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Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing 3rd Edition
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Disclaimer
This book is intended to be a learning tool The materials discussed in this book are presented solely for educational purposes and are not intended to constitute design specifications or operating procedures. While every effort has been made to present current and accurate information, the authors assume no liability whatsoever for any loss or damage resulting from using them
All rights reserved. This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not by way of trade or otherwise be resold, lent, hired out, stored in a retrieval system, reproduced or translated into a machine language, or otherwise circulated in any form of binding or cover, other than that in which it is published, without the prior written permission of the authors and without a similar requirement including these conditions being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
Dedication
This book is dedicated to all professionals that preceded us: researchers, scientists, engineers, operators, and educators in the natural gas industry, who inspire us to assemble their knowledge and experience, manifesting this book that is much needed in today's changing landscape of natural gas.
With Contribution by
Jean-Noël Jaubert Romain Privat (Université de Lorraine, France) Epaminondas Voutsas (National Technical University of Athens, Greece), Authors of Chapter 2, Phase Behavior of Natural Gas Systems
Wim Van Wassenhove (Billington Process Technology AS, Norway), Author of Chapter 19, Process Modelling and Simulation of Gas Processing Plants
Laura A. Pellegrini Giorgia De Guido Stefano Langé (Politecnico di Milano, Italy), Authors of Chapter 22, Energy and Exergy Analyses of Natural Gas Processing Plants
About the Authors
Saeid Mokhatab is one of the most recognizable names in the natural gas community through his contributions to advancing the technologies in the natural gas processing industry. He has been actively involved in different aspects of several large-scale gas processing projects, from conceptual design through plant startup and operations support He has presented on gas processing technologies worldwide and has published 300 technical papers and two renowned Elsevier's handbooks in collaboration with leading experts from the largest international engineering companies and prominent process licensors. His numerous publications, which are widely read and highly respected, have set the technical standards in the natural gas processing industry and are considered by many as major references to be used for any gas processing/LNG project in development. He founded the world's first peer-reviewed journal devoted to natural gas science and engineering (published by Elsevier, the United States) and has held editorial positions for many scientific journals/book publishing companies in the hydrocarbon processing industry He has also served as a member of technical committees for several professional societies and acclaimed gas processing conferences worldwide. As a result of his outstanding work in the natural gas industry, he has received a number of international awards and medals, and his biography has been listed in highly prestigious directories
William A. “Bill” Poe is a Senior Principal Technical Consultant at AVEVA, the United States. He has over 35 years of international business and industrial experience in design, operations, and project management of gas processing plants with a special focus on automation, multivariable predictive control (MPC), advanced process control (APC), optimization design and implementation, and real-time performance monitoring Bill started his career at Shell Oil Company, USA, in 1981, working over a decade in natural gas processing plants operations and engineering as well as management of multimillion-dollar projects. In 1993, he joined Continental Controls to lead the process engineering department in support of executing contracts with the Gas Research Institute, USA, where he developed new multivariable control applications in the natural gas industry After joining GE as part of the Continental Controls acquisition, he became vice president of this division of GE where his responsibilities included direction of product development, projects, technical sales support, and customer service for multivariable control and optimization applications in the natural gas industry In 2001, Bill joined Invensys Process Systems, USA, where he has developed APC and Optimization Master Plans for international companies such as Saudi Aramco, ADNOC, Statoil, and PDVSA, as well as automation and advanced process control feasibility studies for over 100 natural gas processing plants worldwide After Schneider Electric acquired Invensys Process Systems in 2014 and merged its software division with AVEVA in 2018, he has continued to work with the top gas processing companies Bill is an Associate Editor of the Journal of Natural Gas Science & Engineering, has authored or coauthored more than 60 technical papers, and made numerous technical presentations at prestigious international conferences He received the GE Innovators Award in 1999 and attained the Invensys Circle of Excellence in 2011
John Y. Mak is a Senior Fellow and Technical Director at Fluor, the United States, and leads the technology and design development for Fluor chemical and energy division. He is the technical expert and SME with Fluor for over 40 years and has been leading major oil and gas, petrochemical and refinery projects from conceptual designs, feasibility studies, FEED development, detailed engineering, to plant start-up and performance testing. John has made contributions to innovations in natural gas treating and processing, NGL recovery, LNG liquefaction and regasification, synthesis gas purification, and carbon capture methods John is the coauthor of the Handbook of Liquefied Natural Gas, first edition (2013) published by Elsevier, the United States. He has published over 80 technical papers and has frequently presented his findings
at technical conferences such as GPA Midstream Convention, GPA Europe, Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, LNG Summit, Offshore Technology Conference, GASTECH, and China Coal Forum. John is the inventor of over 90 patents and patent pending processes. John is specializing in more complex NGL recovery designs for conventional and unconventional gases, treating high CO2 content gases using physical solvents, acid gas removal with amines, cryogenic nitrogen rejection, and helium recovery.
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Natural gas is an abundant global resource and is a clean burning fuel that offers important environmental benefits compared to other fossil fuels. Natural gas is a versatile and safe source of energy that is necessary to bridge us to the future of renewable sources. The surge of natural gas production from unconventional sources is remarkable and further underscores the importance of gas processing In this regard, it is fitting that the most up-to-date technical materials covering these subjects be well-known to gas producers, gas processors, technical specialists, and project developers. While many publications and books are available, there is a lack of a comprehensive book that captures the complete natural gas value chain from well-head to the end-user This updated book provides the basic theoretical and practical background, while also covering innovations and new developments in the subject areas.
Many interesting and exciting developments in the natural gas industry have emerged since the publication of the third edition in 2015 that provoked us to add and update several sections. We reviewed published materials and selected the most appropriate and viable innovations, combined with our own research and practical experience for updating The result is a more complete and comprehensive reference that fully covers the ranges of today's challenging gas processing problems. Six new chapters have been added to include detailed discussion of the thermodynamic and energy efficiency of relevant processes, and innovations in processing super-rich gas, high CO2 content gas, and high nitrogen content gas with other contaminants
This book is a major contribution to the professional literature as we have attempted to concentrate on what we perceive to be an acceptable design and proven practices The organization of content addresses the design aspects that are important to students in the engineering curricula, and the operating and trouble-shooting facets for plant operators We hope this handbook provides the design reference and conveys valuable experience to both the beginners and the experienced
The preparation of a book that covers such a broad subject requires different sources of information We gratefully acknowledge our indebtedness to all of the individuals who contributed to the development of this book An invaluable contribution to this edition is the insight by experts in their specialties and applications. Special thanks are due to friends and colleagues, who encouraged, assessed, and made this book possible Among them are Dr Louis Mattar and Dr Mehran Pooladi-Darvish of the Fekete Associates Inc , Canada, who prepared the section on ‘Natural Gas Exploration and Production’ in Chapter 1 We also appreciate Mr Cris Heijckers of Kranji Solutions Pte Ltd., Singapore, for preparing a section on ‘Practical Design of Separation Systems’ in Chapter 5 We deeply acknowledge the greatest help of Dr Rainer Kurz of Solar Turbines Inc , USA, in updating Chapter 14 We thank Mr Sidney P Santos of At Work Rio Engineering and Consulting Ltd , Brazil, for his constructive comments and suggestions on Chapter 15. We also express our sincere appreciation to Dr. Scott Northrop of ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, USA, and Mr Michael Mitariten of Air Liquide, USA, who provided valuable comments for the betterment of the book Finally, we appreciate the editorial staff members of Elsevier who have been an excellent source of strong support during the preparation and publication of this book.
The accelerated delivery of information contained in this handbook is important as we all strive to adapt to the latest technology in gas processing for a greener and safer environment Our mission is to continuously follow the progress, add new materials in the future editions, and update the fundamental and practical materials already in this edition
Saeid Mokhatab
William A. Poe
John Y. Mak
Endorsements for the Fourth Edition
This handbook is a valuable reference that covers all aspects of the natural gas transmission and processing industries. It contains much needed design, operation, and optimization information, all in a single source and does an excellent job of highlighting the key considerations for any gas processing project, as well as providing innovative solutions in natural gas liquids recovery and treating high nitrogen and carbon dioxide content gases in unconventional gas plants. It is a key addition to any gas processing professional's library
Jason Kraynek, Vice President of Business Transformation & Innovations, Fluor, USA
This handbook is a valuable reference that covers all aspects of natural gas processing and handling. It has been fully updated in this fourth edition to also cover the recent developments in dealing with more sour gases and gases that contain all kinds of contaminants It provides a good insight into the operational and technical aspects of handling of natural gases. A great reference for students, operators, and engineers working in the natural gas industry
Frank Scheel, Director of Technology, Jacobs Comprimo Sulfur Solutions, the Netherlands.
This well-balanced book is a must read for anyone in the natural gas business due to its completeness in the coverage of all aspects of the natural gas transmission and processing industry In addition to covering some topics rarely discussed and hard to find in the literature, it fully addresses the complex elements of the gas processing industry as well as practical advices for the safe design and operation of gas plants in a straightforward fashion, which makes the book appealing to all parties who are involved in the natural gas field development projects
Philip Hunter, Senior Vice President Global LNG/FLNG/GTL Technology & Development, KBR, UK
This high quality, comprehensive book gives an accurate picture of where the natural gas transmission and processing industry stands today, and describes some relatively new technologies that could become important in the future. I recommend this book for any professional gas processing engineer and technologist
David Messersmith, Bechtel Fellow and Manager of LNG Technology and Services Group, Bechtel OG&C, USA
This is a valuable handbook to both an experienced engineer and a graduate just commencing in natural gas engineering. It provides practical advice for design and operation based on sound engineering principles and established techniques as well as introducing process solutions based on new and emerging technologies.
Adrian Finn, Manager of Process Technology, Costain Natural Resources, UK
This is a wide ranging book providing the reader with much more information than that necessary to just support the engineering of a gas plant. Having introduced the fundamental science of natural gas, it covers sources, products, transportation, and economics of natural gas production, before covering all the unit operations involved in gas treatment to meet product specifications Additional sections are included covering control systems, dynamic simulation, maximizing gas plant profitability, and gas plant project management, and these contribute to what is a holistic handbook that will educate all those
who wish to learn about the subject
Jon Lewis, Vice President of Gas Processing and Sulfur Recovery, Advisian, WorleyParsons Group, UK.
This book comes at a critical time when many nations are shifting to an increasingly higher percentage of natural gas use within their range of energy sources Giving the reader a comprehensive insight into the natural gas transmission and processing industry, this book will prove invaluable in orienting the newcomer and extending the scope of understanding of the veteran.
Lorenzo Micucci, Manager of Technology and Markets Research, Siirtec Nigi, Italy
This comprehensive reference book covers all technical aspects of natural gas transmission and processing in a very practical manner. Contrary to other books, it is pleasant to read, and the information, always accurate, can be found easily Very importantly, it also describes emerging trends and helps to understand what the future of gas processing could look like.
Alexandre Terrigeol, Sales and Technical Manager, CECA Molecular Sieves, France
A very useful handbook that covers topics that others have missed Highly recommended for any professionals who are involved with the natural gas transmission and processing industry. The authors are experts in their field and provide high quality coverage of subjects that are current and of practical use to long time professionals as well as newcomers The material is quite comprehensive and covers all aspects of natural gas making this a need to have reference book.
Dr Thomas H Wines, Director of Applications Development, Pall Corporation, USA
The reader will find the information on gas handling from the wellhead to the consumer to not only be informative, but be presented with an eye toward practical applications and with an operations understanding The comprehensive coverage of the subjects makes it a useful guide to those new to the natural gas transmission and processing industry and a ready reference for more experienced engineers
Michael J Mitariten, Senior Director, Natural Gas and Biogas Separations, Air Liquide, USA
This excellent handbook gives a comprehensive insight into the complete natural gas transmission and processing industry. As such, it is the perfect companion for young process engineering graduates just starting to learn the business, as well as for more experienced engineers looking for a desktop reference book I enjoyed especially the fine balance the authors found between the introduction of each process step, the description of the most important process design principles (including safety and environmental), and the so important (and sometimes forgotten) operational aspects of efficiently and safely running the plant I especially liked the chapter on “Real-Time Optimization of Gas Processing Plants” as it covers the practical requirements of advanced process control, real time optimization, and the underlying process models and it rounds it all up with a detailed description of a successful real-life example
Dr. Michael Brodkorb, EMEA Software Consulting Manager, Honeywell Process Solutions, Spain.
This comprehensive book provides in-depth coverage of all technical aspects of natural gas transmission and processing, beyond those addressed in other books This is a “must addition” to library of anyone working in the midstream and downstream sectors of natural gas utilization to achieve higher career goals I commend the authors' continuous effort to make it an excellent source book for all professionals, engineers, and scientists in the natural gas industry
Dr Suresh C Sharma, ONEOK Chair Professor and Director of Natural Gas Engineering and Management, University of Oklahoma, USA.
This book is a major contribution to the professional literature and will serve as a valuable desk reference for scientists, researchers, and engineers working in the upstream, midstream, and downstream sectors of natural gas industry. Literature references for in-depth study enhance the reference aspect of this comprehensive work The organization of materials also permits flexibility in designing courses in the gas processing field for university students in chemical/petroleum engineering curricula.
Dr Kenneth R Hall, Professor of Chemical Engineering and Associate Dean for Research and Graduate Studies, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Qatar
This comprehensive book provides a state-of-the-art treatment of the different aspects of natural gas transmission and processing from the fundamental principles to the latest technology developments It is a unique reference for all professionals involved in natural gas industry and an excellent textbook for graduate programs on the subject
Dr. Valerio Cozzani, Professor of Chemical Engineering and Director of Postgraduate Program on Oil and Gas Process Design, University of Bologna, Italy
Natural gas transmission and processing industry requires engineers to be provided with books and materials that would help them put their best effort towards understanding the many complex concepts In spite of the tremendous pressure experienced by the professionals, there is a lack of adequate support material. This comprehensive book, which is the first example of its kind with a massive coverage of subjects, is a great step towards this endeavor. An impressive feature of this book is the high competence of authors who are perfectly versed in their areas of specialization
Dr Jean-Noël JAUBERT, Professor of Chemical Engineering and Head of the Thermodynamics and Energy Research Group, University of Lorraine, France
This unique handbook, written by internationally renowned gas-engineering experts, is a major contribution to the professional and scholarly literature, offering an excellent coverage of key topics in the natural gas supply chain It addresses the principles, practices, advanced technologies, new issues, and challenges related to the natural gas transmission and processing industry, which have not been addressed in depth in any existing books I recommend it highly, as a reference and textbook
Dr. Brian F. Towler, Professor and Chair of Petroleum Engineering, University of Queensland, Australia
This is a comprehensive handbook that provides a wide and detailed coverage of the different aspects of natural gas transmission and processing, representing a valuable guide for scientists, researchers, university students, and engineers working in the relevant fields It is the reference book for my research group when we need some tips on natural gas processing.
Dr Laura A Pellegrini, Professor of Chemical Plants and Director of Graduate and Postgraduate Program in Chemical Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
CHAPTER 1
Natural Gas Fundamentals
Abstract
Natural gas is the most energy efficient fossil fuel it offers important energy saving benefits when it is used instead of oil or coal Although the primary use of natural gas is as a fuel, it is also a source of hydrocarbons for petrochemical feedstocks and a major source of elemental sulfur, an important industrial chemical Its popularity as an energy source is expected to grow substantially in the future because natural gas can help achieve two important energy goals for the 21st century, providing the sustainable energy supplies and services needed for social and economic development and reducing adverse impacts on global climate and the environment, in general This chapter gives the reader an introduction to natural gas by describing the origin and composition of natural gas, gas sources, phase behavior and properties, and transportation methods.
Natural gas is the most energy efficient fossil fuel it offers important energy saving benefits when it is used instead of oil or coal Although the primary use of natural gas is as a fuel, it is also a source of hydrocarbons for petrochemical feedstocks and a major source of elemental sulfur, an important industrial chemical Its popularity as an energy source is expected to grow substantially in the future because natural gas can help achieve two important energy goals for the 21st century providing the sustainable energy supplies and services needed for social and economic development and reducing adverse impacts on global climate and the environment in general. Natural gas consumption and trade have been growing steadily over the past two decades and natural gas has strengthened its position in the world energy mix Although the demand for natural gas declined in 2009, as a result of the economic slowdown, it is expected to resume growth in both emerging and traditional markets in the coming decades. Such increase in the near future will be driven because of additional demand in current uses, primarily power generation There is yet a little overlap between the use of natural gas and oil in all large markets However, there are certain moves in the horizon, including the electrifying of transportation, which will push natural gas use to ever higher levels.
This chapter gives the reader an introduction to natural gas by describing the origin and composition of natural gas, gas sources, phase behavior and properties, and transportation methods.
1.2.NaturalGasHistory
The discovery of natural gas dates back to ancient times in the Middle East It was considered by ancients to be a supernatural manifestation Noticed only when ignited, it appeared as a mysterious fire bursting from fissures in the ground. Natural gas seeps were discovered in Iran between 6000
and 2000 BC The practical use of natural gas dates back to the Chinese 2500 years ago, who used bamboo pipes to collect it from natural seeps and convey it to gas-fired evaporators, where it was used to boil ocean water for salt. Apparently, natural gas was unknown in Europe until its discovery in England in 1659 However, since manufactured gas (coal gas) was already commercially available, natural gas remained unpopular In 1815, natural gas was discovered in the United States during digging of a salt-brine well in Charleston, West Virginia. In 1821, an American gunsmith named William Aaron Hart drilled the first natural gas well in the United States. It was covered with a large barrel, and the gas was directed through wooden pipes that were replaced a few years later with lead pipe One of the earliest attempts of monetization occurred in 1824 in Fredonia, New York, which led to the formation of the first natural gas company in the United States, the Fredonia Gas Light Company, in 1858.
The 19th century is considered as the starting point of the gas industry In the early 1900s, huge amounts of natural gas were found in Texas and Oklahoma, and in the 1920s a modern seamless steel pipe was introduced. The strength of this new pipe, which could be welded into long sections, allowed gas to be carried under higher pressures and, thus, in greater quantities. As the technology to create a seamless steel pipe and related equipment advanced, the size and length of pipelines increased, as did the volumes of gas that could be transported easily and safely over many miles
The first natural gas pipeline longer than 200 miles was built in 1925, from Louisiana to Texas.
A steady growth in the use of gas was marked in the early and mid-twentieth century However, it was the shortages of crude oil in the late 1960s and early 1970s that forced major industrial nations to seek energy alternatives. Since those events, gas has become a central fossil fuel energy source. Today, natural gas has become extremely important as a concentrated, clean fuel for home heating and cooking and electrical power generation, and is sought after almost as much as oil
1.3.NaturalGasOriginandSources
There are different theories as to the origins of fossil fuels The most widely accepted theory of the origin of natural gas asserts that it came from organic matter (the remains of land and aquatic plants, animals, and microorganisms) that was trapped within sediments as they were deposited and transformed over long periods of time into their present form Two main mechanisms, namely biogenic and thermogenic, are responsible for the degradation of the original fossil organic material in sediments (Rojey et al., 1997). Biogenic gas is formed at shallow depths and low temperatures due to the action of bacteria on the organic debris accumulating in the sediments. In contrast, thermogenic gas is formed at greater depths by degradation of organic matter, called kerogen, accumulated in fine-grained sediments, especially clays and shales This degradation occurs through the combined effects of temperature and pressure. Thermogenic gas is believed to be produced through two mechanisms, namely, direct thermal cracking of sedimentary organic matter and secondary thermal cracking of oil that is formed in the first stage The former is called the primary thermogenic gas that coexists with oil, while the latter is called secondary thermogenic gas that coexists with an insoluble solid matter, called pyrobitumen. Both mechanisms involve thermal cracking with some degree of sustained pressure, mainly through the weight of the sedimentary formation Little information is available on the time required to generate thermogenic gas other than the general belief that it is a very long time
Hydrocarbons are generated in “source rock” and often migrate to subsurface formations called “reservoir rock.” The quality of a reservoir rock is determined by its two principal properties: porosity and permeability Porosity is the void space between the grains, and indicates the rock's capacity to contain liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons Permeability is the measurement of the rock's ability to transmit the oil or gas.
Natural gas resources differ by the geological characteristics of their reservoir rock. In fact, natural gas comes from both “conventional” and “unconventional” geological formations (Fig 1 1)
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