That when Pliny says that the Christians who were examined by him were accustomed to meet on a stated day, that day was undoubtedly the first day of the week. 2. That the observance of the first day of the week was the grand test by which Christians were known to their heathen persecutors. 3. That Lord’s day was the name by which the first day of the week was known in the time of Pliny, a few years after the death of John. To prove these points, Dr. Edwards makes the following statement:—
“Hence the fact that their persecutors, when they wished to know whether men were Christians, were accustomed to put to them this question, viz., ‘Dominicum servasti?’—‘Hast thou kept the Lord’s day?’ If they had they were Christians. This was the badge of their Christianity, in distinction from Jews and pagans. And if they said they had, and would not recant, they must be put to death. And what, when they continued
steadfast, was their answer? ‘Christianus sum; intermittere non possum;’—‘I am a Christian; I cannot omit it.’ It is a badge of my religion, and the man who assumes it must of course keep the Lord’s day, because it is the will of his Lord; and should he abandon it, he would be an apostate from his religion.”[500]
Mr. Gurney, an English first-day writer of some note, uses the same argument and for the same purpose.[501] The importance attached to this statement, and the prominence given to it by the advocates of first-day sacredness, render it proper that its merits should be examined. Dr. Edwards gives no authority for his statement; but Mr. Gurney traces the story to Dr. Andrews, bishop of Winchester, who claimed to have taken it from the Acta Martyrum, an ancient collection of the acts of the martyrs. It was in the early part of the seventeenth century that Bishop Andrews first brought this forward in his speech in the court of Star Chamber, against Thraske, who was accused before that arbitrary tribunal of maintaining the heretical opinion that Christians are bound to keep the seventh day as the Sabbath of the Lord. The story was first produced, therefore, for the purpose of confounding an observer of the Sabbath when on trial by his enemies for keeping that day. Sir Wm. Domville, an able anti-Sabbatarian writer, thus traces out the matter:—
“The bishop, as we have seen, refers to the Acta of the martyrs as justifying his assertion respecting the question, Dominicum servasti? but he does not cite a single instance from them in which that question was put. We are left therefore to hunt out the instances for ourselves, wherever, if anywhere, they are to be found. The most complete collection of the memoirs and legends still extant, relative to the lives and sufferings of the Christian martyrs, is that by Ruinart, entitled, ‘Acta primorum Martyrum sincera et selecta.’ I have carefully consulted that work, and I take upon myself to affirm that among the questions there stated to have been put to the martyrs in and before the time of Pliny, and for nearly two
hundred years afterwards, the question, Dominicum servasti? does not once occur; nor any equivalent question.”[502]
This shows at once that no proof can be obtained from this quarter, either that the “stated day” of Pliny was the first day of the week, or that the martyrs of the early church were tested by the question whether they had observed it or not. It also shows the statement to be false that the martyrs of Pliny’s time called Sunday the Lord’s day and kept it as such. After quoting all the questions put to martyrs in and before Pliny’s time, and thus proving that no such question as is alleged, was put to them, Domville says:—
“This much may suffice to show that Dominicum servasti? was no question in Pliny’s time, as Mr. Gurney intends us to believe it was. I have, however, still other proof of Mr Gurney’s unfair dealing with the subject, but I defer stating it for the present, that I may proceed in the inquiry, What may have been the authority on which Bishop Andrews relied when stating that Dominicum servasti? was ever a usual question put by the heathen persecutors? I shall with this view pass over the martyrdoms which intervened between Pliny’s time and the fourth century, as they contain nothing to the purpose, and shall come at once to that martyrdom the narrative of which was, I have no doubt, the source from which Bishop Andrews derived his question, Dominicum servasti? ‘Hold you the Lord’s day?’ This martyrdom happened . . 304.[503] The sufferers were Saturninus and his four sons, and several other persons. They were taken to Carthage, and brought before the proconsul Amulinus. In the account given of their examinations by him, the phrases, ‘C Dominicum,’ and ‘A Dominicum,’ frequently occur, but in no instance is the verb ‘servare’ used in reference to Dominicum. I mention this chiefly to show that when Bishop Andrews, alluding, as no doubt he does, to the narrative of this martyrdom, says the question was, Dominicum servasti? it is very clear he had not his author at
hand, and that in trusting to his memory, he coined a phrase of his own.”[504]
Domville quotes at length the conversation between the proconsul and the martyrs, which is quite similar in most respects to Gurney’s and Edward’s quotation from Andrews. He then adds:—
“The narrative of the martyrdom of Saturninus being the only one which has the appearance of supporting the assertion of Bishop Andrews that, ‘Hold you the Lord’s day?’ was the usual question to the martyrs, what if I should prove that even this narrative affords no support to that assertion? yet nothing is more easy than this proof; for Bishop Andrews has quite mistaken the meaning of the word Dominicum in translating it ‘the Lord’s day.’ It had no such meaning. It was a barbarous word in use among some of the ecclesiastical writers in, and subsequent to, the fourth century, to express sometimes a church, and at other times the Lord’s supper, but the Lord’s day.[505] My authorities on this point are—
“1. Ruinart, who, upon the word Dominicum, in the narrative of the martyrdom of Saturninus, has a note, in which he says it is a word signifying the Lord’s supper[506] (‘Dominicum vero desinat sacra mysteria’), and he quotes Tertullian and Cyprian in support of this interpretation.
“2. The editors of the Benedictine edition of St. Augustine’s works. They state that the word Dominicum has the two meanings of a church and the Lord’s supper. For the former they quote among other authorities, a canon of the council of Neo Cesarea. For the latter meaning they quote Cyprian, and refer also to St. Augustine’s account of his conference with the Donatists, in which allusion is made to the narrative of the martyrdom of Saturninus.[507]
“3. Gesner, who, in his Latin Thesaurus published in 1749, gives both meanings to the word Dominicum. For that of the
Lord’s supper he quotes Cyprian; for that of a church he quotes Cyprian and also Hillary.”[508]
Domville states other facts of interest bearing on this point, and then pays his respects to Mr. Gurney as follows:—
“It thus appearing that the reference made by Bishop Andrews to the ‘Acts of Martyrs’ completely fails to establish his dictum respecting the question alleged to have been put to the martyrs, and it also appearing that there existed strong and obvious reasons for not placing implicit reliance upon that dictum, what are we to think of Mr. Gurney’s regard for truth, when we find he does not scruple to tell his readers that the ‘stated day’ mentioned in Pliny’s letter as that on which the Christians held their religious assemblies, was ‘clearly the first day of the week,’ is proved by the very question which it was customary for the Roman persecutors to address to the martyrs, Dominicum servasti?—‘Hast thou kept the Lord’s day?’ For this unqualified assertion, prefixed as it is by the word ‘clearly,’ in order to make it the more impressive, Mr. Gurney is without any excuse.”[509]
The justice of Domville’s language cannot be questioned when he characterizes this favorite first-day argument as—
“One of those daring misstatements of facts so frequent in theological writings, and which, from the confident tone so generally assumed by the writers on such occasions, are usually received without examination, and allowed, in consequence, to pass current for truth.”[510]
The investigation to which this statement has been subjected, shows, 1. That no such question as, Hast thou kept the Lord’s day? is upon record as proposed to the martyrs in the time of Pliny. 2. That no such question was asked to any martyr prior to the
commencement of the fourth century 3. That a single instance of martyrdom in which any question of the kind was asked, is all that can be claimed. 4. That in this one case, which is all that has even the slightest appearance of sustaining the story under examination, a correct translation of the original Latin shows that the question had no relation whatever to the observance of Sunday! All this has been upon the assumption that the Acta Martyrum, in which this story is found, is an authentic work. Let Mosheim testify relative to the character of this work for veracity:—
“As to those accounts which have come down to us under the title of Acta Martyrum, or, the Acts of the Martyrs, their authority is certainly for the most part of a very questionable nature; indeed, speaking generally, it might be coming nearer to the truth, perhaps, were we to say that they are entitled to no sort of credit whatever.”[511]
Such is the authority of the work from which this story is taken. It is not strange that first-day historians should leave the repetition of it to theologians.
Such are the facts respecting this extraordinary falsehood. They constitute so complete an exposure of this famous historical argument for Sunday as to consign it to the just contempt of all honest men. But this is too valuable an argument to be lightly surrendered, and moreover it is as truthful as are certain other of the historical arguments for Sunday It will not do to give up this argument because of its dishonesty; for others will have to go with it for possessing the same character.
Since the publication of Domville’s elaborate work, James Gilfillan of Scotland has written a large volume entitled, “The Sabbath,” which has been extensively circulated both in Europe and in America, and is esteemed a standard work by the American Tract Society and by first-day denominations in general. Gilfillan had read Domville as appears from his statements on pages 10, 142, 143, 616, of his volume. He was therefore acquainted with Domville’s exposure of
the fraud respecting “Dominicum servasti?” But though he was acquainted with this exposure, he offers not one word in reply. On the contrary, he repeats the story with as much assurance as though it had not been proved a falsehood. But as Domville had shown up the matter from the Acta Martyrum, it was necessary for Gilfillan to trace it to some other authority, and so he assigns it to Cardinal Baronius. Here are Gilfillan’s words:—
“From the days of the apostles downwards for many years, the followers of Christ had no enemies more fierce and unrelenting than that people [the Jews], who cursed them in the synagogue, sent out emissaries into all countries to calumniate their Master and them, and were abettors wherever they could, of the martyrdom of men, such as Polycarp, of whom the world was not worthy. Among the reasons of this deadly enmity was the change of the Sabbatic day. The Romans, though they had no objection on this score, punished the Christians for the faithful observance of their day of rest, one of the testing questions put to the martyrs being, Dominicum servasti?—Have you kept the Lord’s day?— Baron. An. Eccles., 303, Num. 35, etc.”[512]
Gilfillan having reproduced this statement and assigned as his authority the annalist Baronius, more recent first-day writers take courage and repeat the story after him. Now they are all right, as they think. What if the Acta Martyrum has failed them? Domville ought to have gone to Baronius, who, in their judgment, is the true source of information in this matter. Had he done this, they say, he would have been saved from misleading his readers. But let us ascertain what evil Domville has done in this case. It all consists in the assertion of two things out of the Acta Martyrum. [513]
1. That no such question as “Dominicum servasti?” was addressed to any martyr till the early part of the fourth century, some two hundred years after the time of Pliny.
2. That the question even then did not relate to what is called the Lord’s day, but to the Lord’s supper.
Now it is a remarkable fact that Gilfillan has virtually admitted the truth of the first of these statements, for the earliest instance which he could find in Baronius is . . 303, as his reference plainly shows. It differs only one year from the date assigned in Ruinart’s Acta Martyrum, and relates to the very case which Domville has quoted from that work! Domville’s first and most important statement is therefore vindicated by Gilfillan himself, though he has not the frankness to say this in so many words.
Domville’s second point is that Dominicum, when used as a noun, as in the present case, signifies either a church or the Lord’s supper, but never signifies Lord’s day. He establishes the fact by incontestible evidence. Gilfillan was acquainted with all this. He could not answer Domville, and yet he was not willing to abandon the falsehood which Domville had exposed. So he turns from the Acta Martyrum in which the compiler expressly defines the word to mean precisely what Domville asserts, and brings forward the great Romish annalist, Cardinal Baronius. Now, say our first-day friends, we are to have the truth from a high authority. Gilfillan has found in Baronius an express statement that the martyrs were tested by the question, “Have you kept the Lord’s day?” No matter then as to the Acta Martyrum from which Bishop Andrews first produced this story. That, indeed, has failed us, but we have in its stead the weighty testimony of the great Baronius. To be sure he fixes this test no earlier than the fourth century, which renders it of no avail as proof that Pliny’s stated day was Sunday; but it is worth much to have Baronius bear witness that certain martyrs in the fourth century were put to death because they observed the Sunday-Lord’s day.
But these exultant thoughts are vain. I must state a grave fact in plain language: Gilfillan has deliberately falsified the testimony of Baronius! That historian records at length the martyrdom of Saturninus and his company in northern Africa in . . 303. It is the very story which Domville has cited from the Acta Martyrum, and Baronius repeatedly indicates that he himself copied it from that work. He gives the various questions propounded by the proconsul,
