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IntroductiontoIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology IntroductiontoIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychologyprovidesanaccessibleapproachtopsychologicaltheory anditsapplicationstotheworldofworkUsingbothclassictheoriesandresearchalongwiththelatest developmentsandinnovations,thisstudent-centeredtextshowspracticalapplicationsoftheoreticalconcepts usingexamplesfromworksituationsthatstudentsmaybefamiliarwithsuchasserviceindustries,Internet companies,andstartupsinadditiontotraditionalofficeandfactoryworksettingsEachchapterincludeskey termsandreviewquestions,andthetextfeaturesspecialsectionshighlightingapplicationsofI/Opsychology theories,psychologicalapproachestoeverydayworksituations,andcurrentareasofresearchandpractice
TheseventheditionisthoroughlyupdatedtoincludethelatestresearchoneachkeytopicItalsoincludes expandedcoverageofinternationalissues,jobengagement,andemergingtopicsinthefield,suchasworkplace bullying,virtualteamsandorganizations,agileorganizationstructures,andweb-basedtrainingand assessmentThebookwillbeofinteresttoundergraduatestudentsinintroductoryI/Opsychologyor psychologyofworkbehaviorcourses
Foradditionalresources,pleaseconsultthecompanionwebsiteatwww.routledge.com/cw/riggio,where instructorswillfindanexpandedinstructor’smanual,testbank,andlectureslides,andstudentswillfind chaptersummaries,learningobjectives,andinteractivequizzes
RonaldE.RiggioistheHenryR.KravisProfessorofLeadershipandOrganizationalPsychologyatClaremont McKennaCollegeHehaspublishednearlytwodozenauthoredoreditedbooksandmorethan150articlesand bookchapters
IntroductiontoIndustrial/Organizational Psychology SEVENTHEDITION
RonaldERiggio
Seventheditionpublished2018 byRoutledge
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Title:Introductiontoindustrial/organizationalpsychology/ RonaldERiggio
Description:SeventhEdition|NewYork:Routledge,[2017]| Revisededitionoftheauthor’sIntroductiontoindustrial/organizational psychology,2013|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex
Identifiers:LCCN2017007775|ISBN9781138655324(hardback: alkpaper)|ISBN9781315620589(ebook)
Subjects:LCSH:Psychology,Industrial|Organizationalchange
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BRIEFCONTENTS Preface
PARTI
Introduction
Inthisfirstsection,wediscussthefieldofindustrial/organizationalpsychology,learnwhatitis,andexamine itshistoryThesecondchapterisanoverviewofsocialscientificresearchmethodsandhowthismethodology isusedbyI/OpsychologistsThissectionsetsthegroundworkforwhatistocome
1INTRODUCTION:DEFINITIONSANDHISTORY
2RESEARCHMETHODSININDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONALPSYCHOLOGY
PARTII
PersonnelIssues
Inthesefivechapters,wewilltakea“tour”ofpersonnelfunctionsinorganizations.Wewillexaminehowjobs areanalyzed,howworkersarerecruitedandselectedforjobs,howworkers’jobperformanceisevaluated,and finally,howworkersaretrained
3.JOBANALYSIS:UNDERSTANDINGWORKANDWORKTASKS
4EMPLOYEERECRUITMENT,SELECTION,ANDPLACEMENT
5METHODSFORASSESSINGANDSELECTINGEMPLOYEES
6EVALUATINGEMPLOYEEPERFORMANCE
7.EMPLOYEETRAININGANDDEVELOPMENT
PARTIII
WorkerIssues
Thesethreechapterswillexamineimportantpsychologicalstatesthatinfluenceemployeeworkbehavior:the motivationtowork,thesatisfactiononegetsfromajob,andthestressthatoccursbecauseofjobdemands. Thesethreestatesrepresentthevitalissuesofwhypeopleworkandwhathappenstotheminternallybecause ofworkrewardsanddemands
8MOTIVATION
9POSITIVEEMPLOYEEATTITUDESANDBEHAVIORS
10WORKERSTRESSANDNEGATIVEEMPLOYEEATTITUDESANDBEHAVIORS
PARTIV
WorkGroupandOrganizationalIssues
Inthenextfivechapters,wewillexaminehowworkersinteractintheformationofworkgroupsandlarger workorganizationsThestudyofthisinteractionofworkersandworkgroupscomprisesagoodpartofthe areawithinI/OpsychologyknownasorganizationalpsychologyInreviewingorganizationalissues,wewill startsmall,lookingatcommunicationbetweentwoworkers,andfinishbig,examininghowlargework organizationsaredesignedandstructured
11.COMMUNICATIONINTHEWORKPLACE
12GROUPPROCESSESINWORKORGANIZATIONS
13LEADERSHIP
14INFLUENCE,POWER,ANDPOLITICS
15.ORGANIZATIONALSTRUCTURE,CULTURE,ANDDEVELOPMENT
Glossary References Credits Index
CONTENTS Preface
PARTI
Introduction
1INTRODUCTION:DEFINITIONSANDHISTORY
WhatisIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology?
TheScienceandPracticeofIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology
TheRootsandEarlyHistoryofIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology
TheBeginnings
WorldWarIandthe1920s
TheGreatDepressionYearsandWorldWarII
ThePostwarYearsandtheModernEra
Industrial/OrganizationalPsychologyTodayandintheFuture
FirstTrend:TheChangingNatureofWork
SecondTrend:ExpandingFocusonHumanResources
ThirdTrend:IncreasingDiversityandGlobalizationoftheWorkforce
FourthTrend:IncreasingRelevanceofI/OPsychologyinPolicyandPractice
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
2RESEARCHMETHODSININDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONALPSYCHOLOGY
SocialScienceResearchMethods
GoalsofSocialScienceResearchMethods
StepsintheResearchProcess
MajorResearchDesigns
TheExperimentalMethod
Quasi-Experiments
TheCorrelationalMethod
ComplexCorrelationalDesigns
Meta-Analysis
TheCaseStudyMethod
MeasurementofVariables
ObservationalTechniques
Self-ReportTechniques
KeyIssuesinMeasuringVariables:ReliabilityandValidity
MeasuringWorkOutcomes:TheBottomLine
InterpretingandUsingResearchResults
EthicalIssuesinResearchandPracticeinI/OPsychology
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
Appendix:StatisticalAnalysesofResearchData
DescriptiveStatistics
InferentialStatistics
StatisticalAnalysisofExperimentalMethodData
StatisticalAnalysisofCorrelationalMethodData
AppendixSummary
PARTII PersonnelIssues
3JOBANALYSIS:UNDERSTANDINGWORKANDWORKTASKS
JobAnalysis
JobAnalysisMethods
Observations
Participation
ExistingData
Interviews
Surveys
Jobdiaries
SpecificJobAnalysisTechniques
JobElementMethod
CriticalIncidentsTechnique
PositionAnalysisQuestionnaire
FunctionalJobAnalysis
ComparingtheDifferentJobAnalysisTechniques
O*NET:AUsefulToolforUnderstandingJobs
JobAnalysisandtheADA
JobEvaluationandComparableWorth
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
4EMPLOYEERECRUITMENT,SELECTION,ANDPLACEMENT
HumanResourcePlanning
StepsintheEmployeeSelectionProcess
EmployeeRecruitment
EmployeeScreening
EmployeeSelectionandPlacement
AModelforEmployeeSelection
MakingEmployeeSelectionDecisions
EmployeePlacement
EqualEmploymentOpportunityinEmployeeSelectionandPlacement
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
5.METHODSFORASSESSINGANDSELECTINGEMPLOYEES
EmployeeScreeningandAssessment
EvaluationofWrittenMaterials
ReferencesandLettersofRecommendation
EmploymentTesting
ConsiderationsintheDevelopmentandUseofPersonnelScreeningandTestingMethods
TypesofEmployeeScreeningTests
TheEffectivenessofEmployeeScreeningTests
AssessmentCenters
HiringInterviews
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
6EVALUATINGEMPLOYEEPERFORMANCE
JobPerformanceandPerformanceAppraisals
TheMeasurementofJobPerformance
ObjectiveVersusSubjectivePerformanceCriteria
SourcesofPerformanceRatings
MethodsofRatingPerformance
ComparativeMethods
IndividualMethods
ProblemsandPitfallsinPerformanceAppraisals
Leniency/SeverityErrors
HaloEffects
RecencyEffects
CausalAttributionErrors
PersonalBiases
Cross-CulturalandInternationalIssues
TheDynamicNatureofPerformanceToday
ThePerformanceAppraisalProcess
LegalConcernsinPerformanceAppraisals
TeamAppraisals
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
7EMPLOYEETRAININGANDDEVELOPMENT AreasofEmployeeTraining
NewEmployeeOrientationandTraining
RetrainingandContinuingEducationPrograms
RetirementPlanningandPreparation
EmployeeCareerDevelopment
TrainingWorkersforInternationalAssignments
TraininginDiversityIssues,Harassment,andEthicalBehavior TeamTraining
FundamentalIssuesinEmployeeTraining
KeyIssuesintheSuccessofTrainingPrograms
CommonProblemsinEmployeeTrainingPrograms
AModelforSuccessfulTrainingPrograms
AssessingTrainingNeeds
EstablishingTrainingObjectives
DevelopingandTestingofTrainingMaterials:EmployeeTrainingMethods
ImplementationoftheTrainingProgram
EvaluationoftheTrainingProgram
EqualEmploymentOpportunityIssuesinEmployeeTraining
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
PARTIII WorkerIssues
8MOTIVATION
DefiningMotivation
NeedTheoriesofMotivation
BasicNeedTheories
McClelland’sAchievementMotivationTheory Behavior-BasedTheoriesofMotivation
ReinforcementTheory
ExtrinsicVersusIntrinsicMotivation
Self-DeterminationTheory
Goal-SettingTheory
JobDesignTheoriesofMotivation
Herzberg’sTwo-FactorTheory
JobCharacteristicsModel
CognitiveTheoriesofMotivation
EquityTheoryofMotivation
Expectancy(VIE)TheoryofMotivation
Comparing,Contrasting,andCombiningtheDifferentMotivationTheories
TheRelationshipBetweenMotivationandPerformance SystemsandTechnologyVariables
IndividualDifferenceVariables
GroupDynamicsVariables
OrganizationalVariables
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
SuggestedReadings
9POSITIVEEMPLOYEEATTITUDESANDBEHAVIORS
EmployeeEngagement
JobSatisfaction
TheMeasurementofJobSatisfaction
JobSatisfactionandJobPerformance
OrganizationalCommitment
OrganizationalCommitmentandJobSatisfaction
EmployeeAttitudesandEmployeeAttendance
EmployeeAbsenteeism
EmployeeTurnover
IncreasingEmployeeEngagement,JobSatisfaction,andOrganizationalCommitment
ChangesinJobStructure
ChangesinPayStructure
FlexibleWorkSchedules
BenefitPrograms
PositiveEmployeeBehaviors
OrganizationalCitizenshipBehaviors
PositiveAffectandEmployeeWell-Being
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
10WORKERSTRESSANDNEGATIVEEMPLOYEEATTITUDESANDBEHAVIORS
DefiningWorkerStress
SourcesofWorkerStress
StressfulOccupations
OrganizationalSourcesofWorkStress:SituationalStressors
WorkTaskStressors
WorkRoleStressors
IndividualSourcesofWorkStress:DispositionalStressors
MeasurementofWorkerStress
PhysiologicalMeasures
Self-ReportAssessments
MeasurementofStressfulLifeEvents
MeasurementofPersonEnvironmentFit
EffectsofWorkerStress
JobBurnout
CopingWithWorkerStress
IndividualCopingStrategies
OrganizationalCopingStrategies
NegativeEmployeeAttitudesandBehaviors
CounterproductiveandDeviantWorkBehaviors
AlcoholandDrugUseintheWorkplace
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
PARTIV
WorkGroupandOrganizationalIssues
11.COMMUNICATIONINTHEWORKPLACE
TheCommunicationProcess:ADefinitionandaModel
ResearchontheCommunicationProcess
NonverbalCommunicationinWorkSettings
TheFlowofCommunicationinWorkOrganizations
Downward,Upward,andLateralFlowofCommunication
BarrierstotheEffectiveFlowofCommunication
CommunicationNetworks
FormalandInformalLinesofCommunication:TheHierarchyVersustheGrapevine
OrganizationalCommunicationandWorkOutcomes
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
12GROUPPROCESSESINWORKORGANIZATIONS
DefiningWorkGroupsandTeams
Roles
Norms
OrganizationalSocialization:LearningGroupRolesandNorms
BasicGroupProcesses
Conformity
GroupCohesiveness
GroupEfficacy
CooperationandCompetitioninWorkGroups
ConflictinWorkGroupsandOrganizations
GroupDecision-MakingProcesses
EffectivenessofGroupDecisionMaking
GroupDecisionMakingGoneAwry:GroupthinkandGroupPolarization
TeamsandTeamwork
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
13.LEADERSHIP
WhatIsLeadership?
DefiningLeadership
UniversalistTheoriesofLeadership
GreatMan/WomanTheory
TraitTheory
BehavioralTheoriesofLeadership
OhioStateLeadershipStudies
UniversityofMichiganLeadershipStudies
EvaluationoftheBehavioralTheoriesofLeadership
ContingencyTheoriesofLeadership
Fiedler’sContingencyModel
ThePath-GoalTheory
TheDecision-MakingModel
TheLeaderMemberExchangeModel
CharismaticandTransformationalLeadershipTheories
CharismaticLeadershipTheory
TransformationalLeadershipTheory
ComparingandContrastingTheoriesofLeadership
ApplicationsofLeadershipTheories
LeadershipTrainingandDevelopment
JobRedesignandSubstitutesforLeadership
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
14.INFLUENCE,POWER,ANDPOLITICS
DefiningInfluence,Power,andPolitics
Influence:TheUseofSocialControl
Power:AMajorForceinWorkOrganizations
PowerSources
PowerDynamicsinWorkOrganizations
OrganizationalPolitics
DefiningOrganizationalPolitics
EmployeePerceptionsofOrganizationalPolitics
TypesofPoliticalBehaviors
CausesofOrganizationalPolitics
ConsequencesofOrganizationalPolitics
ManagingOrganizationalPolitics
AContingencyApproachtoOrganizationalPowerandPolitics
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
15ORGANIZATIONALSTRUCTURE,CULTURE,ANDDEVELOPMENT
OrganizationalStructure
DimensionsofOrganizationalStructure
TraditionalVersusNontraditionalOrganizationalStructures
ChainofCommandandSpanofControl
FunctionalVersusDivisionalStructure
CentralizedVersusDecentralizedStructure
ExamplesofTraditionalandNontraditionalOrganizationalStructures
TraditionalOrganizationalStructures
NontraditionalOrganizationalStructures
ContingencyModelsofOrganizationalStructure
OrganizationalCulture
SocietalInfluencesonOrganizationalCulture
MeasuringOrganizationalCulture
OrganizationalDevelopment
OrganizationalDevelopmentTechnique
TheEffectivenessofOrganizationalDevelopment
Summary
StudyQuestionsandExercises
WebLinks
SuggestedReadings
Glossary References Credits Index
IntroductiontoIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychologyprovidesaninvitingandcomprehensiveintroductionto thefieldofindustrial/organizational(I/O)psychologyTwoimportantthemesguidedthewritingofthis textbookFirst,becauseI/Opsychologyisafieldwithbothastrongscientificbaseandanappliedorientation, thebookdemonstratestheconnectionbetweenpsychologicaltheoryandapplication:theoreticalconceptsare showntoleadtousefulinterventionsSecond,thisbookwasdesignedandwrittenwiththestudentinmind Wheneverpossible,thetextdrawsonexamplesandillustrationsfromtheworldofworkthatstudents understand.Forinstance,manywork-settingexamplesincludeserviceindustries,suchasretailchainsandfastfoodrestaurants,andInternetcompaniesandstartupsratherthanconcentratingsolelyontraditionalofficeor factoryworksettings
IntroductiontoIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychologyisanintroductorytextbookthatappealstoawide rangeofstudentswithvaryingacademicbackgroundsItisdesignedforuseinundergraduatesurveycourses inI/Opsychologyorinpsychologyofworkbehaviorcoursesandissuitedforcoursesthatcontainamixof psychologymajorsandnonmajors.Thetextisappropriateforcoursesatfour-yearcollegesanduniversities,as wellasattwo-yearcommunitycollegesAlthoughthebookiswrittenatalevelthatmakesthematerial accessibletostudentswhoarerelativelynewtothefieldofpsychology,thecoverageoftopicsis comprehensive.Thetextincludes“classic”theoriesandresearchalongwiththelatestdevelopmentsand innovationstomakethisathoroughandchallengingoverviewofthefieldInstructorswillfindthisthemost thoroughlyreferencedI/Opsychologytextonthemarket!
What’sNew:TheSeventhEdition Theworldofworkandworktechnologycontinuestochangeandevolve.Ithasbeenseveralyearssincethe lastedition,sotherehasbeenathoroughupdating,butthebasicstructureofthetexthasremainedthesame fromthelasteditionTherearesomenewtopicsadded,including:
❚ Afocusonthebroaderconstructofjobengagement,withjobsatisfaction,organizational commitment,andotherpositiveemployeeattitudesandbehaviorsascomponentsofengagement
❚ Morestudent-orientedfeatures
❚ Newandexpandedcoverageofinternationalissues
❚ Cutting-edgetopicssuchasworkplacebullying,virtualteamsandorganizations,agile organizationstructures,andweb-basedtrainingandassessment
–Anewsectiononself-determinationtheoryinthemotivationchapterandanew sectiononcounterproductiveanddeviantworkbehaviors.
❚ ThoroughlyupdatedThelatestresearchoneachkeytopichasbeenincludedTherearemore than250newreferencesinthisedition,mostpublishedwithinthelastfiveyearsAgain,studentswill findthisanexcellentresourcefortermpapersandintheirfuturecoursework
❚ Expandedinstructor’smanualandancillariesTheinstructor’smanualandtestbankhave beenexpanded,thoroughlyrevised,andupdatedandincludesexercises,PowerPointpresentations,and additionalmaterial
TextStructure IntroductiontoIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychologyisdividedintofourpartsPartIprovidesanintroduction tothefieldandanoverviewofresearchmethodsusedbyI/OpsychologistsPartIIcoversemployeeand personnelissues,includingseparatechaptersonjobanalysis,employeeselectionandplacement,assessing potentialemployees,evaluatingemployeeperformance,andemployeetrainingPartIIIiscalled“Worker Issues”anddealswithprocessesthatareworkercentered:workermotivation,positiveworkattitudesand behaviors,andnegativeworkattitudesandbehaviorsPartIVcoversorganizationaltopicsthataregroup oriented:communication,groupprocesses,leadership,organizationalpowerandpolitics,organizational structure,andcultureanddevelopment
SpecialfeaturesincludedineachchapterofIntroductiontoIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology complementthetextnarrativeandprovidefurtherillustrationsandexamplesofI/Opsychologyinthe“real world”Oneofthesefeatures,ApplyingI/OPsychology,takessomeofthetheoreticalandresearchmaterial presentedinthechapterandshowshowI/Opsychologistsapplythisknowledgetomakepositivechangesin actualworksettings.Asecondfeature,UpClose(whichisparticularlystudentoriented),providesstudents withpracticalinformationconcerninghowI/Opsychologycanincreaseunderstandingofeverydaywork situationsAthirdfeature,OntheCuttingEdge,highlightsmorecurrentareasofresearchorpracticeinI/O psychology.InsideTips,foundatthebeginningofeachchapter,isdesignedtoconnectchaptersandhelp studentsseethe“bigpicture”ofthefieldofI/Opsychology,aswellastoprovidespecificstudytips
ThechaptersaredesignedtofacilitatelearningEachchapterbeginswithanoutlineofthetopicsandends withachaptersummaryandaseriesofstudyquestions/exercisesthathelpstudentsreviewandthinkabout thechaptermaterialStop&ReviewquestionsarestrategicallyplacedinthemarginsThesequestionsare designedtoallowthestudentto“self-test”whethersheorhehasretainedimportantmaterialjustreador studied.Aglossaryofkeytermsalsoappearsthroughoutthechapters,withamorecompletealphabetical glossaryattheendofthebook
Thetextiscomplementedbyinstructor’sresourcematerialspreparedandupdatedbyourteamoffaculty whohaveexperiencewiththecourseandtext.Wehaveworkedhardtomakethisancillarypackagethebest availableItincludesdetailedoutlines,suggestionsforlectures,discussionquestions,in-classexercises, audiovisualresources,andotherspecialfeatures
Acknowledgments Iwouldliketothankthemanyadoptersofthepreviouseditionsofthetext.Manyofyouhaveprovided importantfeedbackthathashelpedinrevisionsIwouldalsoliketothankthemanyreviewerswhosevaluable inputhelpedshapethesixeditionsofthetextTheyhavebecometoonumeroustolist,butspecialthanksto JohnF.Binning,IllinoisStateUniversity,andChrisCozby,CaliforniaStateUniversity,Fullerton.
SpecialthanksgotomyresearchassistantsthroughouttheyearsIwelcomeallcomments,criticisms,and suggestionsPleasecontactmeat:
RonaldERiggio,PhD KravisLeadershipInstitute ClaremontMcKennaCollege 850ColumbiaAvenue Claremont,CA91711
e-mail:ronriggio@cmcedu
FollowmeonTwitter:http://twittercom/#!/ronriggio
Thisbookwaswrittenforyou.WhenIdecidedtowritethefirsteditionofthistextin1987,Ididsobecause mystudentscomplainedaboutthetextsIhadbeenusingIwasnothappywiththemeitherTheysimply weren’taccessibleTheyweretootechnicalandnot“studentfriendly”SowhenIwrotethisbook(and subsequenteditions),IhavetriedtokeepmystudentsinmindeverystepofthewayIhavetriedtokeepthe bookcurrent,readable,andrelevanttostudents’currentandfutureworkinglivesTherearespecialfeatures, suchastheStop&Reviewquestions,thatwerecreatedtohelpyoudetermineifyouareretainingthematerial youarereadingandstudying
Thistextissetuptocoverthebroad-rangingfieldofI/Opsychology,andI’vetriedtokeepitinterestingand livelyInaddition,thetextisdesignednotonlytomaximizelearning,butalsotobearesourcebookfor continuedexplorationsofthefieldofI/OpsychologyForinstance,thereiscareerandeducationalinformation aboutthefield,andthebookisthoroughlyreferenced.Althoughsomestudentsmayfinditdistractingtohave pointsreferencedwith“(Author,year)”throughout,thesereferenceswillbeextremelyusefulinfinding startingpointsfortermpapersorfutureexplorationIhopethatyouwillfindthistextanimportant, permanentadditiontoyourpersonallibrary.Itisabookthatcanbeusedinfuturescholarlywork,andyou willfinditausefulreferenceinyourlatercareer
Iwouldliketothankthestudentreadersofpreviouseditionsfortheirvaluableinput,suggestions,and commentsaboutthetext.Pleaseletmehearfromyouaswell.
HowtoReadandStudyThisBook Thisbookissetuptomaximizeyourlearningaboutindustrial/organizationalpsychologyKeytermsaresetin boldfacetypewhentheyarefirstdiscussed,andbriefdefinitionsofthesetermsappearintheadjacentmargins (longerdefinitionsareattheendinaglossary).Youshouldlookoverthekeytermsbeforeyoubeginreadinga chapterandthenalertyourselftothemasyoureadAsyoumovealong,youcantestyourselfbyusingthe margindefinitionsOfcourse,thekeytermsdealonlywithmajorpointsineachchapter,forthereismuch moretomasteringthematerial.Notonlyshouldyoubeabletodefineimportanttermsandconcepts,butyou shouldalsoknowhowtheyapplytoworkbehaviorAsyoulearntheimportantpointsmadethroughoutthe book,stopoccasionallyandaskyourselfsuchquestionsas,“HowdoesthisapplytotheworkingworldthatI know?”“HaveIseenexamplesofthisconceptbefore?”“HowcanthematerialthatIamlearningbeappliedin myownworkinglife?”“Howcanthisnewinformationhelpmetoseeworkandworkbehaviorinanew way?”
AlsolocatedinthemarginsarebriefStop&Reviewquestions.Theirpurposeistostopyouatcertainpoints inyourreading/studyingsothatyoucangobackandreviewthematerialjustcoveredOften,studentsfind thattheygetcaughtupinthereading,andtheyforgettoretain,or“encode,”thematerialforlaterrecallThe reviewquestionsareintendedtohelpyoucheckifyouareretainingimportantpiecesofinformation.
ThreeotherchapterfeaturesarealsosetofffromthetextThefirst,ApplyingI/OPsychology,dealswith specificapplicationsofI/OpsychologytheoriesorconceptsTheUpClosefeatureoffershelpfulresearch-based informationthatcanfurtheryourunderstandingofyourpast,present,orfutureworldofwork.Theseusually takeahow-toapproachtosomecommonissueorproblematworkFinally,OntheCuttingEdgeofferssome ofthelatestdevelopmentsinthefield
AtthebeginningofeachchapterisanotherlearningaidcalledInsideTipsThisaidwillhelpyouunderstand howthevariouschaptersandtopicareasfittogetherTheymayalsooffersuggestionsonhowtostudythe informationinthechapter
AttheendofeachchapterisabriefsummaryofthecentralconceptsTherearealsostudyquestionsand exercisesdesignedtomakeyouthinkalittlemoreaboutthetopicspresentedandtoreviewandapplywhat youhavelearnedFinally,therearesuggestionsforadditionalreadingTheseusuallyincludeatleastone referencebookrelatedtothegeneralthemeofthechapter(usefulasastartingpointforresearchpapers)anda coupleoftopicalreadingsbooksorjournalreviewarticlesonaspecifictopic.WelcometoI/Opsychology.
PartI Introduction Chapter1 Introduction:DefinitionsandHistory CHAPTEROUTLINE
WhatisIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology?
TheScienceandPracticeofIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology
TheRootsandEarlyHistoryofIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology
TheBeginnings
WorldWarIandthe1920s
TheGreatDepressionYearsandWorldWarII
ThePostwarYearsandtheModernEra
Industrial/OrganizationalPsychologyTodayandintheFuture
FirstTrend:TheChangingNatureofWork
SecondTrend:ExpandingFocusonHumanResources
ThirdTrend:IncreasingDiversityandGlobalizationoftheWorkforce
FourthTrend:IncreasingRelevanceofI/OPsychologyinPolicyandPractice
Summary
InsideTips
UNDERSTANDINGINDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONALPSYCHOLOGY
ThisfirstchapterisintendedtodefineI/Opsychologyandtogiveyouafeelforwhatthefieldisallaboutand whatI/Opsychologistsdo.TheexamplesdrawnfromtheearlyhistoryofI/Opsychologyandthediscussionof currentandfuturetrendsshowhowfarthefieldhasprogressedovertime
Becauseindustrial/organizationalpsychologyissobroadinitsscope,itisnoteasytogainagood understandingoftheentirefieldbysimplylearningdefinitionsorstudyingsomeofitshistoricalroots;tofully comprehendthescopeofI/Opsychology,youneedtogetthroughthisentiretextbook.Chapters1and2provide anintroductionandanoverviewofmethodsusedbyI/OpsychologiststoconductresearchEachchapter,from Chapters3through15,presentsageneraltopicandseveralspecialtiesthatI/OpsychologistsstudyAsyougo throughthebook,stepbackandtrytoseehowthevarioustopicsfittogether.Youwillthenbegintofindthe threadsthatholdthefieldofI/Opsychologytogether
Likeitornot,youandIwillspendabigpartofourwakinglivesworkingNotonlydoesworktakeupalarge chunkoftheday,italsooftengovernswherewelive,howwelive,andthekindsofpeoplewithwhomwe associateItmakessense,then,thatweshouldwanttolearnmoreabouttheworldofworkandourownwork behavior
Haveyoueverwonderedwhatmotivatespeopletowork,whatmakessomeoneagoodmanagerorleader,or whysomepeoplearecompetent,loyalworkers,whereasothersareuntrustworthyandunreliable?Haveyou everconsideredthewaysaparticularjobmightberedesignedtomakeitmoreefficientortheprocessesby whichlargeorganizationsmakedecisions?Haveyounoticedthatworkcansometimesbeveryengaginganda greatsourceofsatisfaction,butitcanalsobeterriblystressfulattimes?Industrial/organizationalpsychologists
havestudiedalltheseandotherquestionsandissues
Inthischapter,wewilldefinethefieldofindustrial/organizationalpsychology,lookatsomeofthespecialty areaswithinthediscipline,andlearnabitaboutwhatindustrial/organizationalpsychologistsdoWewillalso lookbrieflyatthehistoryofindustrial/organizationalpsychology,focusingonsomeoftheimportantearly developmentsinthefieldFinally,wewillconsiderindustrial/organizationalpsychologytodaytoseehowthe fieldisprogressing,andwewillexaminesomeoftheimportanttrendsnowandforthenearfuture
WhatIsIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology? Psychologyisthescientificstudyofbehaviorandmentalprocesses.Psychologistsusesystematicscientific methodsinanefforttounderstandmoreaboutthehowsandwhysofbehaviorandhumanthoughtprocesses Withinthebroadfieldofpsychologyaremanyspecialtyareas,eachofwhichfocusesonadifferentaspectof behavior.Forinstance,developmentalpsychologyfocusesondevelopmentalbehavioroverthelifespan, cognitivepsychologystudieshumanthinking(cognition)andhowthemindworks,andsocialpsychology studieshumansocialbehaviorTherearealsospecialtiesinpsychologythataremoreappliedForexample, legal(orforensic)psychologyfocusesonthelaw,andschoolpsychologylooksatbehaviorinaneducational settingIndustrial/organizationalpsychologyisoneofthemoreappliedareasofpsychology
Psychologythestudyofbehaviorandmentalprocesses
Industrial/Organizational(I/O)Psychologythebranchofpsychologythatisconcernedwiththestudy ofbehaviorinworksettingsandtheapplicationofpsychologyprinciplestochangeworkbehavior
Industrial/organizational(I/O)psychologyisthatspecialtyareawithinthebroadfieldofpsychologythat studieshumanbehaviorinworksettingsAsyoumightimagine,thestudyofhumanbehaviorinworksettings isalargeundertaking.Mostjobsarequitecomplicated,requiringtheuseofawiderangeofmentalandmotor skillsWorkorganizationsareoftenlargeandcomplexentitiesmadeupofhundredsoreventhousandsof workerswhomustinteractandcoordinateactivitiestoproducesomeproduct,service,orinformationMore andmoreoften,workersarephysicallydistantfromoneanother,workingindifferentpartsofthecountryor theworld,coordinatingtheirworkactivitiesthroughonlinenetworksandothercommunicationtechnologies
SomeI/Opsychologistsstudythebasicpersonnelfunctionswithinorganizations,suchasthewayworkers arerecruitedandselected,howemployeesaretrainedanddeveloped,andthemeasurementofemployeejob performanceOtherI/Opsychologistsstudythepsychologicalprocessesunderlyingworkbehavior,suchasthe motivationtowork,andworkerfeelingsofjobsatisfactionandstressStillotherI/Opsychologistsfocuson groupprocessesintheworkplace,includingtherelationshipsbetweenworkplacesupervisorsandsubordinates, andhowgroupsofworkerscoordinatetogetthejobdoneFinally,somepsychologistsandothersocial scientistsstudythebroaderpicture,includingthestructureofworkorganizationsandhowthephysical,social, andpsychologicalenvironmentsaffectworkerbehavior.Thestructureofthistextbookwillparallelthese variousareasofsubspecializationinI/Opsychologyandrelatedareas(Itisimportanttonotethat “industrial/organizationalpsychology”istheUSterm;inEuropeandinotherpartsoftheworld,thissame areaofspecializationisreferredtoas“workandorganizationalpsychology”)
I/Opsychologyhastwoobjectives:first,toconductresearchinanefforttoincreaseourknowledgeand understandingofhumanworkbehavior;andsecond,toapplythatknowledgetoimprovetheworkbehavior, theworkenvironment,andthepsychologicalconditionsofworkersThus,I/Opsychologistsaretrainedtobe bothscientistsandpractitioners,inwhatisreferredtoasthescientist–practitionermodelAlthoughsomeI/O psychologistsmayidentifyprimarilyaseitherscientistsorpractitioners,mostI/Opsychologistsbelievethat thebestpractitionersarestronglybasedinthescienceofI/Opsychology(Anderson,Herriot,&Hodgkinson, 2001;Katzell&Austin,1992)TherehavebeenmanycallsforI/Oscholarsandpractitionerstoworkmore closelytogethersothatresearchinformsthepracticeofI/Opsychology,improvingworkplaces(e.g.,Cascio& Aguinis,2008)
ThescientificobjectiveofI/Opsychologyinvolvesthestudyandunderstandingofallaspectsofbehaviorat work.Asscientists,I/Opsychologistsconductresearchandpublishtheresultsoftheseeffortsinprofessional journalssuchasthoselistedinTable11Theinformationpublishedinthesejournalshelpsinformthepractice ofI/Opsychology(Latham,2001)WewilldiscussthescientificobjectiveingreatdepthinChapter2
Itisimportanttorealize,however,thatthestudyofworkbehaviorisamultidisciplinary,cooperative ventureIndustrial/organizationalpsychologistsarenottheonlyprofessionalswhostudyworkbehavior Researchersinthefieldsofmanagement,sociology,politicalscience,organizationalcommunication, economics,andseveralothersocialsciencescontributetowhatweknowandunderstandabouttheworkerand workorganizationsBecausethisresearchtakesplaceonmanyfronts,I/Opsychologistsneedtobeawareof recentdevelopmentsinotherfieldsAquicklookatthetitlesofjournalsthatpublishresearchofinteresttoI/O psychologistsillustratesthemultidisciplinarynatureofthestudyofworkbehavior,includingsuchtermsas management,business,personnel,andtherelatedareaofergonomics(seeTable11)
Table11JournalsPublishingResearchinIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychologyandRelatedAreas
AcademyofManagementJournal Ergonomics
InternationalJournalofSelectionandAssessment
TheLeadershipQuarterly AcademyofManagementLearningandEducation GroupDynamics
InternationalReviewofI/OPsychology OrganizationScience
AcademyofManagementPerspectives GroupandOrganizationManagement
JournalofAppliedPsychology OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecision
AcademyofManagementReview Processes
JournalofAppliedSocialPsychology HumanFactors
AdministrativeScienceQuarterly OrganizationalDynamics
JournalofBusinessandPsychology HumanPerformance
AmericanPsychologist
JournalofLeadershipandOrganizational
JournalofBusinessResearch Psychology
ConsultingPsychologyJournal Personnel
AnnualReviewofPsychology HumanRelations
JournalofManagement Leadership
EuropeanJournalofWorkand PersonnelPsychology
OrganizationalPsychology
TheIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychologist
JournalofOccupationaland (TIP:thenewsletteroftheSocietyfor OrganizationalPsychology IndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology)
AppliedPsychologicalMeasurement TrainingandDevelopmentJournal
JournalofOrganizationalBehavior Work&Stress
IndustrialandOrganizationalPsychology: PerspectivesonScienceandPractice
Themultidisciplinarynatureofthestudyofworkbehaviormaybeillustratedbycurrentresearchonvirtual workteams.Greaternumbersofworkersarephysicallydistantfromoneanother.Yettheseworkersmust collaborateandworktogetherinteamsInstudyingvirtualworkteams,aninformationscientistmightbe concernedwiththeissueofimprovingtheinformationtechnologysothattheteammemberscancoordinate activitiesefficiently.Anorganizationalcommunicationspecialistmightbeconcernedwithunderstandinghow
thelossofthenonverbalcuespresentinface-to-faceworkteamsmightadverselyaffectthedevelopmentof goodworkingrelationshipsamongteammembersAcognitivescientistmightwanttostudytheprocessesby whichvirtualteamsgenerateideasandmakedecisionsAmanagementexpertcouldbeprimarilyconcerned withhowtoleadandmanagevirtualworkteams,whereasaneconomistmightconcentrateonthecostsand benefitsofvirtualorganizationsManyworkissuesaresimilarlycomplexandneedtobeexaminedfroma varietyofperspectivesMostimportant,weneedtokeepanopenmindandstayintouchwithwhatother disciplinesaredoingifwearegoingtotrulyunderstandtheworkingworldandhumanworkbehavior
TheappliedobjectiveofI/Opsychologyinvolvestheapplicationofpsychologicalprinciplesandof knowledgegleanedfrompsychologicalresearchtoworkbehaviorAspractitioners,I/Opsychologistsmaybe calledontodealwithspecificwork-relatedproblemsorissuesForexample,anI/Opsychologistmight evaluateanemployeetestingprogramorconductanemployeeattitudesurveyorsometypeofemployee trainingprogram
TheRootsandEarlyHistoryofIndustrial/OrganizationalPsychology TounderstandtheimpactthatI/Opsychologyhashadontheworldofwork,itisimportanttoknowalittlebit aboutthehistoryofthefieldWewillexaminehistoricalperiodsinI/Opsychology’spastandfocusona significanteventorimportantphenomenonineachtimeperiodWewilllaterlookatthepresentandfutureof I/Opsychology
Source:Bettmann/GettyImages
TheBeginnings
Aroundtheturnofthe20thcentury,whenthefieldofpsychologywasstillinitsinfancy,afewearly psychologistsdabbledinthestudyofworkbehaviorForexample,HugoMunsterbergwasanexperimental psychologistwhobecameinterestedinthedesignofworkandpersonnelselectionforjobssuchasstreetcar operator(Munsterberg,1913).Anotherexperimentalpsychologistwhopioneeredthefieldofindustrial psychology(thebroaderlabel,“industrial/organizationalpsychology,”wasnotusedextensivelyuntilthe1970s) wasWalterDillScott,whowasinterestedinstudyingsalespersonsandthepsychologyofadvertising(Scott, 1908).Scottwentontobecomethefirstprofessorinthisnewfieldandstartedaconsultingcompanyto practicewhatwasbeinglearnedfromresearch
AnotherearlysparkthathelpedignitethefieldofI/Opsychologywasprovidednotbyapsychologist,but byanengineernamedFrederickW.Taylor(Figure1.1).Taylorbelievedthatscientificprinciplescouldbe appliedtothestudyofworkbehaviortohelpincreaseworkerefficiencyandproductivityHefeltthatthere was “onebestmethod”forperformingaparticularjobBybreakingthejobdownscientificallyintomeasurable componentmovementsandrecordingthetimeneededtoperformeachmovement,Taylorbelievedthathe coulddevelopthefastest,mostefficientwayofperforminganytaskHewasquitesuccessfulinapplyinghis methods,whichbecameknownastime-and-motionstudiesThesetime-and-motionproceduresoften
Figure11FrederickWTaylorwasthefounderofthescientificmanagementmovement
doubled,tripled,andevenquadrupledlaboreroutput!Taylor’ssystemforapplyingscientificprinciplesto increaseworkefficiencyandproductivityeventuallybecameknownasscientificmanagementInadditionto applyingtime-and-motionprocedures,Taylorincorporatedintohissystemofscientificmanagementother considerations,suchasselectionofworkersbasedonabilitiesandtheuseofpropertools(Taylor,1911)
Time-and-MotionStudiesproceduresinwhichworktasksarebrokendownintosimplecomponent movementsandthemovementstimedtodevelopamoreefficientmethodforperformingthetasks ScientificManagementbegunbyFrederickTaylor,amethodofusingscientificprinciplestoimprovethe efficiencyandproductivityofjobs
Taylorandhisfollowers,includingthehusband-and-wifeteamofFrankandLillianGilbreth(Lillian GilbrethwasoneoftheearliestwomenI/Opsychologists;Figure12),implementedtheprinciplesofscientific managementandrevolutionizedseveralphysicallaborjobsbymakingtheacceptedworkproceduresmore efficientandproductive(Gilbreth,1916)Forexample,scientificmanagementprinciplesandproceduressuchas time-and-motionstudiesgreatlyimprovedtheefficiencyofawidevarietyoftypicaltypesofjobs,including cabinetmaking,clericalfiling,lumbersawing,andthemakingofreinforcedconcreteslabs(increasedfrom80 to425slabsperday!)(Lowry,Maynard,&Stegemerten,1940)
Unfortunately,Taylor’sphilosophywasquitenarrowandlimited.Inhisday,manyjobsinvolvedmanual laborandwerethuseasilybrokendownandmademoreefficientthroughtheapplicationofprinciplesof scientificmanagementToday,jobsaremuchmorecomplexandoftenrequiresophisticatedproblem-solving skillsortheuseofcreativethinking.Fewerandfewerpeopleengageinphysicallabor.Manyofthese“higherlevel”tasksarenotamenabletotime-and-motionstudiesInotherwords,thereisprobablynotonebest methodforcreatingcomputersoftware,developinganadvertisingcampaign,ormanagingpeople
CloseWhatDoesanI/OPsychologistReallyDo? OneofthemostcommonquestionsaskedbystudentsinI/Opsychologycoursesis,“WhatdoesanI/O psychologistdo,really?”TheanswertothisquestionisnotsimpleforacoupleofreasonsFirst,many undergraduatestudentsandlaypersonshavenothadmuchexposuretoI/Opsychologists,eitherface-tofaceorinthemediaUnlikeclinicalpsychologists,whoarefrequentlydepictedinfilms,interviewedon newsshows,andstereotypedincartoonsandonTV,mostpeoplehaveneverseenanI/OpsychologistA secondandmoreimportantreasonwhyitisdifficulttounderstandwhatI/Opsychologistsdoisbecause I/OpsychologistsdosomanydifferentkindsofthingsI/Opsychologyisabroadfieldencompassinga largenumberofspecialtyareas,manyofwhicharequiteunrelatedtooneanotherConsequently,itis nexttoimpossibletotalkabouta“typical”I/Opsychologist.
Inadditiontoperformingavarietyofjobsandtasks,I/Opsychologistresearchersandpractitioners (PhDlevel)areemployedinavarietyofsettings,withabout40%employedincollegesanduniversities; about20%workinginresearchorconsultingfirms;about20%workingforbusinessesandindustries;and about10%employedinfederal,state,orlocalgovernment(Khanna&Medsker,2010)Themajorityof individualswithmaster’sdegreesinI/Opsychologyareworkingintheprivatesectororingovernment positions.What’smore,I/Opsychologyisa“hot”andgrowingfield.TheU.S.DepartmentofLabor predictsthatemploymentforI/Opsychologistswillgrowby26%through2018,andlikelycontinueinto thefuture
I/OpsychologistsworkforavarietyofmajorU.S.andinternationalcorporations,includingAmazon, DowChemical,FordMotorCompany,Verizon,Toyota,Disney,StandardOil,Google,Unisys,United Airlines,andPepsiTheycanholdjobtitlessuchasDirectorofHumanResources,PersonnelResearch Psychologist,VicePresidentofEmployeeDevelopment,ManagerofEmployeeRelations,Senior EmploymentSpecialist,TestingSpecialist,QualityPerformanceManager,Consultant,andStaff
OrganizationalPsychologist TohelpyoubetterunderstandwhatI/Opsychologistsdo,aswellashelpyouunderstandthediverse areasofspecializationwithinI/Opsychology,let’slookatsomebriefprofilesofactualI/Opsychologists
DrMisanI/OpsychologistworkingforalargeaerospacefirmHermainareaofexpertiseis sophisticatedrobotsystems,andshehashelpeddesignandtestseveralsophisticatedrobotlikesystemsfor useinouterspaceDrMmaintainsthathertraininginresearchmethods,whichallowshertoapproach workproblemssystematically,wasthemostvaluablepartofheracademiceducation
Dr.CreceivedhisPhDinI/Opsychologyinthe1970s.Hisfirstjobwasconductingresearchforthe GeneralTelephoneandElectronicsLaboratoriesontheorganizationalprocessesinsomeofthecompany’s operationalunits,includingassessingjobsatisfaction,facilitatingcommunication,andhelpingtoresolve conflicts.Someyearslater,Dr.Cjoinedalargeconsultingfirm,andhecurrentlyisemployedbyan internationalconsultingcompanywhereheconductssurveyfeedbackandotherorganizational developmentprogramsforavarietyofbusinessesandorganizations
Dr.HwasoriginallyanI/OpsychologistintheU.S.Navy.Hisresponsibilitiesthereincluded developingandresearchingplacementsystemsforcertainNavypersonnelHecurrentlyworksforthe USgovernmentasagrantofficerhelpingtodeterminefundingdecisionsforpsychologicalresearch projects.
DrRisanI/OpsychologistwhoownsaprivateconsultingpracticeinasmallMidwesterncityBefore becominganindependentconsultant,DrRworkedforalargeconsultingfirminametropolitanarea, whereheconductedjobanalysesandrantrainingseminarsforbusinesses.Hisdecisiontomovetoaless urbanareawasprimarilyresponsibleforhisdecisiontostartanindependentpracticeDrRspecializesin personnelselection,jobanalysis,andthedesignoftraininganddevelopmentprograms,althoughhe occasionallyengagesinotheractivitiessuchasconductingattitudeandmarketingsurveysandservingas anexpertwitnessinlabor-relatedlegalcasesInasense,hehashadtobecomean industrial/organizational“jack-of-all-trades”becauseheisoneofthefewI/Opsychologistsinhisregion DrRclaimsthatthemostvaluabletraininghereceivedwasinstatistics,psychology,andthebusiness coursesthathetookafterreceivinghisPhDsothathecouldbecomemoreknowledgeableaboutvarious businessoperationsandlearnbusinessterminology
MsOreceivedamaster’sdegreeinindustrial/organizationalpsychologyjustafewyearsagoSheisan assistantdirectorofmarketingresearchforanationalchainoffast-foodrestaurants.Herdutiesinclude researchingthesitesfornewrestaurantsanddesigningandorganizingcustomersatisfactionsurveysMs OalsoteachesI/Opsychologyandmarketingcoursesatalocalcommunitycollege
Dr.P,anI/Opsychologist,isaprofessorintheschoolofmanagementinalargestateuniversity.He previouslyheldacademicpositionsinuniversitypsychologydepartmentsDrPisquitewellknownand respectedforhisresearchinI/OpsychologyInadditiontohisresearchandteaching,DrPhasservedas aconsultantforseverallargecorporations,includingmanyFortune500companies.
MrK,whohasamaster’sdegreeinorganizationalpsychology,isthedirectorofhumanresourcesfora biomedicalcompany,whichmeansthatheisresponsiblefortheadministrationofallfacetsofhuman resourcesforhisorganization.Mr.Koverseespayroll,benefits,compensation,andpersonnelactivities suchasthedevelopmentofjobdescriptions,employeeselection,andpersonneltrainingHealsohasan activeinternshipprogramthatusesundergraduateandgraduatestudentsasinternswhohelpsetup specialhumanresourceprogramsforhisemployees.
Afterasuccessfulcareerinthefinanceindustry,DrAwentbacktograduateschoolandreceivedher PhDinindustrial/organizationalpsychologyShehasworkedinthehumanresourcesdepartmentat AT&TandhaspublishedbooksandresearcharticlesonavarietyoftopicsinI/Opsychology.Sheis currentlypresidentofaconsultingorganizationandisquiteactiveinresearchandprofessionalaffairsin thefield
ItisimportanttoemphasizethatscientificmanagementandI/Opsychologyarenotdirectlyconnected, althoughtheprinciplesofscientificmanagementdidhaveaninfluenceonthedevelopmentofI/Opsychology Today,industrialengineerscarryonthetraditionofscientificmanagementineffortstoimprovetheefficiency ofjobs.AlthoughworkefficiencyandincreasedproductivityarecertainlyimportanttoI/Opsychologists,I/O
psychologylooksbeyondefficiencytoexaminetheimpactofworkproceduresandconditionsontheworking person
Stop&Review DescribeindetailthetwoobjectivesofI/Opsychology.
WorldWarIandthe1920s
AttheoutbreakofWorldWarI,RobertYerkes,whowaspresidentoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation, andagroupofpsychologistsworkedwiththeUSArmytocreateintelligencetestsfortheplacementofArmy recruitsTheArmyAlphaandBetatests(theAlphatestwasusedforthosewhocouldread;theBetatestfor non-literaterecruits)representedthefirstmasstestingeffortsandsetthestageforfuturetestingefforts.Even today,employeetestingandselectionisanimportantareaofI/OpsychologyFollowingWorldWarI, psychologistsbegantobeinvolvedinthescreeningandplacementofpersonnelinindustryThroughoutthe 1920s,whiletheU.S.wasexperiencingtremendousindustrialgrowth,industrialpsychologybegantotakehold: thefirstdoctoraldegreeinindustrialpsychologywasawardedin1921,andpsychologistsworkeddirectlywith industriesasconsultantsandresearchers(Katzell&Austin,1992)
Source:Harris&Ewing,SmithsonianInstitutionArchives,Accession90–105,Image#SIA2008–1924,WikimediaCommons
Itwasalsointhe1920sthatthefirstpsychologicalconsultingorganizationsbeganWalterDillScottopened ashort-livedpersonnelconsultingfirmin1919,andthePsychologicalCorporationwasfoundedbyJames McKeenCattellin1921(Vinchur&Koppes,2011)Today,consultingorganizationsoffertheirservicesto businessandindustryInfact,thedifficulteconomictimesintheearlypartofthe21stcenturyledto organizationaldownsizing,andmanylargerorganizationsthatemployedI/Opsychologistsinhouse eliminatedthosepositionsandnowoutsourcetheirworktoconsultingfirmsAsaresult,consultingfirmsare thrivingandareamajorplaceofemploymentforI/Opsychologists
TheGreatDepressionYearsandWorldWarII AstheU.S.economyslumpedduringthe1930s,therewaslessopportunityforindustrialpsychologiststowork withindustriesandbusinessesAlthoughindustrialpsychologycontinuedtogrowataslowerpace,an importantdevelopmentcameoutofthisperiodfromagroupofHarvardpsychologistswhowereconductinga seriesofexperimentsatamanufacturingplantoftheWesternElectricCompanyinHawthorne,Illinois. ResearcherEltonMayoandhiscolleagueswantedtostudytheeffectsofthephysicalworkenvironmenton workerproductivity
Inthemostfamousoftheexperiments,Mayoexploredtheeffectsoflightingonworkerproductivity.
Figure12LillianGilbrethwasaninfluentialearlyI/Opsychologist
Focusingonagroupofwomenwhowereassemblingelectricalrelay-switchingdevices,hesystematically variedthelevelofilluminationintheroomHeexpectedtobeabletodeterminetheoptimalleveloflighting forperformingthetaskHowever,theresultsweresurprisinganddramaticallychangedpsychologists’viewsof theworkerfromthenonNomatterwhatlevelthelightingwassetat,productivityincreased!Whenlighting wasincreased,workeroutputwentupFurtherincreasetoverybrightilluminationresultedinfurther improvementTurningthelightsdown(eventosuchlowlevelsthatitappearedthatthewomenwereworking inmoonlight)alsoledtoincreasesinproductivityTherewasasteadyincreaseinworkers’outputfollowing anychangeinlighting.Inotherstudies,Mayosystematicallyvariedthelengthandtimingofworkbreaks. Longerbreaks,shorterbreaks,andmoreorfewerbreaksallresultedinasteadyincreaseinworkeroutput (Mayo,1933)
Mayoknewthateverychangeintheworkenvironmentcouldnotpossiblybecausingthesteadyrisesin workerproductivitySomethingelsehadtobeaffectingoutputUponcloserexamination,heconcludedthat theworkerswerebeingaffectednotbythechangesinthephysicalenvironmentbutbythesimplefactthat theyknewtheywerebeingobserved.AccordingtoMayo,theseworkersbelievedthatthestudieswerebeing conductedinanefforttoimproveworkprocedures,andtheirpositiveexpectations,coupledwiththeir knowledgeoftheobservations,seemedtoMayotodeterminetheirconsistentincreasesinproductivity,a phenomenonthathasbeenlabeledtheHawthorneeffect.AlthoughinthefirstexamplediscoveredbyMayo the“Hawthorneeffect”waspositive,resultinginincreasedproductivity,thiswasnotalwaysthecaseIn anotherofhisstudies,workgroupproductivityfellfollowingtheintroductionofchangesinthework environment.Becausetheseworkersbelievedthattheresultsofthestudieswouldleadtomoredemanding productionquotas,theyrestrictedoutputwhenevertheywerebeingobserved,thusproducinga“negative” Hawthorneeffect(Roethlisberger&Dickson,1939)
HawthorneEffectchangesinbehavioroccurringasafunctionofparticipants’knowledgethattheyare beingobservedandtheirexpectationsconcerningtheirroleasresearchparticipants
AlthoughresearchershavenotedanumberofseriousflawsinthemethodsMayousedtoconductthe Hawthorneexperiments(seeChapter2),thegeneralconclusionsreachedbyMayoandhiscolleaguesresulted inthedevelopmentofthehumanrelationsmovement,whichrecognizedtheimportanceofsocialfactorsand somethingcalled“workermorale”ininfluencingworkproductivity.Infact,thismovementstatedthata harmoniousworkenvironment,withgoodinterpersonalrelationshipsamongcoworkers,shouldbea productiveworkenvironment,particularlywhentheworkitselfisboringormonotonousAccordingtoMayo, workersinrepetitiveorlow-levelpositionsjobsthatdonotthemselvesprovidesatisfactionwillturntothe socialenvironmentoftheworksettingformotivation
HumanRelationsMovementamovementbasedonthestudiesofEltonMayothatemphasizesthe importanceofsocialfactorsininfluencingworkperformance
WorldWarIIalsocontributedgreatlytothegrowthofI/OpsychologyFirst,thetremendousneedforstateof-the-artmachinery,andtheincreasingcomplexityofthatmachinery,wasanimportantimpetusforhuman factorspsychologyandfortrainingsoldierstooperatetheequipmentSecond,I/Opsychologistswerecalledon toimproveselectionandplacementofmilitarypersonnel,continuingtheworkthatpsychologistshadbegun duringWorldWarI
TheArmyGeneralClassificationTest,agroup-administered,pencil-and-papertest,wasdevelopedto separaterecruitsintocategoriesbasedontheirabilitiestolearnmilitarydutiesandresponsibilitiesScreening testswerealsocreatedtoselectcandidatesforofficertrainingInaddition,psychologistshelpedtheUSOffice ofStrategicServices(OSS)theforerunneroftoday’sCIAdevelopintensiveassessmentstrategiesfor selectingcandidatesfordangerousespionagepositionsSomeofthesetechniquesincluded“hands-on”
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