Acknowledgment
Firstofall,IwouldliketothankRaphaelaTraumann,who,alongtimeago,encouragedmetoworkinthisdirection.Mythanksalso,toThomasA.Trogeand DenisLorrainfortheirconstanthelpduringmystudies,andwhosethoughtful suggestionsresultedinimportantaspectstothisthesis;toSvenTraumann,who readallpartsofthemanuscript;andtoBarbara-Wengeler-Stiftungforitsfinancial support.
Finally,IwantespeciallythankmywifeNadjaSchmidt,whowasalwayshelpfulandencouragingduringdifficulttimes.
SebastianSchmidt,Karlsruhe
Abstract
Itiswellknownthathumancreativityinfluencestheorganizationofmusic,and thatindividualdifferencesofcreativebehaviorinmusicexist.Numerousstudies havebeencarriedouttoinvestigateaspectsofcreativity,suchasthelinkbetween creativityandcognition,developmentalaspectsofcreativity,creativepersonalities, creativeproductionabilities,definitionsofmusicalcreativity,educationalstrategiesformusicalcreativity,etc.However,mostofthesestudiesonlydealwithparticularaspects,andrelativelylittleworkhasbeencarriedouttoassesscreativityin musicinasystematicway.
Thepresentstudyproposessuchasystematicunderstandingabouttheconditions,mechanisms,influences,andprocessesevolvingintoacreativebehavior inmusic,basedoninterdisciplinaryperspectivesofthecognitivesciences:developmentalpsychology,neuroscience,musicpsychology,emotionsresearch,and creativityresearchingeneralandinmusic.Forinstance,ourfindingssuggestthat generalcreativeprocessesareinvolvedwhilemusicisperceived,learned,andpracticed.Butalsothat,similarlytoactivitiesinvolvedincomposingmusic,creative processesareactivewhilelisteningtomusic.Wethusassumeparallelsindevelopmentalaspectsbetweenlisteningandcomposingcompetences,and,furthermore, argueforpossibledevelopmentsofmusicalcreativityorcreativethinkinginmusic consistingroughlyofthreesteps.Theseandotherfindingsestablishthefoundation foranextendedsystematic,proposedasanoriginalmodelofcreativityinmusic.
Thefocusisonso-calledmusicalextrapolationsprocesseswhichbringtheelusivequalityofmusicintomentalexistencebycreatingextrapolationsabout:first, possiblefutureoccurringevents;second,theirmusicalmeanings;andthird,the meaningsoftheirinter-relations.Theseprocesses,involvedwhilemusicisbeinglistenedtoandcomposed,aredefinedastheresultofimplicitandexplicit problem-solvingprocesseswhichareguidedintangiblewaysbyfactorsofintrinsicactivitiesandmotivation,pre-disposedandexperience-basedstructures,and environmentalpressure.
Thisso-calledModelofMusicalExtrapolationsstructuresanewperspectivein research,andfurthermore,providesanenormouspotentialforfutureextensions, notleastbecauseanenhancedperspectiveisopenedaboutthecomplexityofhighly creativeandparallelprocessesorganizingsoundswhilelisteningtowhatiscalled music,aswellasmusicalideaswhilecomposing.
PartIInterdisciplinaryPerspectivesofCognitiveSciencesinTermsofMusic
1PerspectivesofDevelopmentalPsychology:BetweenPre-disposed StructuresandMusicalExperience
1.1OntogenyofMusicalAbilitiesduringthePrenatalPeriod...
1.1.1TheFetalSoundEnvironment...
1.1.2FetalAuditoryCompetencies..
1.1.3FetalAuditoryLearningandMemoryStructures
1.2Infants’AuditorySensitivityRelatedtoAcousticalParameters
1.2.1AuditoryThresholdSensitivity. ......................
1.2.2AuditorySensitivityforFrequency,PitchandTimbre
1.3.1AuditoryGroupingandSegregationProcesses..
1.3.2PerceptionofTimeandRhythmicalStructures-a
1.3.3Processingof’Musical’Sequences..
1.4TheEvolvingMusical-ArtisticCompetenceFromInfancyto
1.4.1ChildDevelopmentinaSocial-CulturalEnvironmenttheperspectiveofPiagetandNeo-Piagetian
1.4.2ThreeModelsofMusical-ArtisticDevelopment.
1.4.2.2SwanwickandTillman’sModelof 1.4.2.1Hargreaves’FiveAge-RelatedPhases inMusical-ArtisticDevelopment’ ’DevelopmentalSpiral’... .............69
1.4.2.3SchubertandMcPherson’sModel
ofEmotionPerceptioninMusic ..........................................72
1.4.2.4Conclusion–Relationshipsand DistinctionsAmongsttheThreeTheories
1.5Summary... .............................................80
2PerspectivesonCreativityinGeneralandwhileMusicisbeing ListenedtoandComposed .....................................85
2.1PerspectivesonCreativityinGeneral... ......................85
2.1.1CognitionandCreativity.. ...........................85
2.1.2DevelopmentalandSocialInfluencesonCreativity.. ....90
2.1.3CreativityinDependenceonPersonality,Motivation, andEmotion... ....................................96
2.2MusicalCreativity/CreativeThinkinginSound .................111
2.3DevelopmentalAspectsofMusicalCreativity/CreativeThinking inSound .................................................118
2.3.1DefinitionsofMusicalCreativityintheCourseof Development... ....................................118
2.3.2PerspectivestoMeasurethePotentialandits Developmentwithin’thePsychometricApproach’of MusicalCreativity.. ................................121
2.3.3Conclusions–MeasurementofMusical Creativity/CreativeThinkinginSound/Music andtheirDevelopment ...............................136
2.4CreativityinListeningtoMusic.. ...........................140
2.4.1Listenersas(Creative)MakersofMusic... .............140
2.4.2VariousWaysofListening(toMusic) ..................144
2.4.3CreativityResearchinTermsofListeningtoMusic... ....153
2.4.4Conclusions... ....................................160
2.5CreativitywhileComposingofMusic. .......................162
2.5.1TheRoleofImageryandImagination ..................162
2.5.2ComposingMusic–ACreativeProblem-Solving Perspective ........................................168 ..........................................65
2.5.2.1BetweenIll-definedProblemsand Well-structuredSolutions.. ..................169
2.5.2.2InfluenceswhileComposingofMusic. .........173
2.5.2.3ModelsdescribingCreativeProblem-Solving inTermsofComposingMusic...
2.6Summary...
PartIIMusicalExtrapolations–TowardsaModelofCreativityinMusic
3AttheVeryHeart(ofMusic)
4TheModelofMusicalExtrapolations–BasicFactorsandtheir Inter-dependencies
4.1IntrinsicActivityandMotivation..
4.2Pre-disposedandExperience-basedStructures
4.2.1Pre-disposed...
4.2.2Experience-based...
4.3EnvironmentalPressure
4.4AttheVeryHeartof New MusicalExtrapolations..
4.4.1Problem-ConstructionandProblem-Finding
4.4.2Idea-Generation
4.4.3Evaluation
5PerspectivesofInvestigationBasedontheOutlindModelof MusicalExtrapolations ........................................289
ListofFigures
1.1Musicalrecordingrangingfrom0to2000Hz.Uppercurve:ex uterorecording.Lowercurve:inuterorecording;intra-uterine basalnoisesynchronictotheattenuatedtransmittedsound
1.2PitchcurveofaFrenchnurseryrhyme(‘Lapendule’)recorded byaMingographexutero(uppercurve)andinutero(lower curve)
1.3Sensitivityforfrequencies,dependingonfetalageandsound pressurelevels
1.4Thresholdsasafunctionoffrequencyforinfants6,12,and18 monthsofageandfortwoadults.Thresholdsdeterminedby RobinsonandWhittle(1964)arealsoplotted.
1.5Meanphoneandsoundfieldthresholdsforvariousagegroupsat eachofthreefrequencies.Onlydataforcounterbalancedgroups areillustrated.
1.6Meanevokedpotentialthresholdswithagegroupasthe parameter.Thresholdsto500Hzstimuliarenotsignificantly differentbetweengroups.
1.7AverageABRtonepipthreshold(±1standarderror)as afunctionoffrequency.Squares,3-month-olds;circles, 6-month-olds;triangles,adults.
1.8AcomparisonbetweenaveragebehavioralandABRtonepip thresholdsasafunctionoffrequencyinthreeagegroups.Filled symbols,ABR;opensymbols,behavior.
1.9Meanrelativefrequencyforinfantsandadult(barsindicate±1 standarderror).Dashedlineshowsaveragethresholdsobtained usingthesamestaircasealgorithmifthesubjectresponds randomlywithaprobabilityof.8oneachtrial.
1.10Averagerelativefrequencydifferencelimen(FDL/frequency) asafunctionoffrequencyforinfantsandadultsat40dBSL [sensationlevel]andat80dBSL.Errorbarsrepresent±1 standarderror.
1.11Meannumberoftrialsonwhichinfantsturnedforchange trials(solidlines)andcontroltrials(dashedlines).Dataare plottedforeachteststageinblocksof10trialscontaining5 changeand5controltrials.ThecurveslabeledDrepresentthe discriminationstage(N=22),andthoselabeledMFdepictthe missing-fundamentalone(N=16).
1.12DevelopmentalChangesinTotalBoutsandTotalNumbersof RhythmicalStereotypies
1.13Stimulustimingsequenceofapairedtrialandheartrateanalysis intervals.(S=stimulus.)
1.14Infantheart-rate(HR)changeovertheS1-S2intervalforTrial Blocks1-5.
1.15Stimulus:600trialsofa4-notemelodywerepresented, transposedtooneof20differentstartingnotesbetweenG3and D5,suchthatsuccessivetranspositionsweretorelatedkeys(upor downbyaPerfect5th,7/12octave,orPerfect4th,5/12octave). Ondevianttrials(20%oftrials,separatedbyatleasttwostandard trials)thefourthnotewasraisedbyasemitone. 56
1.16Source:From Piaget’sTheoryofCognitiveandAffective Development (5thed.)byB.Wadsworth.PublishedbyAllynand Bacon,Boston,MA:1996byPearsonEducation
1.17Fivephasesofmusicaldevelopment(adaptedfromHargreaves andGalton1992)
1.18Spiralsequenceofmusicaldevelopment
1.19Spiralmodelofdevelopmentofemotionperceptioninmusic
2.1Scatterplotshowingthatcreativepotentialismorelikelytobe highwithhighintelligence.
2.2U-shapeddevelopmentaltrajectory
2.3Coreaffect
2.4 Webster’s(2003)modelof’creativethinkingprocessinmusic’
2.5 MusicalCreativity:AHead-and-ShouldersView
2.6 MusicalCreativityinContext
2.7 Interactionbetweencultureandcreativeability judges
2.8 Correlationsofmeancreativityratingsbetweengroupsof
2.9 Someaspectsofauditorymemory.Notethatthisrepresentsa snapshot”ofafewmilliseconds’durationandthatconnections wouldnotbe“hard-wired”,butwouldbeconstantlychanging.
2.10Fourlisteningmodesdiagram
2.11 Finalsummarytableoflisteningintentions
2.12 Overviewoftherevisedschemeformodesoflistening.
2.13Webster’s(2003)modelof’creativethinkingprocessinmusic’
2.14Geneploremodelofcreativity ................................158
2.15DevelopmentalIntegrationofCreativityandImaging
2.16Levelsofneuralactivation(afterFuster,1995).Thisdiagram
representssuccessivestatesofmindaswavesofneuralactivation, with eachsuccessivewaveinvolvingdifferentgroupsofneurons andlastingabout100msec.Degreesofunconsciousnessare indicatedbythedensityofthedotscreen.
2.17Scoreof’Metastaseis’ and ’PhillipsPavillion’
2.18Stagesofmelodyformulationconcerningthemainthemeof S CHOENBERG ’s
Streichquartettop.7
2.19ModelofStagesofmusicalcomposition
2.20Diagramoftypicalcompositionalresourcesandprocesses
2.21Overviewofdatabanks
2.22Mappingcomposingpathways:regulatedstrategiesexhibitedby a16-year-oldcellist.
3.1PicturefromJ ELENKOVICH whichtriggereda complexmentalmodelinthe21/2-yearoldgirlSontje.
3.2Anechoictestroomwithalmostnoroomacoustics.
3.3 Ambiguouspictureofagirl/oldwoman
3.4An’ambiguouspicture’inmusic..
3.5Schematicdevelopmentprocessofexperience-basedstructures
4.1MainthemeofH AYDN ’s Symphonyno.94 .
4.2 CyclicalinterplayofdifferentIdea-Generationprocesses
4.3 Cyclicalinterplayofdifferentevaluationprocesses
4.4 ModelofMusicalExtrapolations .
4.5 CyclicalinterplayofdifferentIdea-Generationprocesses
4.6 Cyclicalinterplayofdifferentevaluationprocesses
Overviewofparticipants[andtheircomposingpathways]
C The3rdmovement(Allegronontroppo),bar1-41 .
Introduction
WhatisMusic?
Peopleexperiencemusiceveryday,andmostofthemwouldindeedhaveanidea of what musicis.Infact,theproblemistocommunicateanddescribeone’sown idea,becausemusicdoesnothaveanyexistenceindependentlyofitshumanperception.Afrequentlyadmittedanswercommunicatesmusicalideasbydescribing music,iscalledmusictheory.Whilelearningtoplayaninstrument,andconsequentlytoreadandunderstandmusicsemiotics–suchasnotations,conceptsof scales,rhythm,etc.,butalsocultural-historicalconceptsofmusic–peopleacquire aterminology,bywhichitispossibletounderstandaspectsofmusicalideasandto communicateaspectsofone’sownideasaboutmusictoanotherperson.Musicologyinvestigatesthiscycle,goingfrommusicpracticeandmusiccommunication, fromdifferentperspectivesleadingtoseveralfindingswhichcanoutlineaspects ofwhatmusicis.Forinstance,asocio-culturalperspectiveoutlinesanswersabout whatmusicis for, and why individualslistenandpracticemusic.Philosophicalperspectivesreflectuponthenatureofmusic,suchasembodiment,aesthetics,expression,andethics.Neuro-physiologicalandpsychologicalperspectivesinvestigate whatisgoingoninsidethehumanbrainwhenwedevelopmusicalideas,leading todefinitionsofthemechanismsandprocessesofhumanperception.
Thepresentworkopensanadditionalperspectiveonthequestionwhatmusicis, namely:theresultofongoingcreativeprocesses.Indeed,musicisatfirstamental construct.Forinstance,ateveryinstant,exclusivelyonesoundisaudible,which initselfisquitemeaningless.Itisonlythroughcreativeprocessesthatthephysical concatenationofsounds–whichiscertainlynotmusicitself–canbemodelized intocertainmusicalconcepts,suchasamelody,rhythms,oramusicalpiece,and ideasaboutwhatmusicis for, and why individualslistentoandpracticemusic,etc.
Forhumans,infact,theworldisamentalmodel,oranintegratedsetofhypotheses,createdbytheinteractionofthehumannervoussystem,itscurrentac-
tivity,pastexperiences,andtheperceivableenvironmentstimuli.Ifonerealizes thatthiscomplex,whichcreatesone’sownreality,hasalsocreatedawonderful richmusicalsociety,withitsgenres,discourses,anddevelopments,itbecomes clearthatmoreinvestigationsintothesefactorsandprocesseswouldreallyhelp tobetterunderstandthebasisoftheevolutionofthismarvelousdiversityofmusicalideasandmusics,allcontributingtoanswersthequestionaboutwhatmusic actuallyis.
Consequently,thegoalofthepresentworkistomodelizeaperspectiveonthe question:whatarethebasicfactorsandcreativeprocesses,whichcreatesfirst, one’sownrealitywhilemusicisbeinglistenedtoandcomposed;andsecond, individuals’psychologicaldevelopmentsingeneralandespeciallyinmusicalmatters?
Forthispurposewedividethethesisintwoparts.
Thefirstpresentsinterdisciplinaryperspectivesofcognitivesciencesrelatedto music,whichframesspecifictopics,suchasfetuses’musicallyrelevantabilities, infants’generalmusicalorganization,andthewaysinwhichthesestructurescan developthroughmusicalexperienceitself.Furtherobjectivesshoulddefinecreativityanditsrelationtomusicalprocesses.Thisincludesthecharacterizationof creativityfromtheperspectivesofcognitivescience,socialpsychology,personalityresearch,aswellasemotionsresearch,butalsoanoverviewaboutdefinitionsof musicalcreativity,developmentalaspectsofmusicalcreativity,andcreativeprocessesinvolvedwhilemusicisbeinglistenedtoandcomposed.
Thesecondpartofthisthesisstructuresanoriginalproposalofcreativityin musicbasedonthisfoundation,namely: TheModelofMusicalExtrapolations Itdefinestheactivitiesoflisteningtomusicaswellascomposingofmusic,as consistentlycreative,or,thatistosay,asongoingexplicitandimplicitproblemsolvingprocesses,whicharetangiblyguidedbyfactorsof:intrinsicactivitiesand motivations,pre-disposedstructures,experience-basedstructures,aswellasenvironmentalpressures.
Chapter1beginstheoverviewofresearchindevelopmentalpsychology,with acloselookatindividuals’music-relevantpredispositions,theirbiologicalmaturation,andtheinfluenceofthesocial-culturalenvironmentonthesestructures, assumingthatculturalconditionscausethepsychologicaldevelopment(startingin theprenatalperiod).Thismeansthateachindividualinitiallymaturesintheuterus withacomprehensivesetofpre-disposedstructures,bywhichmusicalexperiences andlearningprocessestakeplaceduringtheprenatalperiod.Inordertogetacloser insightonthesepossibleexperiences,wecharacterizefetuses’soundenvironment intermsofthefrequency-range,pressurelevelsofsounds,intonation,prosody, andvariationsinloudness,aswellastheirauditorycompetenciesandmemory structures.Subsequently,wesketchtheauditorydevelopmentalprocessofinfants, byreviewinginvestigationsofaspectsofauditorysensitivity:auditorythreshold,
Thesecondpartofchapter1outlinestheinfluenceofthesocial-culturalenvironmentonthemusical-artisticcompetencefrominfancytoadulthood.Because suchcompetencesareprimarilyculturalphenomena,socialandeducationalcontextshavetobetakenintoaccountinindividualpsychologicaldevelopments.We thusdiscussthecontributionsofJ EAN P IAGET asoneofthefoundingfathers ofthedevelopmentalandeducationalpsychology,aswellasN EO -P IAGETIAN ’s researches.Finally,wereviewandcomparethreetheoreticalmodelsexplaining musicaldevelopment,forthepurposeofpresentingslightlydifferentperspectives onchildren’sevolvingmusical-artisticcompetence.
Chapter2,whichfocusesonconceptualmodels,theories,andempiricalinvestigationsconcerningcreativity,opensasecondperspectiveonmusic.Thegoalis todescribebehaviorsingeneral,andinmusic,astheresultofactivitiestryingto createsomethingnew,and,tryingtosolvefounded,presented,andself-imposed problems.Thisperspectiveisveryinsightful,becauseitimplicitlyhighlightsaconstructivistperspective,wherebyexplanationcanbesuggestedforthephenomenon that’different,evencontradictory,levelsofinterpretations,emotionsandother meaningfulexperiences[canarise]onthebasisofthesamephysicalsound’–whichalsoappliestomusic.Furthermore,thisperspectiveextendsthediscussion ofthefirstchapteraboutpsychologicaldevelopment,withtheeffectthatfurther factorscausingpsychologicaldevelopmentopportunitiesarepresented.
InthefirstpartofChapter2,webeginwithanoverviewofvariousprominent theoriesrelatedtotheconnectionbetweencreativityandcognition.Thisincludes, amongothers,thediscussionabouttherelationbetweencreativepotentialandhumansintelligence,creativethinkingappliedtosolveproblems,andunconscious processesofcreativecognition.Inconnectiontothis,weobservedevelopmental andsocialinfluencesonhumancreativity.Forinstance,weshowthatcreativityresearchanddevelopmentalpsychologysharemanyconceptsandtheoreticalframeworks.Afurtherimportantpointdiscussessocialfactors:adaptation,adversity, familydependedvariables,whichareproposedasdecisive’external’influences onchildren’screativepotential.Becauseitisassumedthatcreativityalsodepends onindividual’spersonality,motivation,andemotions,wefirstreviewempiricalinfrequency,pitch,andtimbrediscrimination.Becausedetectedanddiscriminated soundstakingplaceatdifferenttimesneedtobeorganizedintomeaningfulsegmentsintohearablephrases,words,melodies,etc.,wereviewinvestigationsoutlininginfants’perceptualabilitiesingroupingandsegregationprocessesorganizing auditorystimuliintoa’somethingwhole’.Asensorimotorperspectiveonmusic follows,assumingthatinfants’recognitionofacousticpatternsalreadydepend ontimeintervalsbetweenstimuli.Wepresentfindingsonwhenandhowtemporalskillsdevelopininfants,basedonmotorrhythmsandtemporalregulationsof behavior,and,second,wheninfantsareabletoanticipatetemporallypredictable events,andalsotheirabilitiestoprocessmusicalsequences.
vestigationsandtheoriesdescribingindividualtraitsandcharacteristicsinrelation tocreativity.Inasecondstep,personalityandcreativeactivityisconsideredfrom thepointofviewofintrinsicandextrinsicmotivation.Finally,sinceemotionshave astrongimpactoncreativemotivation,wediscusstheroleofemotionunderlying creativebehavioringeneral,aswellasemotionsinrelationstocertainpersonality traitsandtheirimpactoncreativebehavior,suchasdivergentthinkingandcreative problem-solving.
ThesecondpartofthisChapter2presentstheoriesandempiricalinvestigationsinordertocharacterizethefacetsoftheconceptofmusicalcreativity.This beginswithanoverviewofvariousdefinitionsandusagesofthetermmusicalcreativity,describingbehaviorsinmusic,suchasmusicaldivergentthinking,musical problemsolving,flow,etc.Wealsopresentproposalswhichsuggestdifferencesin underlyingstructuresofbehaviorsrelatedwithmusicalcreativity(e.g.listening, improvisation,composition).Inasecondstep,wediscussindetailtwooriginal proposalsonmusicalcreativity.Thefirstconceptualizes’thatcreativethinkingisa dynamicprocessofalternationbetweenconvergentanddivergentthinking,movinginstagesovertime,enabledbycertainskills(bothinnateandlearned),and bycertainconditions,allresultinginafinalproduct.’Thesecondhighlightsthe perspectivethatcreativethinking’isonlypartofthestory’.Indeed,productsof musicalcreativityareinpracticebuildonahistory,andaredeterminedinasocialculturalenvironment.Basedonthis,weopenanextendedperspectiveonmusical creativity.Thismeansthat,inaperson-centeredperspective,thecreationofsomething new alsopointsatthedevelopmentalconceptionofcreativityandmusical creativityinparticular.Inthisway,weproposepossibledevelopmentsofmusical creativityorcreativethinkinginsound/musicconsistingroughlyofthreesteps: P-musical-creativity,P-culturalized-musical-creativity,andH-musical-creativity. Subsequently,webrieflysurveythehistoricaldevelopmentofthepsychometricapproach–measuringcreativity–anditscharacteristics,strengths,andweaknesses. Basedonthis,wediscussandcompareprocess-andproduct-centeredmeasurementsingeneral,andintermsofmusic,inordertovalidate,first,thatmeasured musicalcreativityorcreativethinkinginsound/musicdependsondevelopmental factorsingeneral,aswellasspecificallymusical;second,thatthelevelofexpertise issignificantlyrelatedtocreativebehaviorinmusic;andthird,thattherearedifferencesconcerningthevalidityinassessingH-musical-creativitybetweenprocessandproduct-centeredmeasurements.
Becausethegoalofthepresentworkistomodelizecreativeprocessesinvolved whilemusicisbeinglistenedtoandcomposed,thefollowingtwosubsectionsdiscussthecreativityinvolvedinlisteningtomusicaswellaswhilecomposingmusic.Thisincludes,first,argumentswhich,opposedtoatraditionalunderstanding oflisteningtomusic(’merelyreceptive’),conceivelisteningasanactivitywhich ’makes’themusic.Inaddition,wediscussproposalsoutliningmeaning-creationof
Westernmusic(notonly)aselaboratedonvariouswaysoflistening,amongthose whichcanbechosenwhenlistenersareintendedto’create’music.Finally,werelatethesecharacterizationsofcreativityinlisteningtomusictovariousproposals contouringlisteningtomusicfromtheperspectiveofcreativityresearch.
Nextfollowsthecharacterizationofcreativitywhilecomposingmusic.Inthe beginning,wepresentindicationsforthethesisthatimageryandimaginationare supportingprocessespresentincomposers’mindwhiledoingtheirwork.Second, weopenaperspectivewhichsuggeststhatcompositionalactivitiesandprocesses workinatensionfieldbetweenproblem-findingandproblem-solvingprocesses. Forthispurpose,wefirstcharacterizetheactofcomposingmusicascreation,explorationandsolvingofself-imposedill-andwell-definedproblems,bywhichit ispossibletoembedvariousperspectivesintocompositionalprocesses,suchasthe roleofpersonality,motivation,andemotion,etc.Third,wediscussrelevantinfluencesoncomposers’inspirationstofindinterestingproblems,itsstructuring,the evaluationofpossiblecompositionalsolutions,etc.Inthelaststepofourobservationoncreativitywhilecomposingmusic,wepresentanddiscussthreedifferentproposalswhichstructurecomposingprocesses,inordertoofferanextended pictureaboutcompositionofmusicconceptualizedascreativeproblem-solving processes.
Chapter3intendstointroduceouroriginalproposalofcreativityinmusic, namely: TheModelofMusicalExtrapolations. Wefirststartwiththedefinition oftheexpressionmusicalextrapolations.Subsequently,wetrytosketchhowextrapolationprocessescomprehensivelyinfluencethegenerationofmeanings,in generalandinmusicalcontexts.Basedonseveralexamples,wefurthermoreadvocateanuniversallyunderstandablereasoning,startingthatprocessesleadingto musicalextrapolations,consistentlypresentacreativecharacter,and,moreover, areresponsibleforthegenerationofmusic(asamentalconstruct)whilelistening aswellascomposing.
Chapter4consistsinthecoresubjectofthiswork.Basedonthequestion:what bringtheelusivequalitiesofsoundsorchords–occurringatdifferenttime–into mentalexistencewhilemusicisbeinglistenedtoandcomposed?Wemodelizebasicfactorsandtheirinter-dependencieswhichareproposedastheso-called Model ofMusicalExtrapolations. Itsuggeststhat,basedoninteractingfactors–instrinsicactivitiesandmotivations,pre-disposedandexperience-basedstructures,and environmentalpressures,–perceptualandconceptualproblemsareconstantlyconstructedandfound,ideasaregeneratedtosolvetheseproblems,andapproachesto asolutionareevaluated.Thismeansthatthemusicalmeaningsofelusivequalities ofsoundsandchordsoccurringwhilelistening,andwhilecomposing,arecreatedandorganizedinformofmentalmodelsorintegratedsetshypotheses,which perpetuallyneededtobemodified,extendedandcombined.Basedonthisperspective,wealsoformulateargumentsforthethesisthatpsychologicaldevelopments
concerningthehandlingofmusicconsistsinfarmorethanenculturalizationand acculturalizationprocesses.Indeed,wediscussacomplexofcreativeprocesses whichcausepsychologicaldevelopmentswhileindividuals’areengagedwithmusic.
ThefinalChapter5outlinesperspectivesofinvestigationofferedthroughthe ModelofMusicalExtrapolations.Thisincludesquestions,first,abouthowmusic analystscouldbesupportedwhentheytrytoreconstructcompositionalproblem solutions,basedoncomposers’notationalsketches,preparativeworks,fragments, andearlyversions.Second,ifexplicitlypresentedknowledgefromcreativityresearch,e.g.models,strategies,havepositiveeffectsoncomposers’development, and,ifso,howthesepedagogicalconceptsandknowledgecouldbeimplemented insecondaryeducation.Third,wemoreoverproposearesearchtopicwhichfocusesoncomposers’creativeinteractionwithcomputers,supposingasurveyof composersandtheirstrategiesinusingcomputerswhilecomposingincomputeraidedenvironments.Fourth, wefinallysuggestaperspectiveofinvestigationwhich wouldspecifyandextendtheoutlined ModelofMusicalExtrapolations regarding individuals’differencesinpre-disposedstructures.
InterdisciplinaryPerspectivesofCognitive SciencesinTermsofMusic
1.1OntogenyofMusicalAbilitiesduringthePrenatalPeriod
Infantsalreadyseemtohaveperceptualcapacitiesformusicalexpertiseinterms ofdifferentiatingandprocessingfundamentalmusicalfeatures,suchassounddiscrimination,harmonicspectrum,soundduration,pauselength,andtempo.Lookingfortheoriginofthesecapacities,itdoesnotseemplausiblethatsuchsensory functionssuddenlybeginatbirth.Onthecontrary,acurrentperspectiveproposes thattheseabilitieshavetheiroriginintheearlyfunctioningofauditorygrouping andsegregationprocessesduringtheprenatalperiod.Indicationsforthisthesiscan beseeninanewborn’spreferenceformother’svoice(DeCasper/Fifer,1980),for mother’slanguage(Mehleretal.,1988),forfamiliarmelodies(Panneton,1985), andfortheprosodyofafamiliarspokentext(DeCasper/Spence,1986).Thissectionintendstoreviewaselectedcorpusofresearch,whichproposesvariousaspectsoftheprenatalauditoryexperience,asastartingpointforthedevelopment processofontogeneticmusicalabilities.
1.1.1 TheFetalSoundEnvironment
Thefindingsofstudiesonthefetalsoundenvironmentarecharacterizedbytechnicalconstraintsandtheirsolutions.
“Thefirstseriesofhumanintra-abdominalrecordingswasobtainedwithmicrophones coveredwithrubbermembranesthatwereinsertedintothevaginaorthecervixnearestto theuterus[...].Incontrasttothefindingsfromtheinitialstudies,morerecentonesusing hydrophonesadaptedtofluidimpedanceandnarrowbandanalysis,haveindicatedthat thewombisarelativelyquietplace.”(Lecanuet,1996,p.4)
Allsoundsthefetuscanperceive,whetherfrominside(mother’svoice,herheartbeat,hermovements,herbreathing,andherdigestion)oroutsideofmother’sbody, aremuffled,becausehighfrequenciesareattenuatedbytheamnioticfluidand mothersbody,whichactsasalow-passfilter(seeRichardsetal.,1992;Parncutt, 2006).Thatistosay,soundpressurelevelsatlowfrequencies(<300Hz),measuredoutsideoftheewe1 ,aregenerallycomparablewiththepressurelevelsof soundswithintheuterus(seeLecanuet,1996).
Fig.1.1 “Musicalrecordingrangingfrom0to2000Hz.Uppercurve:exuterorecording.Lower curve:inuterorecording;intra-uterinebasalnoisesynchronictotheattenuatedtransmitted sound”(Querleuetal.,1988,p.200)
“Between315and2500Hz,theattenuationincreasesatarateof5dBperoctave.[...] Therefore,itislikelythatthefetuswillnotbeprivytoovertonesoftraditionalmusical timbresatrelativelyhighfrequencies(1000-2000Hz).”(Abramsetal.,1998,p.314)
Withinpreviousstudiesconcerningthehumanwomb,similarobservationswere alsomade.
1 “Becauseonlyalimitedamountofinformationcanbegleanedfromhumanexperimentation, investigatorshavestartedtoworkwithsheep.Becauseofsimilaritiesinbodyweightandabdominaldimensionsduringpregnancy,sheepandhumanshavesimilaracoustictransmission characteristics.”(Abramsetal.,1998,p.308)
AsshowninFigure1.1,Q UERLEU etal.(1988)havemeasuredthatthedegreeof attenuationinuteroincreaseswiththeriseoffrequency:2dBat250Hz,14dBat 500Hz,20dBat1000Hz,26dBat2000Hz.Theyconcludethatexternalconversationsareaudible,because,althoughonly30%ofthephoneticinformationis availabletothefetus,theintonationisalmostperfectlytransmittedtotheamniotic sac.
Thisimplies,ifanyprenatalmusicalexperiencemaybeproved,itwillmainly bebasedonprosody,intonation,timing,variationsinloudness,orvariationsin pitchregister,ratherthansinglesoundsandtheirovertones.Indicationsforthis thesiscanalsobeseenintestsmadebyV ERSYP (1985).Recordingsweremade inuteroandexutero:first;themothersangaFrenchlullabyandinasecondtry arecordingofthesingingthesamemusicalpiecewasplayed(at60dBviaan externalloudspeaker).Themeasurementshaveshownthatequivalentfundamental frequency-patternswererecordedinuteroandexutero(seeFigure1.2).
Fig.1.2 “PitchcurveofaFrenchnurseryrhyme(‘Lapendule’)recordedbyaMingographex utero(uppercurve)andinutero(lowercurve).”(Querleuetal.,1988,p.205)
Inconclusion,thecharacterizationofthefetalsoundenvironmentassketched abovecouldgiveabetterinsightofthereasonwhynewbornsprefertheirmother’s voice,mother’stongue,mother’slanguage,familiarmelodies,andtheprosodyof afamiliarspokentext.First:theintonation,prosody,variationsinloudness,etc.of mother’svoiceconstituteapermanentacousticinformationinthefetalsoundenvi-
ronment.Second:intermsofmusic,intra-abdominalrecordingshaverevealedthat frequencieshigherthan1000Hzplaynonoticeablepartinfetalsoundenvironment (undernormalsoundpressurelevels),whichimpliesthatimportantfeaturesofmusic,suchas“[...]thetimbralfeatures,bywhichweidentifyinstruments[andarich musicalvoice],couldbeobscuredbythefilteringofhigherorderpartialsbythe abdominalcontent.”(Abramsetal.,1998,p.309)Therefore,becauseofthesimilarsoundpressurelevelinuteroandexuteroforfrequenciesbelow300Hzand, inaddition,theexactrenderingofintonationofspeechormusicintheuterusfor similarfrequencies,anacceptedperspectivesupposesthatapossiblefetalmusic perceptionismainlystimulatedbylowfrequenciesanddurationalfeatures(global prosody)ofspeechandmusic.
1.1.2 FetalAuditoryCompetencies
“Beforebirth,differentbrainregionsdevelopatdifferentrates,andsensoryorgansinitiallydevelopindependentlyofthebrainregionstowhichtheywilllaterbeconnected. Connectionsbetweenperipherysenseorgansandthecentralnervoussystemstarttomatureinaboutthe25thweek[gestationalage],afterwhichsensorylearningcanbeginin earnest(OerterandMontada,1995).”(Parncutt,2006,p.2)
Themorphologicaldevelopmentofthecochlea,consideredasthemostessential partoftheearforprocessingauditorystimuliinutero2 ,startstocurlbythe6th weekandattainsitsfullsizebythe20thweek.Alreadyatabout11weeks,thefirst auditorycells(haircells)begintodeveloponthebasilarmembrane.At14weeks, rowsofinnerandouterhaircellscanbeobserved,butnoneofthemarefunctional atthisstage(Arabin/vanStraaten/vanEyck,1998).Untilaboutthe20thweek,the humancochleamorphologyseemstobefunctional,althoughitisnotanatomically complete(Pujol/Lavigne-Rebillard/Uziel,1991).
Thematurationoftheinnerearprobablyendsduringthe8thmonthwiththe organizationofafferentandefferentsynapticconnections(Lecanuet,1996).
Researchresultscollectedoverthepast50yearsdemonstratedthatthefetalauditorysystembecomesmoresensitivewithitsmaturation(seeLecanuet,1996,pp. 10-17foracomprehensiveaccountindifferentdomains).Forinstance,H EPPER andS HAHIDULLAH (1994)haveuncovered,inastudyconcerning450humanfe2 “[...]itcanbeassumedthatthemiddleearisnotnecessaryforfetalauditionsinceitisadapted totheamplificationofacousticstimuliinaeriallife.Withoutthisamplification,clinicalstudies showthatthereisanaveragelossof30dBfromtheaerialenvironmentoftheouterearto theliquidenvironmentofthecochlea.Inutero,since,theouterandmiddleeararefilledwith amnioticfluid,andsinceliquids,tissuesandboneshavecloseconductingproperties,theacoustic energyinsidetheuterinecavitycanreachthecochlearreceptorswithnegligibleenergyloss,thus, suppressingtheneedforanamplifyingsystem.”(Lecanuet,1996,pp.9-10)
tuses,thattherangeoffrequencieswhichleadstoabehavioralresponse,isinitially smallatthe19thweek(seeFigure1.3).
“Thefirstresponsewasobservedat19weeksofgestationalagebyasinglefetuswho respondedtothe500Hztone.Thenumberoffetusesrespondingtoeachfrequencyincreasedwithgestationalstage.Fetusesrespondedfirsttothelowfrequencytones500Hz, 250Hz,and100Hz,with96%respondingby27weeksofgestationalagetothe500Hz and250Hztones.Atthisagenonrespondedtothe1000Hzor3000Hztone.Fetusesfirst respondedtothe1000Hzand3000Hztonesat29and31weeksofgestationalagerespectively.Onehundredpercentofthefetusesrespondedtothe1000Hztoneat33weeks ofgestationalageandtothe3000Hztoneat35weeksofgestation.[...]Furthermore,the intensitylevelrequiredtoelicitaresponsedecreasesforallfrequenciesasgestationincreases,thismaysuggestthatfetalhearingbecomesmoresensitiveduringgestation.The lines[therightsideofFigure1.3]foreachgestationalagerepresentthemeanintensity levelrequiredtoelicitaresponseforthefetusandmaybeconsideredasequalloudness contours.”(Hepper/Shahidullah,1994,pp.82-83)
Fig.1.3 Sensitivityforfrequencies,dependingonfetalageandsoundpressurelevels(Hepper andShahidullah,1994,p.83)
Intermsofperceptionanddiscriminationofsegmentedspeechsounds,theperfectconditionsfortheperceptionofthisfrequencyrangeintheuterus(see1.1 onpage27),andfetalearlyresponsetothisrangeoffrequencies(shownin Figure1.3),D E C ASPER andS PENCE (1986)supportthehypothesisthatfetusesareindeedabletorememberandrecognizehumanvoices(theinuterospeech-experiencehypothesis).Inaddition,K ISILEVSKY etal.(2003)havere-
vealedthatfetusesatabout38weeksofgestationalagediscriminatebetweentheir mother’sandastranger’svoice3 ,which“[...]suggeststhatfetusesindeedarecapableofrememberingandrecognizingcharacteristicsoftheirmother’svoice.” (Kisilevskyetal.,2003,p.222)AlsoG ROOME etal.(1999)demonstratedthatby 36to40weeks,fetusesrespondtospeechstimuli(83-95dBsoundpressurelevels) bydisplayingheartratedecelerationstovowelsounds(/i/and/â/).Anotherindicationforacertainspeechexperienceoffetusesarebabieswhicharebornthree tosixweeksearly,orbetween34and36completedweeksofgestation.Theycan alsodiscriminatethereversalofpairsofconsonant-vowelsounds,/babi/to/biba/ or/biba/to/babi/(Lecanuetetal.,1987).
Ifoneasksaboutfetalperceptionofmusic,itisadmittedthatfetusescanresponsetomusic-relevantinformationatcertaingestationalages,suchaschanging ofmusicalnotes(Lecanuetetal.,2000),melodiccontour(Granier-Deferreetal., 1998),orvariationoftempo(Kisilevskyetal.,2004).Observationsofchanging fetalheartrateorbehavioralresponsesafteronsetofmusicrevealthatfetusesare able,first:todistinguishbetweenongoingbackgrounduterinesoundsandenvironmentalsounds,suchasdiscriminatingthemusicfromthematernalheartrate; second,toreactdifferentlytochangesofcertainexuterostimuliparameters,such aspitch,tempo,orsoundpressurelevels.
“Tounderstandfetalresponsestomusic,itisinstructivetoconsidermusicperception bynon-humananimals,which—likethefetus—donotcontributeactivelyordirectlyto humancultureandtherefore,presumably,donotexperiencemusic(oranythingelse)in thewayhumanchildrenoradultsdo.Cows,forexample,mayproducemoremilkwhen exposedtoslowmusicandlesswhenexposedtofastmusic,becauseaslowbeatreduces stressandafasterbeatincreasesit(NorthandMacKenzie,2001).”(Parncutt,2006,p.13)
Nevertheless,althoughfetusesareunabletoknowwhatmusicand,moreover,languageare,theycandistinguishbetweenvariousacousticalfeaturesofmusicand language,onthebasisofthephysicaldegreeofchange.Buttorecognizeaphysicaldegreeofchange,otheracousticalinformationhadtobesavedpreviously,in suchawaythatadistinctionispossible.Therefore,thediscriminationoffetuses betweentheirmother’sandastranger’svoice,changesofmusicalnotesormelodic contour,variationsoftempo,etc.canonlybeprocessedbyusingakindofauditory memorystructures.
3 Indicationsfornewborn’spreferenceofmother’svoice(DeCasper/Fifer,1980),andmother’s language(Mehleretal.,1988)(see1.1onpage27).
1.1.3 FetalAuditoryLearningandMemoryStructures
Aswehavealreadyseeninstudiesconcerningfetalbehavioralresponsesafter onsetofvariousstimuli(see1.1.2onpage31),prenatalperceptionstakeplace, andprobably’serveasarunning-inperiodforthesensorysystems’(seeHepper, 1992,p.145).Justasstudiesexploringmemoryinnewbornsbyusinglearning paradigms,suchasassociativelearning(e.g.Fifer/Moon,1989;DeCasper/Fifer, 1980),imitation(e.g.Anisfeld,1991;Fieldetal.,1982a),classicalconditioning (e.g.Crowelletal.,1976),andhabituation(e.g.Slater/Murison/Rose,1984),“[...] similarparadigmshavebeenappliedtothefetustoexploreitsmemory.Paradigms of"exposurelearning",classicalconditioningandhabituationhavebeenusedto examinefetallearningandfetalmemory.”(Hepper,1996,p.16)
Inanswertothequestiononwhichmemorystructuresareavailabletothefetus inutero,itseemsthatnosemanticorconceptualmemorycanbeinvoked,because fetuseshavenoexplicitlanguage,asapreconditionforthecontentofsuchmemory structures.However,basedonvariousstudies(detailsfollow),thereareindications ofprenatallearningconcerningsensoryandproceduralmemorystructuresaffected tolimitedlong-termmemorystructures.
ByusingcurrentMagnetoencephalographytechnique(fMEG)(seeinthisregardLounasmaaetal.,1996),whichdetectsthemagneticfieldproducedbytheactiveneuronsinthefetalbrain,akindofworkingsensory-memorycanbedefined. Inatestmethod4 originallyusedinElectroencephalographic(EEG)recordings, soundsequencesarepresentedtothefetus,consistinginastandard(frequent) sound,andintermixedwithadeviant(infrequent)soundofdifferentfrequency, duration,orintensity.Deviationsofastandardsoundelicitanegativitymismatch (MMN),asacomponentoftheauditoryevent-relatedbrainpotential5 ,whichevidencedasounddiscrimination.Inaddition,thisadvocatesfortheimplicationof sensory-memorystructures,inwhich“[...]eachsoundformsamemorytraceinthe auditorysystem,ifanincomingsoundviolatestheneuralmemoryrepresentation oftherecentlyheardsounds,itelicitsanMMN.”(seeKujala/Tervaniemi/Schröger, 2007,p.3)TheearliestfetalMMNresponseswererecordedinvariousstudies successfully,between29and33weekofgestationalage(e.g.Wakai/Leuthold/ Martin,1996;Lengle/Chen/Wakai,2001).Theseresultsmatchfindingsconcerningthemyelinationofthebrainstemandcentralauditorypathwaysataboutthe 29thweekofgestationage(seePerazzo/Moore/Braun,1995).
“Synapticdensityofthefetalcortexandauditorypathwaymyelinationarenecessaryfactorsforthebeginningofsimplecognitivefunction.Hence,corticalresponsetotonefre-
4 Oddballparadigm
5 Theevent-relatedpotential(ERP)isameasuredbrainresponse,thatresultsdirectlyfromspecificsensory,cognitive,ormotorstimuli(seeLuck,2005).
quencychangecouldbeexpectedatapproximately28—30weeksGA[gestationalage].” (Draganovaetal.,2007,p.204)
Intermsoffetallearningandmemoryinvolvinglongertimeperiodsinutero,investigationsstudiedthehabituationtorepeatedvibro-acousticstimulation6 ,suggestthatfetusesat30weeksofgestationalageareabletolearn,andhave,first,a proceduralshort-termmemoryofatleast10min(Granier-Deferreetal.,2011;van Hererenetal.,2000),and,second,aprocedurallong-termmemoryof24hours (vanHererenetal.,2000).Moreover,itwasshownthatfetusesat34weeksofgestationalagehavea4-weekmemory,because“[...]34-week-oldfetusesareableto storeinformationandretrieveit4weekslater.”(Dirixetal.,2009,p.1152)
Inaddition,studiesexploringmemorybyexposuretomusicinuteroand,afterwards,exutero,revealedthatmusicalstimulilearnedduringtheprenatalperiod canchangebehavioralstates(e.g.James/Spencer/Stepsis,2002)and/ortriggerspecificattentionalresponse(e.g.Panneton,1985)innewborns.Thisprovidesfurther indicationofthestartingpointoftheprocessingofmusicallyrelevantinformation, anditsstorageoveracertaintimeperiod.
G RANIER -D EFERREETAL .,(2011),forexample,demonstratedthattheexposuretoadescendingpianomelodytwicedailyduringthe35thand37thweek ofgestation(repeatedwhentheinfantswereone-monthold)indicatethat,first, near-termfetusescandiscriminateacousticfeatures,suchasfrequencies,spectra, duration,tempo,rhythm,andprocesscomplexauditorystreams,and,second,auditorymemoriescanlastatleastsixweeks.Theyconclude:
“Ourresultsprovidethefirstdirectevidencethatmelodiccontourscanbeprocessed beforebirthandrememberedforatleastseveralweeksafterbirth.Theyareconsistent withrecentdatashowingthatthecontourcharacteristicsofnewborns’cryingparalleled themainintonationpatternsoftheirmaternallanguage(Mampeetal.,2009).”(GranierDeferreetal.,2011,p.5)
Inconclusion,letusreturntoH EPPER ’s(1992)conjecturethatprenatalperceptionsprobablyserveasarunning-inperiodforthesensorysystems.Afterbirth, memoryisessentialfornormalprocessingofvariousstimuliand“[...]itisnottoo surprisingthatsuchanimportantpsychologicalfunctionis"practiced"beforebirth insomeform.”(Hepper,1996,p.18)Beyondhearing,breathing(Kozumaetal., 1991)andeyemovements(Horimotoetal.,1993)alsobegininutero,although thereisnoair,andlimitedvisualstimuli.Ifoneassumes,forexample,thatbreathingcoordinationsarestoredincertainmemorystructurestoensuretheywillfunctionefficientlywhenneeded,itsuggeststhatstorageandretrievalofinformationis anessentialprocessforbreathingafterbirth.Aswehaveseen,memory-processed auditorystimulialsopreparefortheworldexutero(althoughnotsoessentialas
6 Vibro-acousticstimuliprovideauditory,tactile,proprioceptiveandvestibularstimulationsto thefetus.
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juste perspective toute l’antiquité classique si bien dépassée et en même temps conservée par l’esprit catholique. J’ai lu que Saint Jérôme s’accusait de lire avec trop de plaisir les auteurs païens. Ainsi le plus beau du passé revenait dans la pensée chrétienne, et l’humanisait. C’est un beau et juste mouvement qui ramène ainsi nos idées à l’enfance, et les mûrit de nouveau dans la moindre de nos méditations.
Je dirais d’après cela que d’un côté ce sont les vues plus étendues de l’histoire qui mettent en place l’antiquité classique et la révolution chrétienne ; car ce grand drame humain est lui-même petit dans l’immense suite du progrès. Mais, d’un autre côté, ces antécédents proches font vivre les autres par une reconnaissance qui soutient les différences, et nous fait historiens. Un Chinois est trop différent de nous peut-être ; de même un fétichiste d’Amérique ou de Polynésie. Tacite est un autre genre de sauvage, bien plus près de nous ; nous ne pouvons méconnaître notre frère ; et c’est le beau d’abord qui nous en préserve, le beau, bien plus puissant que le vrai. Sans ce passage, qui d’Homère porté déjà par Platon, nous conduit tout près de nos naïfs ancêtres et congénères, nous pourrions bien connaître les Égyptiens, Chinois et Peaux-Rouges comme on connaît les mœurs des fourmis, tout en restant inhumains peut-être. Je ne sais rien des Jésuites que par ouï-dire ; peut-être eussent-ils été plus fanatiques encore sans ce fort préjugé, fondé sur le jugement esthétique, et qui les tirait hors du temps présent. Par quoi ils formaient des esprits libres, bien contre leur intention. Gardons-nous, au rebours, de former des esprits esclaves, bien contre notre intention.
