High pressure processing of food principles technology and applications 1st edition v.m. balasubrama
Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://textbookfull.com/product/high-pressure-processing-of-food-principles-technolo gy-and-applications-1st-edition-v-m-balasubramaniam/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant download maybe you interests ...
Food processing technology: principles and practice
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Preface
High-pressure processing (HPP) of food, one of the most successful nonthermal technologies, has been adopted by the food industry because of the number of advantages it offers to some conventional methods of preservation. The high demand for minimally processed foods, but at the same time very safe, makes this technology appropriate for a number of applications. HPP could replace or partially replace well-accepted technologies because it offers the opportunity for the development of new products and it might bring an alternative to address processing issues not yet resolved.
The possibility to use HPP to treat foods is not new, but applications at industrial scale are fairly recent. Some of the pioneering research on high pressure in food processing has been reported by Hite (1899) and Bridgman (1912). However, it took nearly 80 years for the food industry to embrace high-pressure processing as a viable food manufacturing technology for preserving a variety of value-added products of excellent quality and very safe from a microbiological point of view. HPP offers the possibility to have mildly processed, wholesome, convenient, fresh-tasting foods with minimal to no preservatives to satisfy health conscious lifestyles.
Pressure-treated jams and jellies were introduced in the Japanese market in early 1990, followed by introduction of HPP guacamole in the USA in 1997. Now highpressure processing is a commercially viable technology for the pasteurization of products of diverse origin such as meat, seafood, beverages, dairy, fruits, and vegetables that are enjoyed by consumers all over the world.
This comprehensive book includes the basic principles to understand the technology behind high-pressure processing as well as its current and future applications within the food industry. The book has 31 chapters distributed in seven parts addressing topics such as process engineering characterization, industrial equipment, packaging, microbial safety, preservation of bioactive compounds, quality changes, and applications in the food industry.
The editors are very thankful to more than 80 authors for sharing their expertise, experience, and vision to come up with very valuable chapters to make the book an excellent reference for high-pressure processing of food for the years to come. The editors are aware of some overlaps between a few chapters, but this is inevitable in
a book of this magnitude. This, however, will also help to visualize basic concepts from different angles for the benefit of the readers in this rapidly evolving field. The gratitude is extended to all the reviewers who contributed their time and expertise to improve the chapters.
It is worth mentioning that from the pioneering efforts made by the Japanese to bring this technology to fruition, to what is taking place now, a significant number of developments took place. Nonthermal strategies to process foods caught the attention of a number of institutions, scientists, regulatory agencies, the food industry, and, of course, the consumers. Several technologies were scrutinized roughly at the same time, and it is quite apparent HPP is the one that, so far, has been receiving the most attention based on its potential to process a wide variety of food products and because it is amenable to be combined with other technologies, such as in the case of pressure-assisted thermal processing (PATS), which allows sterilization of low-acid foods.
The development of HPP technology and its adoption by the food industry were expedited by a number of factors such as the vision of some of the earlier researchers, investors who believed in long-term commercial viability of the technology, as well as worldwide coordinated research and technology transfer efforts among scientists and engineers from academia, equipment manufacturer, food processors, policy makers, and regulatory agencies. In 1997, the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) Nonthermal Division and European Federation of Food Science and Technology (EFFoST) started to organize annual workshops on nonthermal processing in various European countries and a number of places in the USA. Later on, these workshops have been offered in other parts of the world such as Australia, China, and Brazil. These professional clusters facilitated the rapid growth of several nonthermal technologies, and, as mentioned before, HPP is one that has been receiving great attention. The team approach to develop these technologies has been an example of cooperation, fast development, and an unselfish manner to disseminate acquired knowledge by leading groups. The synergism between regulatory agencies, equipment manufacturers, consumer groups, scientists from research institutions, and food processors has been remarkable, maybe like never seen before. Such collaborative environment enabled fruitful technology partnership between equipment manufacturers and the food industry taking advantage of basic and applied research developed in a number of research institutions, mainly universities. Participation of regulatory authorities facilitated development of science-based regulations that are also harmonized across many countries. Academic researchers not only contributed to technology development and evaluation but also in the training of numerous postdoctoral fellows and graduate and undergraduate students as future leaders in the high-pressure industry. A number of academic institutions developed centers of excellence around nonthermal technologies facilitating interaction among all constituencies interested in exploring new alternatives to process the foods of the future. Universities also play a critical role in providing a pipeline of trained, scientifically sound, next-generation workforce with industrially relevant skills for sustained long-term success of this advanced food manufacturing industry.
We sincerely hope the book will be inspirational to entrepreneurs to continue bringing to the market new and exciting high-pressure-treated food products to enhance the health and well-being of a good number of consumers.
V.M. Balasubramaniam
Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Huub L.M. Lelieveld
Daniela Bermúdez-Aguirre, Maria G. Corradini, Kezban Candoğan, and Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas
Tara Grauwet, Iesel Van der Plancken, Liesbeth Vervoort, Marc Hendrickx, and Ann Van Loey
Daryaei, Ahmed E. Yousef, and V.M. Balasubramaniam
A.E.H. Shearer, K.E. Kniel, H. Chen, and D.G. Hoover
Paul Brown, Franco Cardone, Richard Meyer, and Maurizio Pocchiari
Christopher J. Doona, Kenneth Kustin, Florence E. Feeherry, and Edward W. Ross
22
Kazutaka Yamamoto and Roman Buckow
J. Antonio Torres, Vinicio Serment-Moreno, Zamantha J. Escobedo-Avellaneda, Gonzalo Velázquez, and Jorge Welti-Chanes
Swetha Mahadevan and Mukund V. Karwe 23
Tomas Bolumar, Dana Middendorf, Stefan Toepfl, and Volker Heinz
Ariette Matser and Rian Timmermans
A.J. Trujillo, V. Ferragut, B. Juan, A.X. Roig-Sagués, and B. Guamis 26
Anna Jofré and Xavier Serra 27
Gipsy Tabilo-Munizaga, Santiago Aubourg, and Mario Pérez-Won
Pablo Juliano
Cynthia M. Stewart, C. Patrick Dunne, and Larry Keener 30
Aneta Kurowska, Anna Szajkowska, and Bernd van der Meulen
Christine M. Bruhn
Contributors
Zamantha J. Escobedo-Avellaneda Centro de Biotecnología FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, NL, México
Santiago Aubourg Department of Food Technology, Marine Research Institute (CSIC), Vigo, Spain
Huseyin Ayvaz Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Department of Food Engineering, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
V.M. (Bala) Balasubramaniam Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Department of Food Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas Center for Nonthermal Processing of Food, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Daniela Bermúdez-Aguirre Center for Nonthermal Processing of Food, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Paul Brown National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
Christine M. Bruhn Department of Food Science & Technology, Center for Consumer Research, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
Tomas Bolumar Department of Process Technologies, German Institute of Food Technologies, Quakenbrueck, Germany
Roman Buckow CSIRO Food and Nutrition Flagship, Werribee, VIC, Australia
Franco Cardone Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
Maria G. Corradini Department of Food Science, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Kezban Candoğan Department of Food Engineering, Ankara University, Dişkapi, Ankara, Turkey
H. Chen Department of Animal & Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Jorge Welti-Chanes Centro de Biotecnología FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, NL, México
Hossein Daryaei Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Institute for Food Safety and Health, Illinois Institute of Technology, Bedford Park, IL, USA
C. Patrick Dunne US Army Research Center, Natick, MA, USA
Christopher J. Doona Warfighter Directorate, U.S. Army - Natick Soldier RD&E Center, General Greene Ave, Natick, MA, USA
Daniel F. Farkas Department of Food Science and Technology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
V. Ferragut Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels Aliments (CERPTA), XaRTA, ACC10, MALTA Consolider, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Mark Freeman Stansted Fluid Power Ltd, Unit 5, New Horizon Business Centre, Harlow, Essex, UK
Florence E. Feeherry Warfighter Directorate, U.S. Army - Natick Soldier RD&E Center, General Greene Ave, Natick, MA, USA
B. Guamis Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels Aliments (CERPTA), XaRTA, ACC10, MALTA Consolider, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Maryam Habibi Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
Federico Harte Department of Food Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Volker Heinz Department of Process Technologies, German Institute of Food Technologies, Quakenbrueck, Germany
Hans Hoogland Unilever R&D, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands
D.G. Hoover Department of Animal & Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Anna Jofré Food Safety Programme, IRTA, Finca Camps i Armet, Monells, Girona, Spain
B. Juan Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels Aliments (CERPTA), XaRTA, ACC10, MALTA Consolider, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Pablo Juliano CSIRO Food and Nutrition, Werribee, VIC, Australia
Stephanie Jung Department of Food Science and Nutrition, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA
Tara Grauwet Laboratory of Food Technology, Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Marc Hendrickx Laboratory of Food Technology, Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Mukund V. Karwe Department of Food Science, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Kai Knoerzer CSIRO Food and Nutrition, Werribee, VIC, Australia
K.E. Kniel Department of Animal & Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Larry Keener International Product Safety Consultants, LLC, Seattle, WA, USA
Tatiana Koutchma Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, West Guelph, ON, Canada
Kenneth Kustin Department of Chemistry, Emeritus, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, USA
Aneta Kurowska Law and Governance Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Dana Middendorf Department of Process Technologies, German Institute of Food Technologies, Quakenbrueck, Germany
Huub L.M. Lelieveld Formerly Unilever R&D, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Ann Van Loey Laboratory of Food Technology, Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Ariette Matser Wageningen UR Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Swetha Mahadevan Department of Food Science, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Richard Meyer JCR Technologies, LLC, Harrison, ID, USA
Sergio I. Martinez-Monteagudo Food Safety Engineering Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Vinicio Serment-Moreno Centro de Biotecnología FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, NL, México
Steve Min The Wendy’s Company, Dublin, OH, USA
Loc Thai Nguyen Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
Indrawati Oey Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
Sung Hee Park Department of Marine Food Science and Technology, GangneungWonju National University Gangneung-si, Gangwon-do, South Korea
Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Mario Pérez-Won Food Engineering Department, University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile
Maurizio Pocchiari Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
Joseph R. Powers School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
Iesel Van der Plancken Laboratory of Food Technology, Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Hosahalli S. Ramaswamy Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
Navneet Rattan Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
Edward W. Ross Warfighter Directorate, U.S. Army - Natick Soldier RD&E Center, General Greene Ave, Natick, MA, USA
A.X. Roig-Sagués Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels Aliments (CERPTA), XaRTA, ACC10, MALTA Consolider, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Sudhir K. Sastry Department of Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
A.E.H. Shearer Department of Animal & Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Cynthia M. Stewart DuPont Nutrition and Health, Wilmington, DE, USA
Anna Szajkowska Law and Governance Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Gipsy Tabilo-Munizaga Food Engineering Department, University of Bío-Bío, Chillán, Chile
Rian Timmermans Wageningen UR Food and Biobased Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Stefan Toepfl Department of Process Technologies, German Institute of Food Technologies, Quakenbrueck, Germany
J. Antonio Torres Food Process Engineering Group, Department of Food Science & Technology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
Jerry Toops Avure Technologies, Middletown, OH, USA
Carole Tonello-Samson Hiperbaric, Burgos, Spain
A.J. Trujillo Centre Especial de Recerca Planta de Tecnologia dels Aliments (CERPTA), XaRTA, ACC10, MALTA Consolider, Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
Gonzalo Velázquez Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CICATA-Qro., Querétaro, Qro., México
Liesbeth Vervoort Laboratory of Food Technology, Leuven Food Science and Nutrition Research Center (LFoRCe), Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems (M2S), KU Leuven, Heverlee, Belgium
Bernd van der Meulen Law and Governance Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Kazutaka Yamamoto National Food Research Institute, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Jian Yang Western Pacific Tropical Research Center, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Guam, Mangilao, GU, USA
Jia You Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, McGill University, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
Ahmed E. Yousef Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA Contributors
Biography
V.M. (Bala) Balasubramaniam is a Professor of Food Engineering in Department of Food Science & Technology, Department Food Ag Biological Engineering at The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA. Dr. Bala’s food safety engineering laboratory conducts research and organizes industrial outreach activities on application of engineering principles in the development and evaluation of different nonthermal food processing methods including high pressure applications in the food industry. He teaches principles of thermal and nonthermal processing to graduate and undergraduate students. He authored over 100 peerreviewed journal articles, book chapters, food processor factsheets and co-edited a book on Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food. Dr. Bala was one of the founding members of Nonthermal Processing Division of Institute of Food Technologists, served as division chair during 2010–2011, and more recently helped to host 2014 International Nonthermal Processing Workshop at The Ohio State University. Dr. Bala is elected as an IFT fellow in 2012.
Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas Professor of Food Engineering at Washington State University (WSU), received his B.S. in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Uruguay and his M.S. and Ph.D. in Food Engineering at the University of MassachusettsAmherst while being a Fulbright Scholar. Quite recently he was awarded a Honoris Causa Doctorate at Polytechnic University of Cartagena, Spain. He has received several prestigious awards such as the IFT Nicholas Appert Award, IFT International Award and is an IFT, IFST, and IUFoST Fellow as well as Member of the Uruguayan Academy of Engineering and the Mexican Academy of Sciences. He received the Sahlin Award for Research, Scholarship and Arts at WSU (highest research award at this University) as well as a Fulbright Fellowship as expert in Food Engineering. In 2013, he received another relevant Fellowship granted by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) to lecture in several prestigious Japanese universities.
Huub L.M. Lelieveld is President of the Global Harmonization Initiative, Past-President of the European Federation of Food Science and Technology and the European Hygienic Engineering and Design Group, a fellow of the International Academy of Food Science and Technology and of the Institute of Food Technologists. He also served on the Governing Council of the International Union of Food Science and Technology. At Unilever, he was responsible for hygienic processing and novel food processing technologies. He is editor of many books (on food safety, hygiene, and food technologies) authored many chapters and articles and presented hundreds of papers, globally. He has been awarded doctor honoris causa at the National University of Food Technologies in Kiev, Ukraine.
Part I Introduction
Chapter 1 Fundamentals and Applications of High-Pressure Processing Technology
Sergio I. Martínez-Monteagudo and V.M. Balasubramaniam
Abstract High-pressure processing has been established as a commercially viable food preservation technology, where application of elevated pressure serves as the main lethal agent for pathogen reduction without compromising nutritional and organoleptic properties of the food. The rapid temperature increase during compression, and subsequent cooling upon decompression, is a unique benefit of highpressure-based technologies to reduce product thermal exposure during treatment. A variety of pressure-pasteurized products (including juices, meat, seafood, and vegetable products) are commercially available worldwide. To date, FDA issued letters of no objection to two industrial petitions for preserving shelf-stable lowacid samples by pressure-assisted thermal process (PATP). This chapter summarizes the basic principles associated with preserving foods by the application of various pressure-based technologies and reviews relevant process and product parameters for product microbiological safety and quality. Various pressure-based unit operations have been reviewed. Application of pressure-based technologies in different commodity food processing has been discussed.
V.M. Balasubramaniam et al. (eds.), High Pressure Processing of Food, Food Engineering Series, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-3234-4_1
S.I. Martínez-Monteagudo and V.M. Balasubramaniam
1.1 Introduction
processors to consider introducing alternative food technologies for preserving technologies may only use minimal or no preservatives.
Among the alternative preservation technologies, advanced “volumetric-based” thermal technologies utilize rapid volumetric heating of food materials to overcome the limitations of conventional thermal processes. Ohmic heating, microwave heating, and radio-frequency heating are examples of advanced thermal technologies. While rapid volumetric heating reduces the nutrition and quality degradation, the processed products still need to be cooled by conventional conduction and convection heat transfer.
Nonthermal technologies describe those processing technologies where alternative form of source of energy is used as the main lethal agent. Nonthermal technologies are designed in such a way that the main lethal agent (high pressure, electric field, irradiation dose) with or without the combination of heat is used to inactivate pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. Nonthermal technologies have the attributes by reducing or minimizing thermal exposure during processing.
Among nonthermal technologies, the application of high pressure (400–600
the technology can be used for both liquid and solid foods and considered as one of the greener and cleaner processes as the preservation effect can be accomplished with minimal or no preservatives. The pressure-treated products were first intro-
of pressure-pasteurized products are commercialized worldwide. The technology (FDA) issued no objection to an industrial petition for pressure-assisted thermal sterilized mashed potato product.
1.2 Historical Progress
century. Technological developments have allowed operating vessels at pressure lev-
Historical developments of high pressure for food processing are provided in Chap. 2. The industrial use of high pressure has its origins in mechanical and chemical engi-
production of ammonia. Alongside with such developments, other components including high-pressure pumps, compressors, tubes, fitting, sealing, and pressure 2012).
1.3 Process Engineering
1.3.1
Equipment
High-pressure pasteurization of foods is essentially a batch operation. The major components of a high-pressure equipment systems consist of pressure vessel couin operation, pressure intensifier and pump for generating the pressure, materialhandling system for loading and unloading the food, and process control system for monitoring and recording various process variables (Ting 2011). Chapter 3 presents commercial-scale high-pressure equipment available to the food processors. more vessels are used. The vessels are connected in a way that when one vessel discharges the product, the second vessel pressurizes, while a third vessel gets loaded with food samples. Chapter 4 reviews the state of the art of semicontinuous or continuous high-pressure operations.
1.3.2 Typical High-Pressure Process
A typical operation of high-pressure processing resembles that of thermal retort
ing materials is reviewed in Chap. 5. vessel. The pressure vessel and its content are closed with the end closures. The using the combined action of a pump and intensifier. The physical compression of high-moisture content foods typically reduces its volume by 15 % while under pressure. The product returns close to its initial volume upon decompression. During high pressure, the product is held for the desired time at the target pressure, the vesunloaded. Typical cycle time for the process is about 10 min. 1 Fundamentals and Applications of High-Pressure
S.I. Martínez-Monteagudo and V.M. Balasubramaniam
During high-pressure treatment, compression of the product also transientlyvolumetric temperature increase in the product during compression and subsequent cooling upon decompression is a unique advantage of high-prssure technologies for food pasteurization and sterilization. A modified operational high-pressure method consists of subjecting the product to compression-decompression cycles, a process 9.
1.3.3
Governing Principles
1.3.3.1 Isostatic Principleinstantaneously and homogenously distributed within the food, regardless of geomof marshmallows) may be altered upon pressure treatment, unless the food is perfectly elastic and consists of closed-cell foam from which air cannot escape 2008).
Hydrostatic pressure reduces the volume of the pressurized material withoutcules having direct effect on distance-dependent interactions. For instance, van der Waals forces are one of those interactions strongly affected by pressure because between attractive and repulsive forces. Other interactions affected by pressure due 2014). Contrary, covalent bonds 1994). The fact that high pressure does not alter covalent bonds has been the central hypothesis behind the preservation of activity of functional compounds. Chapter 22 reviews the effect of high-pressure treatments on the biological activity of bioactive compounds and nutritional content.
1.3.3.2
Le Chatelier’s Principle
equilibrium to partially undo any induced change. This principle has a basis in theture on chemical, biological, and physical phenomena. Despite its various applicaterm of affinity was developed based on the thermodynamic conjugate pairs, exten-gate pairs: temperature and entropy, pressure and volume, chemical potential and moles. An interpretation of affinity is that such system held at fixed entropy, and of HPP, if pressure (extensive variable) changes, the equilibrium shifts in the direction that tends to reduce the change in the corresponding intensive variable (volume). Thus, any phenomenon (phase transition, change in molecular configuration, chemical reaction) accompanied by a decrease in volume is enhanced by pressure (Hamann 1957).
1.3.3.3
Principle of Microscopic Ordering
This principle postulates that an increase in pressure at constant temperature increases the degree of ordering of molecules of a given substance. According to this principle, pressure restricts rotational, vibrational, and translational motion, 1993).
1.3.3.4
Transition State Theory
Transition state theory states that if the molar volume of the intermediate state (activated complex) differs from that of its reacting components, the reaction velocity can increase or decrease by changing pressure, according to whether the intermediate state is less or more voluminous (Wentorf and De Vries 2001). This principle is used to explain the effect of pressure on chemical and biochemical reactions as well as physical processes (Chap. 17). For a given chemical reaction, the effect of pressure favors those reactions with negative reaction volumes and 2014). Chapter 21 exemplifies the effect of pressure on the formation
S.I. Martínez-Monteagudo and V.M. Balasubramaniam
1.3.4 Importance of Considering Pressure-Thermal Effects
second law of thermodynamics, the effects of temperature cannot be separated from the effects of pressure during compression. This relationship (pressure-temperature) has been exemplified through the phase diagram of water, where for every temperature there is a corresponding pressure. Thermal effects during pressure treatment can cause volume and energy changes. On the other hand, pressure primarily affects the volume of the product being processed. The combined net effect during a highpressure processing may be synergistic, antagonistic, or additive (Gupta et al. 2011). p) and temperature (T) can be quantitaG:
where S and H are the entropy and enthalpy, respectively. Further,
where U = internal energy and V = volume.
From above equations, it can be deduced that
Therefore, reactions such as phase transitions or molecular reorientation depend on both temperature and pressure and cannot be treated separately.
1.3.5 Process Development Consideration
the entire food material is subjected to uniform processing conditions at which safety and quality are achieved. Variations in both temperature and pressure can contribute to the development of nonuniformity within a processed volume during a
transfer-related process nonuniformity within a pressure chamber. These include the design of the pressure equipment as well as the geometry and insulation characteristics of the pressure chamber.
During pressure treatment, the temperature of different food material increases decompression. The thermal exchange between the food, pressure-transmitting the uniformity of a high-pressure process. This heat exchange can be further gov-
1 Fundamentals and Applications of High-Pressure Processing Technology
Chapter 6 discusses in situ measurements during high pressure. For practical purpose, pressure treatment is assumed to be transmitted uniformly and quasi-instantaneously throughout the sample volume. However, pressure nonuniformity may exist in heterogeneous samples (e.g., large ham product containing bone). Researchers have reported that pressure at the geometric center of a large
cess system. Numerically, simulations showed that the nonuniformities may arise due to the effect of convective transport and heterogeneous heat transfer during high
els of combined pressure-heat treatment are reviewed in Chap. 12. Other factors the sample within the high-pressure chamber and sample phase transition character-
ing is critical. Chapter 13 discusses approaches used to evaluate the process uniformity during HPP and PATP.
1.4 High-Pressure-Based Unit Processes
processing and unit operations including homogenization, extraction, freezing and
ilization. Figure 1.1 organizes the current and promising industrial applications of high-pressure technologies based on pressure-temperature intensity.
1.4.1 Pressure-Assisted Freezing and Thawing
Pressure caused depression of the freezing point, a colligative property. Pressure colligative effect is reversible upon decompression. Pressure-assisted freezing and thawing could be potentially exploited to rapidly freeze and thaw high-moisture content foods. During pressure-assisted freezing (PAF), the sample is cooled under pressure up to its phase change temperature at applied pressure. The product is frozen under pressure by super cooling at faster ice-nucleation rate. This process helps in preserving the microstructure of food and biological materials. Pressure-assisted thawing (PAT) involves thawing a food material under constant pressure. The process can help in reducing the thawing time and the drip loss. Another potential
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
the relieving force, 179, 187
Martin, Dr. A. W. P., Director of Imperial University in Peking, 23; and the fire at the Legations, 68
Melotte, Chevalier de, his gallant defence, 56; arrival of the relief force, 175, 177
Merghelynckem, M., First Secretary of Belgian Legation, 56; saves the life of the French commanding officer, 117
Methodist Mission, burning of, 57
Mills, Colonel, General Chaffee’s Chief of Staff, 196
Missions: arming of, 34, 35; removal into the Legations, 49, 51; work of Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries, 57; burning of Methodist, 57
Morrison, Dr., Times’ correspondent: his kindness, 9; stoned by rioters, 14; his advice to the Legation Ministers, 44; his hard work and cheerfulness, 69; and the Chinese Christians at the Fu, 75; wounded, 126
Myers, Captain, commander of the American marines in Peking, 17, 18, 21; makes successful sorties, 25, 99, 100; his hardships, 33; saves the Dutch Legation, 57; wounded, 103, 186
Nan-t’ang, burning of the, 131
Narahara, death of, 142
Neih, Chinese General, defeat and suicide of, 141
Norregarde, a Swedish missionary, becomes insane, 131
Norris, Rev., English chaplain at Peking: the funeral of Oliphant, 105; works hard on the fortifications, 118; holds thanksgiving service, 203
Oliphant, funeral of, 105
Pei-t’ang, the Roman Catholic fortress cathedral, 36, 37; relief of, 194
Peking—see also Legations: Boxer rising, 7 et seq.; burning of Feng-tai, 8; positions of the Legations, 12; telegraph broken, 21; assassination of the Japanese Chancellor, 22; burning of the missions, etc., 24 et seq.; fires in, 25 et seq.; description of, 26; treachery of the Imperial Chinese troops, 45, 47; burning of the Belgian Legation, 56; burning of the Hanlin Library, 71; entry of the relief force, 173 et seq.; looting, 192
Pethick, William, Li Hung Chang’s private secretary, 11; his opinion of the state of China, 19, 20; his advice on the Yamen communication, 132; and the antique China episode, 165
Pichon, M., the French Minister in Peking, 43, 78, 87, 120; the Legion of Honour, 139
Poole, Dr., surgeon to the British Legation, 50, 52, 53, 59; the Legation fire, 68
Porcelain, antique, 14
Rahden, Baron von, commander of Russian Legation force, 25, 30, 96; and his undrilled soldiers, 110; the defences of the Legations, 152; the forbidden city, 200
Reilly, Captain, death of, 184
Roman Catholics in Peking, 36, 114
Rostand, Von, Austrian Chargé d’Affaires, 117; and Sir Claude Macdonald, 121
Russian Legation. See Legations
Salvago Raggi, Marquis, 43, 86, 120
Seymour, Admiral, 44, 51
Shiba, Colonel, Japanese commander at Peking: a sortie, 75; description of, 95, 148
Shimonoseki, Treaty of, 163
Squiers, Herbert, Secretary of the American Legation, 6; en route for Peking, 10; his collection of antique porcelains, 14; his hospitality, 15, 49, 73; beginning of the siege, 22; sends communication to Tien-tsin, 28, 29, 34; removal to the British Legation, 53; renovates an old cannon, 115; becomes Sir Claude Macdonald’s chief of staff, 134; communications with the Yamen, 136; the defences of the Legations, 152; leads a sortie, 179; Sir Claude Macdonald’s opinion of, 186
Squiers, Fargo, his brave adventure, 58; and the Legation fire, 68
Strouts, Captain, commander of the British marines in Peking, 18; a sortie, 25; Legation fire, 30; mortally wounded, 125
Su, Prince, 98
Taku Forts, taking of, 49
Tien-tsin, first relief force sent to Peking from, 15; message received by besieged from, 140; the capture of, 141, 158
Tsung-li Yamen, the Chinese Foreign Office, send a guard to protect the temple of Linqua Su, 6; Swedish missionary’s interview with, 131; communicates with the Legations, 136 et seq., 145, 159, 166, 169; send in food, 139
Tung Fu-hsiang, 51, 92
“Tungchou,” the Roman Catholic church, burning of, 24
Velde, Dr., German surgeon at Peking, the excellence of his work, 73, 109, 113, 143
Waller, Colonel, 177, 196
Warren, Mr., mortally wounded, 124
Water Gate, entry of Sikhs through the, 174
END
BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD
Transcriber’s Notes:
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain. Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.
Typographical errors were silently corrected. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BEHIND THE SCENES IN PEKING ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other
medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGESExcept for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project
Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form
accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
